" Use directional antennas with 60 deg or 120 deg " Very small cells can be created in city centers, for
coverage.
example, a street, or a few blocks. The transmitter
" Power of transmitters needs to be the same, as can be at street level. These are called microcells.
distance to cell boundary is the same. " Increased capacity, increased costs, more
" In a 3−sectored cell, each sector has 1/3 the handovers.
number of users as in the cell, but all 3 sectors " Hierarchical structure: overlay with larger
need different channels. This means the same
macrocells. When a fast handoff needs to happen,
overall number of channels.
as when a car turns into a new street, the call can
" Small gains in capacity are possible. revert to the macrocell.
" Multipath effects are lowered, range is increased. " Macrocell may have only a few channels.
Example 1
Spreading and despreading
" Spreading: Let the codeword be
1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 Suppose sender wants to send d=1.
The bits of the sequence are called chips.
If the bit to be sent is 1, send the codeword. Transmitted signal: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
If the bit to be sent is 0, send the inverse of the Received signal: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
codeword, i.e. −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 Receiver codeword: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
" Despreading: Process of retrieving signal from Multiplication: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
received signal. Multiply the received signal with
the codeword, then divide by size of code. Result= 8
" Processing gain: rate of code/rate of information.
Example 1 contd. Sending in presence of interferer
Transmitted signal: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
Transmitted signal: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
Interferer’s signal: 2 2 −2 −2 2 2 −2 −2
Interfering signal: −1 −1 1 1 −1 −1 1 1
Received signal: 3 1 −1 −3 3 1 −1 −3
Received signal: 0 −2 2 0 0 −2 2 0
Receiver code: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
Receiver code: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
Multiplication: 3 −1 −1 3 3 −1 −1 3
Multiplication: 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 0
Result= 8. Can still retrieve the right signal.
Result = 8 , can still retrieve it.
Orthogonality Walsh_Hadamard codes
A family of orthogonal codes. Constructed
recursively. H_0 = (1).
Even if there are more interferers, the signal H_(i+1) = H_i H_i
can still be retrieved, provided all senders are H_i −H_i
using orthogonal codes.
H_1 = 1 1 H_2 =
Two codes (of same length) are orthogonal if their 1 −1
scalar product is 0.
Each row gives a codeword. Any two rows are
orthogonal.