References

Baddeley, A. D. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255(5044), 556-559.

In this article, the author discusses how to classify memory as a system. The author makes a case as to how
cognitive psychologist moved from view memory as a single unitary system to a system composed of two or
more subsystems. The term short term memory was now being replaced by the concept of working
memory(Baddeley 1992). The author identifies two different approaches to describe working memory which
are psychometric approach and dual-task methodology. Both of these approaches have varying strength and
weakness and are complimentary of each other. The implication for instructions: When planning instructions,
teachers should be mindful as two how much information to present to students because of the limited
amount of information they can retain at a given time. Additionally how the information is presented matters.
Should the information be presented orally or visually or some combination? However, teachers still must
consider students individual learning styles also.

Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Cognitive information processing. In Psychology of learning for instruction (2nd ed.,
pp. 81-93). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
In this chapter the author discusses attention. Attention is a process that has been conceptualized in many
different ways( Driscoll 1994). The author identifies two different types of attention: Selective attention and
automaticity. Selective attention enables an individual to focus on more than one task at a time. The extent to
which an individual can focus on a different task is controlled by several factors which are identified by the
author. Automaticity; enable an individual to complete or perform a task with very little attention given to the
task. The author also discusses how pattern recognition is important to information processing. Three models
are discussed: template matching, prototype, feature analysis. In this section, the author also describes the
capacity of short-term memory and how to increase it. George Miller(1956) demonstrated that about 7+ 2
number could be recalled in a digital span test. Short term or working memory can be increased by
chunking(Driscoll 1994). The implication for instruction: Teacher should be aware of the number of tasks
giving to students during instruction. The ability of students to stay focus may suffer if students do not have
the skills necessary to perform a complex task that required lots of attention versus very little attention.

Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven,plus or minus two:some limits on our capacity for
processing information. Psychological review, 63(2), 81-97.
In this article, the author discusses the limitation of the capacity of the human brain to process information.
While the author draws attention to the number seven as having some definitive limitation or boundary in
association with information storage and processing. Instead, the Miller discusses how absolute judgment and
the span of immediate memory is key to the limitations placed on information processing. Miller also
discusses how recoding plays a part in information processing. According to Miller the simplest way to
recode information is to group the input event, apply a new name to the group, and then remember the new
name rather than the original input events ( Miller 1954). The implication for instruction: There is a limit to
the amount of information that can be processed during instructions. However, teachers can use techniques
such as chunking and recoding to increase the amount of information that can be processed.

Kalyuga, S. (2010). Schema acquisition and sources of cognitive load. In Plass, J. L., Moreno, & R.,
Brünken, R. Cognitive Load Theory (pp. 48-64). New York: Cambridge University Press.
In this chapter the author discusses Cognitive Load Theory and how knowledge can be attained to the design
of effective instruction. Schemas represent knowledge as stable patterns of relationships between elements
describing some classes of structures that are abstracted from specific instances and used to categorize such
instances (Kalyuga 2010). Information that is stored together to form a meaning, which in turn can be linked
to or associated with other information forms a schema. Kalyga states that for instruction to be more
efficient, intrinsic and extraneous cognitive loads together should not exceed limited working memory
capacity (Kalyuga 2010). The author gives examples of instructional principles that can facilitate more
effective teaching. The Direct Initial Instruction Principle, The Expertise Principle and The Small Step-Size
of Knowledge Change Principle according to the author will help develop more focused instruction and
minizime extraneous cognitive load. The implication for instruction: When designing instructional material,
teachers should be mindful of tasks that do not align to instructional goals and does not form meaningful
connections to other material that has already been processed by the students.