Engineering Structures 56 (2013) 1335–1345

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Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Fundamental principles of the reinforced concrete design code changes

in Chile following the Mw 8.8 earthquake in 2010
Leonardo M. Massone ⇑
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Chile, Blanco Encalada 2002, Santiago, Chile

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Mw 8.8 earthquake in 2010 in Chile provided valuable information regarding the damage and poten-
Received 15 November 2012 tial design code changes for reinforced concrete (RC) structures. Many modern RC buildings suffered
Revised 2 July 2013 severe damage, mainly in the form of concrete cover spalling, followed by longitudinal boundary bar
Accepted 8 July 2013
buckling and concrete crushing. The absence of wall boundary detailing explains such behavior, but older
Available online 8 August 2013
structures and thousands of other buildings suffered minor or no damage at all. An analysis of some
potential factors that influenced the damage caused is carried out and the fundamental principles for
Keywords:
the Chilean RC design code changes are exposed. Currently, a displacement-based approach is used for
Shear wall
Concrete
detailing of the wall boundary elements as well as for establishing damage limitation. Compressive con-
Earthquake crete strain cannot exceed 0.008, limiting indirectly the axial load, which is one of the potential precur-
Chile sors of the damage. Transversal reinforcement is also provided in zones of potential yielding of the
Design longitudinal reinforcement such that buckling due to compression preceded by tension is minimized; this
Confinement buckling is more likely in asymmetric cross-sections, such as T-shaped sections, where usually the web
Buckling goes into larger tensile and compressive strains given the variation of location of the neutral axis for the
web under tension or compression.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction to prevent current buildings from suffering similar damage in fu-

The Mw 8.8 2010 earthquake in Chile impacted the country
over a coastal length of about 500 km, covering the most densely
populated regions. Within that region, the reinforced concrete
(RC) building stock increased in the last two decades, with more
than 1000 buildings with 10–30 stories. During that period, the
construction of residential buildings greater than 15 stories be-
came more common whereas earlier, construction was focused
on buildings with less than 15 stories. Modern buildings also pre-
sented a few characteristics that differ from older structures, such
as thin walls and discontinuities, among others [1]. The damage
was concentrated on newer structures, which also probably pre-
sents the largest building stock, specifically taller buildings (usu-
ally over 15 stories). Most buildings presented no structural
damage or suffered very moderate damage, which required no
eviction. Some other buildings (40) presented severe damage that
was either repaired or, in rare cases, demolished. It is interesting to
note that intermediate situations were uncommon-that is, they
either presented serious damage or almost no damage at all, imply-
ing a brittle nature of the behavior. The severity of damage in mod-
ern buildings prompted the engineering community to study the
general nature of damage caused and propose an emergency code
⇑ Tel.: +56 229784984.
E-mail address: lmassone@ing.uchile.cl
ture earthquakes. Studies are currently being carried out to provide
additional information for future code considerations.
Modern RC building construction in Chile is based on shear
walls, which are designed according to ACI 318. The formal refer-
ence to ACI 318 was originally implemented though the Chilean
seismic code (NCh433.Of96 [2]), which requires the use of
ACI318-95 for RC building construction. However, based on the
good performance of RC shear wall buildings in Viña del Mar in
the 1985 earthquake, the ACI 318-95 requirements for special
transverse reinforcement at wall boundaries to confine the con-
crete and restrain rebar bucking were eliminated. Seismic design
approaches for most RC buildings include modal response spec-
trum analysis, and the design spectra are based on historical
earthquakes.
As summarized by Massone et al. [1], typical buildings in Chile
have a large number of shear walls, with a total wall area over wall
plan area of roughly 3% in each principal direction of a building.
Although the wall area has been maintained over the years, newer
structures increased the number of stories, moving the average
building of 15 stories to about 25 floors. The increment of stories
has resulted in higher axial loads in newer buildings [3]. The design
code did not put a limit on the level of axial stress allowed for grav-
ity load or combined gravity and lateral loads. The construction of
new buildings is also characterized by the use of a common layout:
longitudinal walls on each side of a central corridor that form a

0141-0296/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2013.07.013
1336 L.M. Massone / Engineering Structures 56 (2013) 1335–1345
spine and perpendicular (transverse) walls, or ribs, spaced at
roughly 5 m along the corridor. Thus, the walls in each principal
direction are often connected to form T-shaped or L-shaped
cross-sections.
A combination of large axial loads, relatively large lateral wall
displacement due to the earthquake, and poor wall boundary
detailing, besides wall discontinuities at the failure zone, resulted
in the damage of walls.
2. Research significance
The Mw 8.8 earthquake in 2010 in Chile revealed that most
buildings in Chile were capable of sustaining a strong earthquake.
However, modern RC building construction was severely damaged
in some cases. This work presents an analysis of the damage
caused by actions of axial load combined with bending that char-
acterized such buildings and exposes the fundamental principles
for the new RC design code, intended to provide safer structures
for future strong quakes. The main changes focus on special wall
boundary detailing, concrete damage limitation, and buckling
restraining (in cases not controlled by concrete compression
strain).
3. Damage in new buildings
Damage in buildings, located at the ground level or at the base-
ment (Fig. 1), was usually observed in several rectangular or T-
shaped shear walls and often over the entire wall length. In cases
where a long corridor was structured by T-shaped walls, seismic
movement in the short direction of the building caused significant
damage, specifically at the most compressed end of the web. In
general, spalling of concrete followed by concrete crushing and
the buckling of vertical reinforcement were observed. Typically,
the damage was concentrated over a short height, apparently be-
cause the buckling of vertical bars led to a concentration of the
damage [4], indistinctly in the lower or upper part of the story.
Commonly, the only weak constraints of longitudinal reinforce-
ment against buckling were the large spacing of horizontal web
reinforcements (20 cm) terminated as 90° hooks with an L- or U-
shape (Fig. 2). Fig. 2b shows, with double red lines, the L-shape
(left) and U-shape (right) termination of horizontal web reinforce-
ment bars after being opened due to buckling of the longitudinal
reinforcement. Because the walls were thin, typically 15–20 cm
thick, any spalling of cover concrete (about 2 cm on each side) re-
sulted in an important reduction in the wall thickness, along with
Fig. 1. Typical shear wall damage.
the capability to sustain an important axial load, given the pres-
ence of basically unconfined concrete. Upon spalling of the con-
crete cover, 90° hooks on the transverse reinforcement opened
due to buckling of the longitudinal reinforcement. Buckling of
the longitudinal reinforcement in walls was also combined, in
some cases, with the fracture of the reinforcement, likely due to
large cyclic strains.
Even though other failure types were observed, this work fo-
cuses on the code changes and their fundamental principles
regarding the failure caused by actions of axial load combined with
bending.
4. Construction characteristics and material response
The ineffective 90° end hooks of the horizontal web reinforce-
ment imply that the concrete could be considered to be unconfined
for practical purposes. Thus, for normal strength concrete, which is
the common case, peak compressive strength would be reached at
a strain of about 0.002. This also indicates that upon loss of con-
crete cover, rapid degradation is to be expected.
The unanchored horizontal reinforcement favors buckling of the
longitudinal reinforcement. In many cases, the damaged zone cov-
ers a height of about 400 mm or 500 mm (L), which is generally
about twice the horizontal reinforcement spacing, and also twice
the wall thickness. Considering that boundary longitudinal rein-
forcement is commonly 22 mm or 25 mm in diameter (d), the
buckled length to the bar diameter correlation is close to 20 (L/d)
[4]. If we only consider buckling degradation due to direct com-
pression, the compressive strength is a function of L/d, as well as
the compressive strain attained, among other material parameters.
Fig. 3 shows the degradation of compressive capacity (strength ra-
tio, fb/fs, at maximum compressive strain for symmetric cycles be-
tween the compressive capacity with and without buckling effect,
fb and fs, respectively) due to buckling for different L/d ratios and
different levels of maximum compressive strain (the total strain
would be twice that value). The curves were constructed based
on a model with 4 plastic hinges that has shown good correlations
with monotonic [5] and cyclic [6] response of reinforcements sub-
jected to buckling. The model considers four lumped plastic hinges
located at the bar center (2) and ends (2). The resultant force and
moment are estimated by means of a sectional analysis that con-
siders the nonlinear response of steel. The equilibrium is satisfied
in the deformed position, introducing geometric nonlinearity. For
the analysis, typical (not nominal) steel properties were considered
(yield stress-470 MPa, initiation of strain hardening-0.005, peak
stress of 707 MPa at 0.12 strain). In Fig. 2b, the ratio L/d is close
to 20, and considering that the transversal displacement is close
to 3d or 4d, then, based on shortening only due to the rotation of
the plastic hinges leading to transversal displacement, the total
strain from the straight position to the shown buckled position
would be close to 7% (this could be qmonotonic compression
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi or after
2 2
an initial tension from a length of 2 ð10dÞ þ ð4dÞ ¼ 21:5d, which
yields a total deformation of (21.5d  20d)/21.5d = 7%). This indi-
cates that the buckled reinforcement would have almost no resid-
ual capacity (Fig. 3).
Fig. 2b shows a series of buckled bars on the right side of the
wall section, whereas on the left side last three bars also present
fracture at mid-height of the buckle length. Fracture in this case,
as can be seen in the figure, shows no indication of a reduced
cross-section or necking of the bar due to stress concentration at
the fracture zone, as commonly seen in direct tension tests. Failure
is rather associated to fracture due to fatigue, which presents an al-
most clean horizontal cut of the reinforcement. This type of failure
under low strain or stress is common in mechanical equipment
requiring millions or thousands of cycles. In our case, where few
 L.M. Massone / Engineering Structures 56 (2013) 1335–1345 1337

Fig. 2. Boundary wall reinforcement – (a) general view, and (b) fracture and buckling.

1 large wall top displacements (1.5%), for a stable response (before

L/d=6 degradation), where lw is the wall length. Thus, for a typical wall
L/d=10 length of 5 m, the expected plastic hinge length is about 1.7–
0.8 2.5 m. That is about 3–5 times what was observed in wall bound-
fb/fs (degradation)

L/d=14
aries without detailing. If we consider that most of the strains in
the longitudinal reinforcement in walls in Chile are inelastic (con-
0.6 servative estimate, since a large percentage distributes over the en-
tire length of the wall) and concentrate within the plastic hinge
length, then after restraining buckling, the plastic hinge length
0.4 could increase in about 3–5 times, reducing the strain in about
the same magnitude. This would rapidly increase the bar life under
fatigue.
0.2
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Strain (max.) 5. Axial load and bending in slender wall tests

Fig. 3. Compressive degradation due to buckling for different L/d and strain values. The following section describes findings associated to slender
wall tests and analysis from the literature, which particularly deals
with confinement quantity, reinforcement buckling restraint, im-
cycles with large wall lateral displacement demands were ob-
pact of wall section asymmetry in strain history, among others.
served from the earthquake associated with a large strain magni-
These aspects are relevant in the response of slender walls, which
tude, fracture can occur in less than 100 cycles. This is
also explain the damage observed in walls in Chile earthquake, and
commonly known as low cycle fatigue. Tests by previous research-
therefore should be incorporated in their design.
ers have provided an expression that allows for an estimation of
Tests on slender walls have commonly been carried out provid-
half cycles to failure (2Nf) for specific total strain amplitude (ea-half
ing enough shear strength in order to promote a failure that com-
of the range amplitude). Brown and Kunnath [7] who studied cyclic
bines bending and axial actions named as flexo-compression.
tests under symmetric tension–compression determined that for
Observed damage in walls from test programs show similar char-
25 mm-diameter bar, which is a typical bar diameter for boundary
acteristics as the walls damaged during the 2010 earthquake, such
bars in Chile, the bar life fatigue is given by ea = 0,08(2Nf)0.36, from
as spalling of concrete in the most compressed area, followed by
where, given a 3.5% amplitude strain (assuming a total strain range
buckling of the longitudinal reinforcement and fracture after a
of 7%, as mentioned previously), the number of half cycles that re-
few cycles [8,9]. The tests by Thomsen and Wallace [8] were car-
sults is 10 (i.e., 5 cycles), which is consistent with the number of
ried out in cantilever with a lateral point load at the wall top,
cycles of large magnitude that can be observed in the earthquake
resulting in a shear-span to depth ratio of 3.1, where the response
records. That expression also indicates that in order to avoid low
was controlled by flexure. Shear lateral deformations at the top
cycle fatigue failure for less than 50 cycles, the total strain range
were estimated to be about 10% of the total displacement [10].
should not go over 3%.
An axial load of approximately 0.1fc0 Ag , where fc0 corresponds to
The question that remains then is-how could we observe less
the compressive strength of concrete and Ag the wall cross-section
strain demands in longitudinal reinforcement in order to avoid re-
area, was also applied to the specimens. Four specimens were
bar fracture?, or why was not observed fracture in all cases? One of
tested, two rectangular walls (RW1, RW2) and two T-shaped walls
the important aspects that caused damage in walls is the impossi-
(TW1, TW2). Rectangular walls were 1.22 m long and 0.1 m wide.
bility of the nonlinear or plastic deformation to distribute over a
T-shaped walls also had a 1.22 m long and 0.1 m wide flange, as
height larger than 400–500 mm. That damaged zone is consistent
well. The main difference between TW1 and TW2 was the amount
with the buckled length of the reinforcement. Distribution of dam-
of confinement, tighter and more prolonged over the web bound-
age (or plastic deformation) over a larger zone would reduce the
ary in TW2 [8]. In the tests, although the failure was similar in
curvature demands, and therefore the compressive strain demands
all cases, in the specimens with lower amount of confinement,
for a prescribed wall top displacement. Test results from the liter-
more specifically, those with larger transverse reinforcement spac-
ature (e.g., Thomsen and Wallace [8]) have shown that the plastic
ing, the buckling of longitudinal reinforcement led to damage
hinge could easily be in the range of 0.33lw and 0.5lw for relatively
localized in a narrower section, which covers a section larger than
1338 L.M. Massone / Engineering Structures 56 (2013) 1335–1345
the horizontal web reinforcement spacing (Fig. 4a, TW1). On the
other hand, in specimens with a tighter spacing of transversal rein-
forcement at wall boundaries, damage spreads over a higher sec-
tion (Fig. 4b, TW2).
The confinement effect was also studied in T-shaped (TW) and
rectangular (RW) wall cross-sections. In both cases, a larger
amount of confinement resulted in larger displacement capacity.
It is important to mention that in this test program, one of the
parameters that were changed to modify the confinement quantity
was the spacing of the transversal reinforcement. Therefore, the
larger displacement capacity is not only affected by the confine-
ment level, but also by the tendency of buckling of the longitudinal
reinforcement.
The cyclic lateral top displacement of the walls also influences
the wall behavior. The asymmetry in the wall cross-section or rein-
forcement should be taken in consideration when analyzing the
cyclic response of walls. Fig. 5 shows the strain history for the ex-
treme fibers of a fiber model with material nonlinearity that char-
acterizes the response of TW2 [8], which have been validated
against the experimental data [11]. The response of an extreme fi-
ber for RW2 is also included for selected drift levels. Cycles with
similar fiber strain represent overall cycles with identical wall
top displacement (commonly 2 full cycles). Upon reversal, the
top displacement was set to the same value.
Fig. 4. Damage at 2% drift (nominal) – (a) TW1 and (b) TW2.
A - TW2
0.04 B - TW2
RW2
Strain (extreme ends)
0.02
0
+ tension
- compression
-0.02
1%
Drift Level
Fig. 5. Strain history for extreme fibers (fiber model)-TW2 and RW2.
The figure presents important characteristics regarding design
and detailing of walls that need to be considered or at least under-
stood, especially when they are non-symmetric. For identical wall
top displacements for 2 different loading directions (e.g., phase I
and II in Fig. 5), the maximum compressive and tensile strain val-
ues at both wall ends are vastly different. When compressing the
flange (phase I), the longitudinal reinforcement at the web goes
in tension with a neutral axis depth usually within the flange zone.
In order to reach relatively large top displacements, and therefore
large curvatures, large tensile strains are necessary in the web end
(A), and slight compressive strains in the flange end (B). Upon
reversal (phase II), the narrower section of the web and the rela-
tively large amount of reinforcement in the flange area force the
neutral axis depth to move away from the web end resulting in
more damage in concrete under compression (crushing) at the
web end (A) compared to the flange end (B). This is consistent with
the experimental evidence in test programs with T-shaped [8] and
L-shaped walls [9], as well as findings after the 2010 earthquake
[4]. The response of RW2, which is a symmetric rectangular sec-
tion, shows smaller tensile and compressive strain values than
the web end (A) of TW2, indicating that under similar confinement
and bar buckling constrain is more likely to degrade the response
of the T-shaped section for similar drift levels. Tensile strains in
I
A ε ε
+ +
- -
B B
B
A A
II Phase I Phase II
1.5%
 L.M. Massone / Engineering Structures 56 (2013) 1335–1345
RW2 are larger than tensile strains in the flange (B), but with sim-
ilar compressive strains.
Concrete crushing might not be the only concern about the
behavior of non-symmetric sections. Large tensile strains in the
web end (A) followed (upon reversal) by large compressive strains
in the same point can lead to buckling of the reinforcement, mak-
ing T-shaped walls (or in general non-symmetric) more prone to
this type of damage. Moreover, even large tensile strains followed
by little or no compressive strains can lead to buckling [12–14], as
shown in Fig. 6. Fig. 6 shows the analytical response (plastic hinge
model [5]-as previously described for L/d = 14) of a bar subjected to
buckling for two different loading histories, but with the same total
strain variation (6%, Fig. 6a – ranging from 3% to 3%, and Fig. 6b –
ranging from 2% to 4%). In both cases, onset of buckling (marked
in the figure) is observed almost immediately upon reversal from
tension.
6. Displacement model for detailing
The current design procedure for wall boundary detailing in ACI
318-08 [15] is displacement-based [16]. ACI 318-08 uses a simpli-
fied compatibility model to determine the maximum compressive
strains in concrete due to wall top displacement, requiring special
boundary confinement when the compressive strains are larger
than 0.003. The procedure assumes a cantilever wall with lateral
loads either concentrated or distributed over the height of the wall.
Fig. 7 shows a representative wall with a triangular distribution of
lateral loads. The traditional curvature distribution model assumes
an elastic component until the yield curvature is reached (/y) and
-0.03 to 0.03
800
(a)
400
0
σs
-400
Buckling
No Buckling
-800
-0.04 -0.02 0 0.02
Strain
Fig. 6. Initiation of buckling – (a) 3% to 3% strain range, and (b) 2% to 4% strain range.
δ δ
φ
Fig. 7. Cantilever wall model for boundary detailing (after [16]).
1339
an inelastic component that accounts for the additional curvature
once the ultimate curvature has been reached (/u). The inelastic
curvature usually increases linearly within the lower portion of
the wall, starting from the point where yielding is observed in
the boundary longitudinal reinforcement [17,18]. Although the
curvature tends to increase linearly, simplified models [19] have
characterized the inelastic component as an equivalent rectangular
distribution of curvature of length lp, which represents the plastic
hinge length. Thus, the wall top lateral displacement (du) can be
determined using Eq. (1), if a triangular distribution of the forces
is applied along the wall height (hw). For simplicity, the ACI 318
code adopted a modified version of Eq. (1). Instead of considering
the elastic and inelastic components, only one component is con-
sidered, which accounts for the entire ultimate curvature at the
wall bottom, locating the plastic hinge length at the wall base
and neglecting the elastic component in the upper section (Eq.
(2), Fig. 7b).
 
11 2 lp
du ¼ £y hw þ ð£u  £y Þlp hw  ð1Þ
40 2
du ¼ £u lp hw ð2Þ
The simplified formulation assumes that the elastic component of
the deformation can be indirectly included in the inelastic portion
such that all deformations are concentrated in only one section-
the plastic hinge. This simplification implies that, given a wall top
displacement value, the required curvature depends on the top dis-
placement, wall height, and plastic hinge length (Eq. (2)). That is, in
Fig. 5, the maximum curvature magnitude should be equal, for
-0.02 to 0.04
(b)
Buckling
No Buckling
0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04
Strain
φ
1340 L.M. Massone / Engineering Structures 56 (2013) 1335–1345
example, for loading phases I and II, considering that top displace-
ments are identical. Curvature can be estimated from the figure as
the difference between the strain values at extreme ends (distance
between peaks values of A and B-shown in Fig. 5 with vertical ar-
rows) over the length of the wall. As can be seen, in phase I, the cur-
vature is about 25% larger than in phase II. That difference is larger
with a smaller top displacement and smaller with a larger top dis-
placement. This comes from the fact that the yield curvature, and
therefore the yield top displacement for T-shaped walls are differ-
ent in each direction. The yield curvature tends to be smaller in
T-shaped walls with flanges in compression [20], resulting in larger
curvature demands in the nonlinear range when compared to the
same top displacement for the wall with the flange in tension,
where the yield curvature is larger.
7. Axial load
Damage during the 2010 earthquake in Chile was more com-
mon in modern RC wall buildings, rather than old RC wall struc-
tures. Older RC buildings were constructed usually past the
1950s. Newer structures were usually constructed around year
2000, and featured narrow wall thickness (for taller buildings)
and the presence of discontinuities, which were less common in
previously built structures. Considering that almost no building
had confinement, two main, different aspects arise: (1) axial load
level, and (2) discontinuities. Both can affect the strain distribution
(e.g., Eqs. (1) and (2)). The treatment of discontinuities is a specific
and difficult task and most design tools are strength-oriented, such
as strut-and-tie models [23]. For the purpose of this work all anal-
ysis of strain distribution are related to axial load.
Few research programs have focused their attention to the axial
load effect in slender walls, especially if we consider loads larger
than 0.2fc0 Ag [21,22]. The work by Zhang and Wang [21] included
a test program that compared mid-height (effective height = 1.5 m,
length = 0.7 m) RC and steel reinforced concrete (SRC, partial
boundary longitudinal reinforcement replaced by steel sections)
walls under cyclic lateral loads. The specimens were tested in can-
tilever with a point top lateral load and a constant axial load ap-
plied at the wall top. The RC walls (SW7 and SW8) had similar
geometry, reinforcement configuration, and material properties,
except for the boundary reinforcement ratio (SW7: qb = 0.062,
SW8: qb = 0.046) and axial load (SW7: 0.24fc0 Ag , SW8: 0.35fc0 Ag ).
Test results for the overall load (backbone curve) vs. displacement
(at 1.5 m from base) are shown in Fig. 8. The figure shows a larger
displacement capacity for the specimen with a lower axial load,
although it had a larger amount of longitudinal boundary rein-
forcement. It is also important to point out that with the prescribed
250
200
Load (kN)
150
100
SW7
50
SW8
0 0
0 10 20 30
Top (@1.5m) displacement (mm)
Fig. 8. Axial load effect [21].
confinement (Ash/sbc = 0.011, where Ash is the transversal stirrup
area in the direction of analysis, s is the stirrup spacing and bc
the distance between outer stirrup legs), the specimen with an ax-
ial load of 0.35fc0 Ag reached a drift larger than 1.3% (200 mm) be-
fore the initiation of significant degradation. The length of the
confined zone (100 mm) is consistent with a design displacement
of 0.42% drift, according to Eq. (2) ðdu =hw ¼ 0:003 250
: 700
2
). This assumes
that the confinement ends at the location with a strain of 0.003
(100 mm from wall edge), which results in maximum compressive
strain of 0.0042 (0:003 250
 350) for a neutral axis depth of about lw/2
and lp = lw/2. This indicates that such expression and the confine-
ment supplied is conservative for small displacement demands. If
we consider the initiation of important degradation (200 mm)
and assume the same neutral axis depth (reasonable for stable
boundary element) the maximum compressive strain increases to
1.3% (1:3%  350= 700 2
), which is already in the degrading branch of
the compressive stress vs. strain response of confined concrete.
Failure was, in this case, promoted by out-of-plane buckling.
The axial load effect can be studied through a simple model, for
example, the one presented by Eq. (1). Considering that the yield
curvature can be estimated as 1.5ey/lw (ey = 0.0021 – yield strain,
associated to a nominal yield stress of fy = 420 MPa), and the ulti-
mate curvature for unconfined concrete as £u ¼ 0:003 , the lateral
c
top drift capacity from Eq. (1) becomes, for lp = lw/2,
    
1:5ey
du
hw
¼ 11
40 lw
hw þ 12 0:003 lcw  1:5ey 1  4hlww , which is dependent
on c/lw and hw/lw, where c represents the neutral axis depth and
hw/lw the wall aspect ratio. Considering that c is determined by
equilibrium at the sectional level, the neutral axis depth depends
on the level of axial load, as well as of other factors such as geom-
etry, steel quantity and material properties. For a common wall
length of 5 m and a story height of 2.5 m, the drift capacity ratio
is related to the number of stories (N = hw[m]/2.5) and the c/lw ra-
tio. The drift capacity vs. the number of stories is shown in Fig. 9 for
c/lw values of 0.1, 0.2, 0.4 and also for yielding (balance condition)
of the boundary reinforcement with solid lines. Additionally, for
comparison purposes, a dashed line that allows compressive
strains reaching a 0.008 value is considered for c/lw = 0.4.This is
consistent, as explained later, with the new Chilean wall design
limitation to compressive strain. In this case, it is assumed that
the concrete is confined in order to reach such values without sig-
nificant degradation. Other values of c/lw are not shown since they
reach drift values larger than 2%.
The spectral drift demand can be estimated using the elastic
spectral displacements for any ground record. Considering that
the interest is focused in relatively tall buildings, the ‘‘equal dis-
placement rule’’ is considered to estimate the inelastic displace-
ment, and an amplification factor of 1.3 is used to estimate the
0.02
0.015
δu/hw
0.01
0.005 Damaged
buildings
San Pedro record
EW dir., 2% damp.
40 5 10 15 20 25 30
N
Fig. 9. Axial load effect in drift capacity.
 L.M. Massone / Engineering Structures 56 (2013) 1335–1345
displacement demand in a multistory building. Due to the large
stiffness of Chilean buildings, the fundamental period based on un-
cracked stiffness (element gross area) is estimated as T = hw/70,
with hw the height of the building from the ground level in (m).
Most buildings have fundamental periods between hw/40 and hw/
140, according to a collection of analytical models by Calderón [3].
The fundamental period based on cracked stiffness is estimated
as Tcr = 1.5 T. Thus, the displacement demand that depends of the
period, and therefore of the height, is plot in Fig. 9 as drift demand
vs. number of stories. The San Pedro record [24] in the strongest
horizontal direction (EW), measured at about 5 km south-west of
downtown Concepción, is shown for the analysis for a 2% damping.
As seen in Fig. 9, the larger the axial load, that is larger c/lw, the
lower the drift capacity. For c/lw = 0.2, the drift capacity is already
overcome by the drift demand, which occurs for buildings with a
number of stories around 15. This analysis is consistent with the
observations since most buildings that presented damage were in
the range of 15–20 stories. Besides, that could explain why old
building with probably lower quality construction materials pre-
sented good responses. They commonly exhibit a lower axial load,
associated to low-rise buildings, with the range being usually un-
der 15 stories. If we also consider that modern buildings presented
discontinuities, that would result in strain concentration amplify-
ing its magnitude, and therefore, reducing the drift capacities.
The previous analysis assumes that the plastic hinge length is
lp = lw/2. The evidence from the past earthquake indicates that
the localization of damage as seen in Fig. 1 does not spread as sug-
gested by the common expression due to concentration of damage
within a small section that usually exists between 1 or 2 lines of
the transversal web reinforcement, that is, around 400 mm. The
severity of the damage indicates that at such a stage, degradation
of the response is expected, and therefore, that should not be ex-
pected in walls before the degradation has set in. Experimental evi-
dence indicates that before degradation, the values for plastic
hinge length are close to 0.5lw [16]. However, those walls had an
axial load of about 0.1fc0 Ag , which might not represent what was
observed in Chile, where the axial loads have been estimated to
be much higher than 0.1fc0 Ag for tall buildings [1].
Based on beam tests, it has become common practice to assume
that the plastic hinge length lp of a concrete wall varies from 0.5 to
1.0 times the larger horizontal dimension of the wall (lw). Thus,
0.5lw is used as a lower-bound estimate of lp to make a safe esti-
mate of the displacement capacity from the curvature capacity.
Sawyer [25] developed an equation for plastic hinge length in
beams. In this work, it was assumed that the ratio of the yield mo-
ment to the maximum moment is 0.85 and it was determined that
the location of the initiation of longitudinal reinforcement yields at
a distance 0.15z from the maximum moment point, where z is the
distance from zero moment to the maximum moment. After that,
several expressions have incorporated both parameters: (1) one
associated to the length of the walls and (2) another associated
0.012 SoilD
SoilC
Soil B
1.3Sd (Tcr)/hw
Soil A
0.008
0.004
0 0
0 1
Tcr (s)
Fig. 10. (a) Drift demands, and (b) neutral axis depth limitation for zone 3.
1341
to the height of the walls. These expressions recover the effect of
location of the yielding moment, extending their use to columns
and walls. Other parametric studies have been carried out that
incorporate other variables, such as the axial load [17,18]. The axial
load, as mentioned before, changes not only the overall response,
but at the sectional level, it also changes the post-yield stiffness
of the moment–curvature diagram. The smaller the axial load,
the larger the post-yield stiffness, given that damage and therefore
degradation, is postponed for larger curvature values. A larger po-
sitive post-yield stiffness, which results in a larger maximum mo-
ment, allows for a larger plastic hinge length at the maximum
moment since the yield moment would move upward in a cantile-
ver wall. Bohl and Adebar [17] suggest a variation of the plastic
hinge length that changes with the axial load (P), resulting in
lp ¼ ð0:2lw þ 0:05zÞð1  1:5P=fc0 Ag Þ. If we only consider the addi-
tional impact of the axial load, the larger the c/lw value, the smaller
the lp value observed, which results in a smaller drift capacity,
accentuating the problem with the axial load. This effect is not in-
cluded since the c/lw value would depend on the axial load, as well
as steel quantity, wall geometry, and material properties, among
others. If we consider a rectangular symmetric cross-section with-
out web reinforcement with normal strength concrete, where all
boundary reinforcement is yielding, the relationship between the
axial load and the neutral axis depth, by force equilibrium, reduces
to f 0PAg ¼ 0:72 lcw . In this case, a c/lw = 0.4 would reduce the plastic
c
hinge length by about half. If we consider a more common section
configuration, such as T-shaped wall (flange length similar to web
length) with distributed web reinforcement (qw = 0.0025) with the
flange under tension, the axial load normalized over the wall web
area is reduced only by about 20%. All this indicates that the axial
load not only reduces the drift capacity by increasing the neutral
axis depth, but also reduces the ability of the wall to distribute
plasticity over its height.
8. New reinforced concrete requirements
The observed damage from the earthquake as well as informa-
tion gathered from acceleration records led the Chilean civil engi-
neering community to demand changes to existing standards-the
design of reinforced concrete (NCh430.Of2008, [26]) and the seis-
mic design of buildings (NCh433.Of96, [2]). The changes in this
seismic design code mainly focused on developing both new de-
sign displacement spectra and a modified soil classification, which
were reflected in its replacement, the DS No. 61 [27], which had a
previous version earlier in 2011.
Regarding the modifications of the design standard for rein-
forced concrete, it focused on requirements for an improved
behavior of reinforced concrete walls, whose replacement was
the DS No. 60 [28] (also a modification of an earlier version). The
code uses the ACI 318-08 as the base code and includes modifica-
tions that focused on special wall design.
1.5
(a) (b)
1
c/lw
0.5 SoilD
SoilC
Soil B
Soil A
2 3 0 1 2 3
Tcr (s)
1342 L.M. Massone / Engineering Structures 56 (2013) 1335–1345
40
30
0.008
Stress (MPa)
20
0.003 Confined
Unconfined
10
0 in larger compressive strains and, thus, it will be more restrictive
0 0.005 0.01 0.015
Strain
Fig. 11. Confined and unconfined concrete.
One of the first modifications involves the axial load, limiting
the maximum axial load to 0.35fc0 Ag for every wall element at
any location. Considering that this limitation may not be suitable
for asymmetric sections, which may have premature compression
failure, a damage limitation requirement against brittle compres-
sive failure was adopted. Based on the simple plastic hinge models,
it requires that when slender walls (hw/lw P 3) reach the building
design displacement (du), a compression strain in concrete of
0.008 in the extreme most compressed fiber at the critical wall sec-
tion is not exceeded. This strain (ec) can be estimated, derived from
Eq. (2), as ec ¼ £u c ¼ h2dwulwc , after assuming that lp = lw/2. Alterna-
tively, the elastic deformation capacity of the wall can be incorpo-
rated to reduce the requirement of inelastic displacement (Eq. (1)).
The explicit consideration for the plastic hinge length (lp = lw/2)
was only imposed for Eq. (2), since the strain estimates tend to
be conservative (elastic component neglected). As it was exposed
(a)
Fig. 12. Onset of buckling – (a) rectangular, and (b) T-shaped cross-section.
before, for larger axial loads, the plastic hinge reduces which could
be considered in Eq. (1). In both cases, it is assumed that there is a
potential plastic hinge where the inelastic deformations are con-
centrated, and therefore, a special detailing requirement for the
edge of the wall is provided. Considering that by exceeding a com-
pressive strain of 0.003 in the most compressed fiber in the wall
(ACI 318-08) special detailing (transversal reinforcement) needs
to be provided at wall edges, the consideration of compressive
strain limitation of 0.008 seeks to limit the potential damage that
may occur. This limitation indirectly restricts the axial load level
(through the neutral axis depth) in the walls, which is dependent
on the expected demand for the wall displacement. Thus, for build-
ings in seismic zones closer to the hypocenter and in soft soils, the
expected wall top displacement demand will be higher, resulting
0.02 with the axial load level. Since the limitation is not strictly on
the axial load, other wall characteristics can be modified (e.g.,
amount of longitudinal reinforcement, yielding of the reinforce-
ment, and geometry).
In order to study the impact of the damage limitation require-
ment, the neutral axis depth limitation is estimated on the basis
of the expected drift demands provided by the DS No. 61 [27].
The drift demands are estimated for zone 3 (coastal-highest seis-
micity) and for the four soil types that provide spectral displace-
ment (A–D). A fundamental period for an uncracked lower bound
stiffness of T(s) = hw(m)/50 is selected. The cracked stiffness is esti-
mated as Tcr = 1.5 T [27]. Drift demands are plotted in Fig. 10a,
which indicates that the maximum drift level yields a value of
about 1.1%. The low drift levels are promoted by the large building
stiffness. Knowledge of the drift demand and the use of Eq. (2) pro-
vide the limitation to the neutral axis depth for a compressive
strain of 0.008, as shown in Fig. 10b. Zone 3 soil D yields the small-
est value (c/lw = 0.37), which is consistent with a low axial load. For
a symmetric rectangular section with yielding boundary reinforce-
ment and no web reinforcement, it yields an axial load of P/
fc0 Ag = 0.27. The axial load reduces considerable in non-symmetric
sections such as T-shaped walls, yielding values that might be half
(b)
 L.M. Massone / Engineering Structures 56 (2013) 1335–1345
of the symmetric rectangular wall case, when normalized over the
entire wall cross-section area, since the term Ag would represent
the web area in that case. Thus, the code captures the less ductility
observed in non-symmetric sections by improving their displace-
ment capacity with, for example, lower axial loads.
Given a prescribed wall top displacement or curvature, a com-
pressive strain limitation forces larger tensile (commonly) strains
in the opposite side of the wall, which might induce tensile frac-
ture of the longitudinal boundary reinforcement. Low amounts of
boundary longitudinal reinforcement and axial load reduces the
neutral axis depth favoring the same situation. In Chile, it is com-
mon to provide a steel quantity of 5% of the boundary area (0.5%
over wall area) at each boundary and no less than 3% in most cases
for modern buildings over 15 stories [29]. If we consider the ex-
treme case of no axial load, for a rectangular section with symmet-
ric boundary reinforcement (qb = 3%) and no web reinforcement,
where the compressive reinforcement might not be yielding, and
for simplicity under zero strain, due to the low neutral axis depth,
the neutral axis depth reduces, by equilibrium, to lcw ¼
ð0:03Þð0:1Þðt w Þðfy ¼420 MPaÞ
¼ 0:07, for a boundary length of 0.1lw, wall
ð0:85Þðb1 ¼0:85Þðfc0 ¼25 MPaÞðt w Þ
thickness tw, and a Whitney stress block coefficient b1 = 0.85. From
Fig. 10a, for a maximum drift of 1.1%, Eq. (2) reduces to hdwu ¼
0:011 ¼ £u lp  eclþwes lw
2
, which together with c
lw
¼ eceþc es ¼ 0:07, yields
to es = 0.02, where es and ec are the extreme tensile and compres-
sive strains in the wall. A 2% tensile strain is far from causing ten-
sile fracture of the boundary reinforcement. A stable compressive
boundary element (confinement and buckling restriction might
be required) capable of equilibrating the force from the tensile lon-
gitudinal reinforcement (and axial load) that guarantees a nearly
constant plastic hinge length (here assumed as lw/2) and low drift
demands (here assumed no more than 1.1%) will be capable of pre-
venting tensile fracture of the reinforcement. Smaller plastic hinge
length (or a hinge that reduces its length with drift) or larger drift
demands would result in larger tensile strain values in the longitu-
dinal reinforcement. Non-symmetric sections would probably
present larger neutral axis depth, reducing even further the tensile
strain.
Another important aspect related to the limitation of damage is
the fact that in order to have the distribution of plasticity along the
height of the wall, a positive post-yield stiffness is required. Con-
sidering that concrete in compression should be confined if the
compressive strain is larger than 0.003, low strain values in uncon-
fined concrete would present just slight degradation of capacity
associated with concrete in compression, but exhibit an overall sta-
ble response (e.g., moment–curvature). If we consider the confine-
ment requirements for wall special boundary elements by ACI 318-
f0
08, that is, Ash  0:09bc s fc0 , for normal material properties
y
(fc0 = 25 MPa and fy = 420 MPa), the confinement pressure reduces
Ash fy
to f1 ¼ bc s
 2:25 MPa. Considering the confinement concrete
model by Saatioglu and Razvi [30], and a wall length of 5 m under
an axial load consistent with c/lw = 0.2 (i.e., P/fc0 Ag = 0.14 for a sym-
metric rectangular section with yielding boundary reinforcement)
results in a confined length of 0.63 m (=0.250.005/0.008) for a
maximum compressive strain of 0.008 and confinement over com-
pressive strain values of 0.003. The confinement effectiveness is
determined for confinement reinforcement separated transversally
by 200 mm and longitudinally by 150 mm. The unconfined con-
crete would present a peak stress at a strain value of about 0.002
in compression and 15% strength degradation at 0.0033. Thus,
the confined concrete would present a peak stress of 33 MPa at a
strain of 0.0053 with 15% strength degradation at a strain of
0.011. This indicates that the limitation of compressive strain of
0.008 corresponds to just the initiation of degradation of confined
1343
concrete, and therefore positive post-yield is expected at the lat-
eral top drift demand, similarly to the case of unconfined concrete
with maximum compressive strain below 0.003. The stress vs.
strain response in compression is shown in Fig. 11 for confined
and unconfined concrete, where both the compressive strain limits
are shown (0.003 for unconfined concrete and 0.008 for confined
concrete).
In cases requiring confinement, the wall thickness must be at
least 300 mm, and the confined length may not be less than the
width of the wall in the confined zone to ensure proper contain-
ment of the transverse reinforcement. In this sense, and also to en-
sure good concrete placement and behavior, bar diameter size
limitations are imposed on both the longitudinal reinforcement
(db_long 6 1/9hSBE, with hSBE thickness of the wall at the boundary
element) and the transversal reinforcement (db_transv P 1/3db_long)
at wall boundary elements, as well the vertical (s 6 1/2hSBE) and
horizontal (hx 6 1/2hSBE, 200 mm) separation of supported vertical
bars by transversal reinforcement. Additionally, both the stirrups
as cross-ties must have their ends bent at an angle greater than
or equal to 135°.
Where confinement is not required, but there is a longitudinal
reinforcement ratio greater than 2.8/fy, and it is expected that this
reinforcement might yield, the spacing of the transverse reinforce-
ment is limited to 6db and 200 mm, with db the diameter of the lon-
gitudinal reinforcement. This limitation is consistent to the one
provided in ACI 318-08; however, here the spacing limitation to
6db prevents or delays reinforcement buckling to wall drift levels
that are expected in stiff shear wall structures in Chile. Thus, for
example, in asymmetrical walls, such as T-shaped wall sections,
where the compression strain do not exceed 0.003, they are re-
quired to have buckling restriction as these bars do not reach sig-
nificant compression deformation, but they might buckle if they
have previously endured large tensile strains. They could even
buckle while still elongated, that is, under tensile strain, but sub-
ject to compression stress. In order to quantify the impact of such
limitation, the drift capacities should be estimated based on the
initiation of bar buckling, providing a limit state for the buckling
condition.
Collection of experimental data by Rodriguez et al. [12] for steel
coupons loaded under cyclic strain history, recalling bars in col-
umns and beams under seismic actions, show how the onset of
buckling is dependent on stirrups spacing (fixed-end condition).
The onset of buckling is defined experimentally, by Rodriguez
et al., as the point where the instability of the bar was captured
with extensometers place on two sides of the bar, where one of
the extensometers presented increase of compression (concave
side of the buckle bar) and the other decrease of compression (con-
vex side of the buckle bar). Initiation of buckling was defined at the
point where the difference between both sensors was 20% of the
compression observed in the concave side. The strain at buckling
was studied by means of a strain ep* that corresponds to the total
strain from the previous zero stress point until buckling was deter-
mined. This, for simplicity, can be approximated to be the entire
strain between the maximum tensile strain and the subsequent
compressive (or tensile) strain at the onset of buckling. If we con-
sider a rectangular wall cross-section with symmetric reinforce-
ment under a seismic action from left to right that results in a
strain profile described in Fig. 12a (direction 1), the extreme fibers
would reach strains et and ec at both ends. Upon reversal (direction
2) and considering that the same top displacement is applied, the
maximum strains would be the same, but in reverse order, that
is, ec and et. Thus, each extreme fiber would have reached a maxi-
mum strain of et + ec, which is approximately ep* once buckling be-
gins. According to Rodriguez et al., for stirrups spacing of s = 6db,
the onset of buckling occurs, in average, at about ep* = 0.04. If we
1344 L.M. Massone / Engineering Structures 56 (2013) 1335–1345
consider Eq. (2) (and lp = lw/2), then hdwu ¼ ecc lw
2
¼ ðeclþwet Þ
which indicates that the reinforcement under such transversal
constraint results in drift capacity of 2%, which is larger than ex-
pected in RC shear wall buildings in Chile, according to Fig. 10a.
In an extreme case for nonsymmetrical cross-section (e.g., T wall-
Fig. 12b), where the neutral axis depth for the web in tension falls
inside the flange, c  lw, if we consider the same situation (conser-
vative) when the web is in compression, then hdwu ¼ ecc l2w ¼
ðec þet Þ lw
2lw 2
 0:04
4
¼ 0:01. The drift capacity reduces to 0.01, which is
still a considerable drift capacity, and similar to the maximum drift
demand expected for zone 3 soil type D for a stiff building.
Some walls, besides presenting concrete cover spalling and lon-
gitudinal bar buckling, showed overall buckling promoted by small
wall thickness. To emphasize this situation, the code requires a sta-
bility analysis for walls with thicknesses below lu/16, with lu
unsupported wall height.
Failure of splices in longitudinal reinforcement in walls was ob-
served in a few cases. Considering the need to maintain the walls’
integrity as a load transfer mechanism through the longitudinal
reinforcement, especially in the confined core of the critical
section, when the amount of longitudinal reinforcement exceeds
2.8/fy or presents an small coating (coverrebar 6 2db,long), a
minimum quantity of transversal reinforcement is required
(Atr,min = Abfyls/fytld, with Ab and fyl the longitudinal reinforcement
area and yield stress, s and fyt the transversal reinforcement spac-
ing and yield stress, and ld the longitudinal reinforcement develop-
ment length) to be able to transmit forces between the overlapped
bars. In this case, it is required that the force capacity by the trans-
versal reinforcement in the overlapped area can at least balance
the component (parallel to the transversal reinforcement) of the
forces transmitted to the concrete (with inclined struts at 45°)
due to the forces in the longitudinal bar in tension.
All this code requirements have been used by engineering com-
panies during the past few months and they have reported that it
has resulted in a marginal increase of cost in RC shear wall building
construction.
9. Summary and conclusions
Modern RC building suffered severe damage in many cases, due
to axial load and bending in walls, after the Mw 8.8 earthquake in
2010 in Chile, expressed mainly as concrete cover spalling followed
by longitudinal boundary bar buckling and concrete crushing. The
absence of wall boundary detailing explains such behavior, but
older structures and also thousands of other buildings suffered
minor or no damage at all. The potential of the axial load to reduce
the displacement capacity is discussed, as well as other factors,
such as the impact of cross-section asymmetry.
The fundamental principles for the Chilean RC design code
changes are analyzed. Currently, a displacement-based approach
is used for detailing of the wall boundary elements, following the
ACI 318-08 requirements with minor changes. A new limit state
is established, providing a damage limitation. Compressive con-
crete strain cannot exceed 0.008, limiting indirectly the allowed
axial load, which was one of the potential precursors of the
damage.
Besides, restraining buckling is also provided by requiring
transversal reinforcement with a maximum spacing of 6db (db,
longitudinal bar diameter), in zones of potential yielding of
the longitudinal reinforcement, such that buckling due to ten-
sion–compression cycles is minimized. This was required since,
in asymmetric cross-sections, it is possible to have relatively low
compressive strains such that no wall boundary detailing is
required, but buckling is expected upon reversal of cycles from
lw
2
 0:04
2
¼ 0:02, tension to compression causing instability even before compres-
sive strains are observed.
Where damage was produced by large compressive or tensile
strains that resulted in degrading response (softening post-yield
response) with localization of damage within a small area, a better
distribution of strain is expected for a non-degrading response, by
providing confinement and/or buckling constraint. The better
strain distribution results in smaller maximum strain values,
reducing damage and making less probable the presence of frac-
ture of longitudinal reinforcement due to low cycle fatigue.
Other limitations were also imposed to improve the concrete
placement and effectiveness of confinement, as well as prevention
of global buckling. Several analytical and experimental programs
have been carried out lately to study, in more detail, aspects such
as overall response, effective confinement, effect of discontinuities,
among others, by the author and other researchers, which would
allow for the checking and improvement of the code provisions.
Acknowledgements
This work is the summary of long discussions within the sub-
committee for the RC design code committee formed under the
Construction Institute (Chile). The author of this publication, coor-
dinator of the subcommittee, would like to thank the contribution
from several persons related to the academia and industry who
served as members and collaborated by enriching the discussion
with examples, case studies, and analysis of the new code require-
ments and its impact on Chilean construction. The members, in
alphabetical order, are: Marcial Baeza, Patricio Bonelli, Leopoldo
Breschi, Jorge Carvallo, Rodrigo Concha, Luis Díaz, Augusto Holm-
berg, Iván Hrepic, Matías Hube, Denis Jequier, Rodrigo Jordán, Mar-
ianne Küpfer, Mario Lafontaine, René Lagos, Alfonso Larraín, Carl
Lüders, Rodrigo Mujica, Miguel Sándor, Hernán Santa María, Edu-
ardo Santos, Rodolfo Saragoni, Carlos Sepúlveda, and Rodrigo Vás-
quez. The author would also thank the wall specimen photos
provided by prof. John Wallace at UCLA.
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