MAT 373

Thermal & Thermochemical

Surface Treatments

Dr Adrian Leyland
A.Leyland@sheffield.ac.uk

(Prof Allan Matthews / Dr Aleksey Yerokhin)

Textbooks
“Wear Resistant Surfaces in Engineering”
– pub. HMSO, 1986 (Main Lib BQ 621.89)
(ISBN 0 11 513826 9)

ASM Handbook 5 “Surface Engineering”

(SGL 669.02)

Recently Published (2013):

Per Møller & Lars Pleth Nielsen
“Advanced Surface Technology”
ISBN 9788792765239
(2 Volumes: ~ 100 Euro)
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1) INTRODUCTION

Most engineering failures occur because of surface initiated

effects; eg, WEAR, CORROSION and FATIGUE. The surface can
also be important for aesthetic reasons, since it is the part we can
see. As surfaces are so important, it is imperative that engineers
have a comprehensive knowledge of the techniques available to
modify and improve the surface properties of components.
This field of manufacturing technology is generally known as
SURFACE ENGINEERING. We will be concerned here primarily
with surface processing techniques which can provide improved
wear and corrosion resistance – but do not in general involve the
application of a coating.
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Categories of Surface Engineering Technique

Modifying surfaces without Altering the chemistry of Adding a layer of material

altering the chemistry the surface regions to the surface

Transformation Thermochemical diffusion Weld overlay

hardening by treatments: Roll cladding
Flame Carburising Powder or thermal spray techniques
Induction Nitriding Plasma spraying
Laser or Nitrocarburising Detonation gun
Electron Beam Carbonitriding
Electroplates
Special machining Pack, salt bath and Electroless plates
techniques gaseous processes
Peening Ion-plating
Shot blasting Plasma Nitriding / PVD
Cold deformation Carburising
processes Chemical vapour deposition (CVD)
Pre-oxidation
Laser alloying
Phosphating
Chromating Hot dipping
Peen plating
Ion implanting Painting
Polymer coating
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SURFACE HARDENING TREATMENTS OF METALS

Techniques which involve the modification of the existing

surface of a component, to make it harder (hence more
wear resistant) and sometimes also to improve fatigue
life (by putting the surface into residual compression).

They are used extensively to treat automobile parts and

manufacturing tools.
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Thermal treatments

These involve the application of a specified thermal cycles to materials in

order to obtain certain mechanical properties.
A common example is QUENCH HARDENING of steels.
To understand this, we need to look again at the basic metallurgy of steel:
The figure to the right shows part
of the IRON-CARBON PHASE
DIAGRAM. For PURE IRON (ie,
0% carbon content) there are two
phases: Low temp phase = α-iron
or FERRITE; this is BCC. High
temp phase = γ-iron or
AUSTENITE; this is FCC.
Both ferrite and austenite are soft
and ductile.
(Note from the diagram that ferrite and
austenite can also be obtained when
some carbon is present.)
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For iron-carbon alloys, carbon in excess of the solubility limit forms a

second phase, Fe3C, and this is known as CEMENTITE. This is hard and
its presence with ferrite in steel considerably increases, the strength.
When austenite of the eutectoid composition (0.83% C) is cooled,
FERRITE and CEMENTITE are simultaneously formed with a LAMELLAR
STRUCTURE (alternative layers of ferrite and cementite) and this is
known as PEARLITE.

There are many other forms which carbon can take up in steels when they
are cooied, depending on variables such as the carbon content and the
COOLING RATE. One important form is known as MARTENSITE. This
appears to have a fine needle-like structure and is VERY HARD. It can be
formed when steel is RAPIDLY QUENCHED from high temperature.
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The resulting phase(s) on cooling are
characterised by TIME TEMPERATURE
TRANSFORMATION (TTT) diagrams. Curve
(1) enters the transformation region at a, thus
MARTENSITE is formed between a and b. This
is the SLOWEST CURVE for martensite only to
be formed, since it just misses point n.
It therefore represents a CRITICAL COOLING
RATE. Curves (2), (3) & (4) show successively
slower cooling - and phases other than
MARTENSITE can form. NOTE that the final
phase obtained depends on the first exit point
of the transformation region. For curve (3), the
first exit point is at c; thus FINE PEARLITE is
obtained, even though the curve subsequently
re-enters the BAINITE and MARTENSITE
regions. Bainite is comparable in composition
to pearlite but is extremely fine structured,

Nb: quenching does not change the grain (crystal) size;

it does however change the iron-carbon distribution
within the grains, which can distort the grain shape.
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If the entire component is heated then quenched, the surface will cool more
quickly than the bulk of the material, forming martensite earlier. This effect can
cause QUENCH CRACKS (surface cracks), as the skin cools and contracts more
quickly than the bulk. There are ways to reduce this problem (eg. austempering;
martempering) but normally we want mainly to improve the SURFACE HARDNESS.
To improve the surface harness, only the pearlitic
steel SURFACE IS HEATED AND ALMOST
IMMEDIATELY QUENCHED. This gives a hard
martensitic skin on top of the tough pearlitic core. A
bainite layer is generally formed between these two
zones, which reduces case flaking due to excessive
stresses arising from temperature gradients.
Subsequent TEMPERING at about 200ºC can also
reduce residual stresses.
Normally, a medium carbon steel (0.3-0.6% carbon) is used and HARDENED
CASE DEPTHS ARE TYPICALLY 1–10 mm. Case hardness is about 700HV,
reducing to 600 HV after tempering at 200ºC.
The process usually imparts COMPRESSIVE STRESS in the near-surface layer,
which can significantly IMPROVE FATIGUE LIFE.
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Thermal Hardening Methods:

Induction heating: Most widespread method. Alternating electric current in a work
coil induces eddy currents in the workpiece, resulting in heating. High frequencies
give shallower cases (500 kHz gives about 0.5 mm, 1 kHz gives about 5 mm).
The process may be performed on selected areas or a scanning inductor can be
used for continuous sections. The scanning inductor successively heats small areas
and is closely followed by a quenching device which is often an integral part of the
inductor assembly.
Advantages: rapid, repeatable, clean, easily automated

Flame hardening: Acetylene, propane or natural gas flame is moved slowly over the
surface, followed by a quenching spray (which may be part of the burner assembly).
Similar to induction methods but operation is more costly and less easily controlled.
However, capital cost is lower and odd shapes can be more easily treated.

Laser and electron beam transformation hardening: Rapid surface heating by laser
(usually CO2) in air – or electron beam in vacuum. Highly localised heating, hence
bulk material provides a self-quenching effect. Case depths up to 1 mm can be
obtained. Generally used for components which might distort from induction
hardening, such as cutting blades, shaft splines, etc. (ie. thin components).
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Thermochemical treatments
Like thermal treatments, THERMOCHEMICAL TREATMENTS
rely on modifying the existing surface of a material, rather than
adding a coating.

However, whereas thermal treatments make use of the existing

carbon in steels (ie. changes in microstructure but no overall
change in material chemistry), the CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
OF THE NEAR-SURFACE LAYER is altered in thermochemical
treatments, hence a WIDER RANGE OF STEELS can be treated.
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Carburising
Usually applied to steels with LOW INITIAL CARBON CONTENT (< 0.45% C).
Component is raised above the ferrite-austenite transformation temperature
(usually 850-950ºC) in a solid, liquid or gaseous carburising medium.
SURFACE BECOMES ENRICHED WITH CARBON. Subsequent quenching
causes a martensitic structure to be developed in the surface layer.

Process is applicable to A WIDER RANGE OF STEEL COMPOSITIONS

than thermal hardening. Some distortion can occur during processing
– and subsequent grinding may therefore be necessary.
Parts are normally tempered at 150-200ºC.
Compressive stress in the outer layers increases fatigue strength.

Carburising is the ONLY THERMOCHEMICAL TREATMENT which can

provide VERY DEEP CASES (up to 4 mm); hardness is typically 900 HV,
reducing to about 700 HV after tempering. Treatment times are the order of
a few hours. Possibly 70-80 % of all thermochemical treatment is carburising.
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Carburising Methods:

In all of the following three cases, CO is generated, which results in

carbon diffusing into the steel.

Pack carburising: Heat components in steel boxes with COKE +

ENERGISER (eg. BaCO3). The energiser accelerates the diffusion of
carbon. Direct quenching not usually possible.

Salt bath carburising: Heat components in molten salts containing

SODIUM CYANIDE + BARIUM CHLORIDE.

Gas carburising: Heat components in a CARRIER GAS (eg. N2)

containing METHANE or PROPANE.
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Carbonitriding
This is a VARIATION OF THE CARBURISING PROCESS, where up to
0.5% NITROGEN (as well as carbon) is applied to the steel surface.
This IMPROVES HARDEN ABILITY and reduces FERRITE-AUSTENITE
TRANSFORMATION temperature.
Gives RELATIVELY SHALLOW CASE (< 0.75 mm) – hence carbonitrided
components may not be suitable for high load applications.
Otherwise, property improvements are similar to carburising – and the
LOWER PROCESSING TEMPERATURES (~ 750–850ºC) can reduce
potential distortion problems.
Methods employed are similar to those of carburising (components still
need to be quenched!).
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Nitriding
This typically involves the DIFFUSION OF NITROGEN INTO A STEEL SURFACE
at 490-530ºC. Below 490ºC, nitrogen diffusion becomes too slow and above
530ºC, coarsening of the substrate microstructure (eg. through dissolution of grain-
boundary carbide precipitates) may reduce core strength – and negate surface
hardness improvements. A superficial "WHITE" LAYER forms during processing –
which comprises a mixture of Fe-N compounds. Nitrogen diffuses from this layer
into the underlying steel to form finely dispersed needles of alloy nitrides and, by
reaction with carbon in the steel, carbonitrides. The white layer is only about 20 µm
thick but is brittle. To prevent spalling in service, it is usually removed by grinding
or by chemical treatment.
QUENCHING IS NOT REQUIRED – since there is no phase transformation on
cooling. Case depth is typically 0.2-0.7 mm; hardness is 900-1100 HV – which is
temper-resistant to about 500ºC.
The RELATIVELY LOW PROCESSING TEMPERATURE gives less distortion than
carburising or carbonitriding and it can produce excellent fatigue performance and
abrasion resistance.
STEELS MUST CONTAIN NITRIDE FORMING ELEMENTS to obtain a sufficient
hardening effect: Al and Ti have a pronounced effect – even at low concentrations;
Cr is also used. Hot working tool steels such as AISI H13 (5% Cr) are often nitrided.
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Nitriding Methods:
(i) Gas nitriding:
Dry ammonia is circulated through gas-tight retorts containing the
components. The ammonia dissociates on heating, resulting in
nitrogen diffusion into the steel surface:
2NH3 ▬► 2N (into steel) + 3H2
Processing @ 515ºC for ~ 45 hrs gives a case depth of ~ 0.5 mm.

(ii) Plasma nitriding:

Positively-charged nitrogen molecules (ie. ions) from a plasma
accelerate across the cathode sheath (voltage drop near substrate)
and bombard the component surfaces, causing them to be heated
– and nitrogen to be chemi-sorbed.
Advantages over gas nitriding:
(1) less energy consumed, (2) about 30% reduction in processing
time, (3) white layer thickness is only 6-8 µm (compared to 20 µm).
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Plasma nitriding process schematic:

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Nitrocarburising
This is usually performed at about 570ºC and involves diffusion of nitrogen
with a small proportion of carbon. Similar to nitriding, QUENCHING IS NOT
REQUIRED. Methods involve the use of ammonia gas with a carburising
agent, or a molten (fused) salt bath containing sodium cyanide or sodium
cyanate (although non-cyanide based alternatives are now widely available).
A 2 hour treatment time gives a 20 µm thick carbonitride phase which has
good resistance to adhesive wear. A thicker layer of alloy nitrides may also
be formed – but only the carbonitride layer is usually exploited, hence
PLAIN CARBON STEELS (in addition to alloy nitriding steels) can be
effectively processed.
A small amount of surface porosity occurs, which is useful for oil retention
under marginally lubricated conditions.
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COMPARISON OF
THERMOCHEMICAL TREATMENT PROPERTIES (I)
SLIDING WEAR RESISTANCE
Carburising can form a surface hardness of up to 850 HV, depending upon the steel
composition. In high load abrasion it is important that the core is strong enough to
adequately support the hardened case.
Carbonitriding provides a case of similar hardnes to carburising, but usually on plain
carbon steels with a relatively weak core – so not suitable for high load applications.
Nitriding provides layers with hardness up to 1100 HV on high strength cores.
Nitrocarburised layers have hardness of 600 HV, giving resistance to mild abrasion.

ROLLING CONTACT FATIGUE

Rolling contact fatigue resistance is strongly dependent on surface hardness
(approximately linear). In carburised steels improvements are only obtained when
the case depth, hardness-depth profile and core strength are all sufficient to prevent
premature failure from occurring beneath the case. One of the main advantages of
carburising is its ability to produce case depths over a wide thickness range, so that
the load carrying capacity can be tailored to meet different service conditions.
Nitriding can be used to produce cases significantly harder than by carburising, but
they are generally thinner – and thus permitted stresses tend to be slightly lower.
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COMPARISON OF
THERMOCHEMICAL TREATMENT PROPERTIES (II)
ADHESION AND SCUFFING
Any process which hardens the surface will reduce adhesive wear, by reducing the
contact area. However the tribochemical nature of the surface is also important; the
nitride layers developed in nitriding and nitrocarburising prevent metallic surfaces from
welding together – and are thus beneficial.
COST
Nitriding and nitrocarburising costs are typically twice those of carburising.

SUMMARY OF APPLICATIONS:
CARBURISING: where thick cases required on heavily loaded components; distortion
is a problem.
NITRIDING: used where distortion is otherwise a problem & design stresses are high.
CARBONITRIDING: where parts are small (requiring only a shallow case) and design
stresses are low; generally used to improve performance of plain carbon steels in thin
sections. (stampings & pressings, fabricated sections, gearshaft splines, etc.)
NITROCARBURISING: where adhesive wear is a problem; eg. running-in of components.
 Thermal & Thermochemical Treatments

Other Thermochemical Treatments

Boriding (Boronising)
Boron is diffused into a metallic substrate, usually steel, to form a metal boride
layer. Such boride layers, either single or two-phase, have many attractive
properties including high melting point and hardness (≈1500-3000 HV), good
wear and corrosion resistance, and resistance to attack by molten metals.
Boriding is usually carried out at 700-1000ºC for several hours, producing
layers which are typically 50-150 µm thick. Thicker layers can be obtained
but, because of their brittleness, applications are limited to light contact load
situations. Boriding can cause thermal distortion, and this should be allowed
for at the design stage, since subsequent post-treatment machining of the
boride layer is difficult and expensive.
There is no appreciable strengthening in the diffusion zone, so the
components must have sufficient core strength to support thin layers and
hence boriding is most suitable for medium carbon and low or medium alloy
steels or pre-carburised steel.
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Boriding (Boronising) contd.
Where abrasive wear is a major problem, the high hardness achievable in boriding
may be of value. The process has been used to give wear protection to steel moulds
and extruder screws used in the manufacture of plastics containing abrasive fillers.
The resistance of iron boride layers to corrosion by HCl fumes, released during the
decomposition of PVC is an added advantage in such applications, where steel pipes
used in the manufacture of PVC have their service life extended four-fold. Boriding is
used extensively (especially pack boriding) in Russia & Germany, but less so in the UK.
The boride layer formed on pure iron consists of:
an exterior layer of orthorhombic FeB
an adjacent interior layer of body-centred tetragonal Fe2B
Both FeB and Fe2B exhibit a preferred orientation and have a characteristic columnar
structure normal to the surface.
The coefficient of thermal expansion of Fe2B is less than that of Fe – and hence on
cooling this phase remains in compression; whereas that of FeB is greater than for
either Fe2B or Fe – and this layer remains in tension. Such disparities can result in
cracking at the FeB / Fe2B interface, especially when subjected to thermal and/or
mechanical shock; thus FeB formation should be avoided, wherever possible.
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Boriding (Boronising) contd.
Most alloying elements in steel inhibit boride layer growth and the proportion of FeB
in the layer increases with alloy content. Thus stainless steel is unsuitable for boriding
as the layer consists almost entirely of FeB and is therefore poorly adherent.
Also, steels containing a high proportion of Sulphur or Aluminium should be avoided
as both elements are displaced ahead of the developing boride layer, forming a ferrite
stabilised region (which remains soft after subsequent re-hardening of the substrate).
Pack Boriding
The primary source of boron is B4C, the boriding capacity of which is enhanced by
adding activator compounds such as BaF2, NH4CI or KBF4. Typical commercial
powders contain 5 wt.% B4C, 5% KBF4 and 90% SiC or Al203 which act as inert
diluents. As the B4C content is raised, the boriding capacity increases – but also the
amount of FeB constituting the layer is increased. Pack boriding can be successfully
conducted without solid phase activators by using various reactive gases.
Paste Boriding
This is only practised when pack boriding is not feasible, eg. when certain inaccessible
features need to be borided or when masking is difficult. Commercial paste is supplied
in a viscous state and water is added until it can be brushed or sprayed.
Several coats of paste are required for adequate boriding. Components are heated
either inductively or in a conventional furnace under a protective inert gas atmosphere.
Paste boriding is very labour intensive – and the paste itself is expensive.
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Boriding (Boronising) contd.
Liquid Boriding
Two techniques are commonly used, thermochemical and electrolytic. Both techniques
must be used above 850°C to reduce the viscosity of the salts and hence improve
heat and mass transfer. After treatment adherent salt and excess boron has to be
removed from the surface by grinding, which is time consuming and difficult.
Gas Boriding
This is carried out at atmospheric pressure using a 75%N2/25%H2 carrier gas with 0.5%
BCl3. The technique can be used to combine boriding and hardening in one operation.
Plasma boriding is now commercially available in some countries (eg. USA) but is
currently still the subject of scientific research. Diborane has been successfully used
but (less toxic) BCl3–based treatments seem most promising.
Cemented carbides such as WC-Co have also been successfully pack borided.
The treatment produces CoB, Co2B and Co3B in the surface region. Boron also
replaces some carbon in the carbide, producing W2(C,B)5 or W(C,B)2. In this
application the powder contains additional B4C to that used for steel treatments, which
is essential if the inhibiting effects on boron diffusion of a continuous network of
tungsten carbide grains is to be overcome. This type of treatment has been used on
wire drawing dies, where lifetimes have improved eight-fold - and drawing speeds for
high carbon steels have improved by 50%.
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Toyota Diffusion (TD) Process

A smooth and uniform layer of V, Nb or Cr carbide, a few µms thick, is formed
on the surface of a steel by immersion in a fused borax salt bath, containing
the appropriate ferro-alloys. The carbide layer forms by reaction of the metal
species dissolved in the salt bath with the carbon in the steel.
The salt bath temperature can be adjusted to the hardening temperature of the
steel being processed. For a die steel such as H13 the treatment temperature
range can be between 1000 and 1500ºC. After immersion in the salt bath, the
component is oil or air quenched and then tempered. Room-temperature
hardness values of 3500 HV and 2800 HV have been achieved for V- and Nb-
carbide layers, respectively. These values drop to 1400 HV at 600ºC and 800
HV at 800ºC – which are nevertheless useful ‘ hot hardness’ values, for
elevated temperature metal-forming applications (for example).
Because of the very high processing temperature, steps must be taken to
minimise distortion, since subsequent machining of the carbide-coated
substrate is not possible. The process is widely used in Japan, mainly on dies
for sheet metal-forming, forging and casting.
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Chromising
This involves the diffusion of Cr into high carbon steel by heating at 950-1300ºC
in Cr-rich media. The treated surface provides oxidation and wear resistance.
In pack chromising, the component is embedded in a mixture of source metal
(fine powders of ferro-chromium), an activator (ammonium halides) and inert fillers
(alumina or silica) and heated for 12-15 hours in an inert or reducing atmosphere.
In liquid chromising, the component is heated at 900-1000ºC in a molten bath of
CrCl2 or ferrochromium and BaCl or MgCl2 (which act as an activator to enhance
reaction and improve diffusion).
Gas chromising is achieved by heating the steel component in the presence of
vapours of CrCl2 and CrC3 and a reducing gas (H2) at 950-1050ºC.
In high carbon steels the chromised layer consists of complex chromium carbides
such as (Fe,Cr)7C3. A continuous layer forms, due to outward diffusion of carbon
from the core – and Cr inwards. Typical hardnesses are 1200-1300 HV.
Applications include turbine bins and steel components to resist nitric acid attack.
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Aluminising (‘Calorising’)
In this process Al is diffused into low- and medium-carbon steel surfaces to impart
resistance to corrosion and oxidation at high temperatures. In pack aluminising, the
component is heated with fine powders of ferro-aluminium, ammonium chloride
(activator) and inert fillers at 750–1000ºC for 3-6 hours. This is followed by
annealing at 800–980ºC for 12-48 hours which reduces the brittleness of the layer,
and causes further diffusion of the Al (to depths of 0.6-1.0 mm) in low carbon steel.
Liquid aluminising consists of immersing the component in a both of molten Al (with
6-8% Fe added) at 750–800ºC. The Fe is added to prevent the Al from dissolving
excessively the steel substrate; an initial treatment of 1-1.5 hours’ duration produces
a case of 0.2-0.35 mm depth.
The aluminised layer is a solid solution of Al and Fe, giving excellent resistance to
heat and corrosion by sulphurous gases. The usual content of ~25% Al is enough to
ensure adequate resistance to heat and corrosion. Typical applications are turbine
blades, burner pipes, flue stacks and high temperature fasteners.
Sometimes platinum is also introduced (called PLATINUM ALUMINISING) to further
improve high temperature corrosion properties (often used for jet engine applications).
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Siliconising
Silicon is diffused into the surface of steels (or ductile iron) to provide high resistance
to wear, to oxide scaling at high temperatures and to hot corrosion (eg. molten salt,
or sulphide / chloride attack).
Pack siliconising (infrequently used) heats the component in a powder of ferro-silicon
(50-95% Si) activated with ammonium chloride at 1100-1200ºC for 2 to 24 hours.
Typical case depths of 0.2-0.8 mm.
Gas siliconising uses retort furnaces in which the substrate is heated at 950-1050ºC
for 2 to 5 hours in the presence of solid silicon carbide powder and SiCl4 vapour.
Typical case depths of 0.5-1.25 mm.

The case is a solid solution of Si in a-Fe (~14% Si), exhibits high brittleness and
moderate hardness (200-300 HV) and high porosity. There is also significant thermal
distortion. Siliconised steel components are however very effective at reducing wear
under poorly lubricated conditions, and exhibit good corrosion & oxidation resistance.
Typical applications include rollers in bottle washing machines, slurry pump shafts
and associated pipework.
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Sherardising
Zn is diffused into an iron or steel surface by heating the component in fine
zinc powder (95% Zn) at 350-450ºC. Temperature uniformity is important
for consistent alloying all over the surface. Powder size is also important,
with finer powder producing a smoother, less porous surface.

The mechanical properties of the steel are not usually affected. Ideally
suited for treating high tensile steels which are susceptible to hydrogen
embrittlement (ie. not suitable for electroplated Zn), providing sacrificial
corrosion protection in aqueous, humid environments.
Typical applications include domestic electrical appliances (e.g. washing
machines, fridges, microwaves), outdoor telecommunications devices,
automotive components, scaffolding clips and fasteners used in the
construction industry.
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Thermochemical treatment of non-ferrous metals
Copper Alloys
In the ‘DELSUN’ process, a layer of tin is electroplated onto brass, bronze or
aluminium bronze, followed by a diffusion treatment at 400-450ºC to produce a thin
(≈15 µm) scuff resistant layer above a thicker hardened layer. Layer hardness is
usually 450-600 HV; typical applications in include valves, gears, pistons and
reduction gear wheels / synchroniser rings for HGV gearboxes.

Aluminium Alloys
The ‘ZINAL’ process improves the frictional characteristics of aluminium alloys.
An indium alloy containing zinc and copper is electroplated, then a low temperature
diffusion treatment is carried out (120-150ºC). The case consists of two parts, an
In-rich outer layer 15-20 µm thick and an inner Cu-rich zone 3-7 µm thick.
These layers remain sufficiently ductile to deform without cracking and improve
scuffing / fretting resistance – even under poor lubrication. There is no significant
effect on the corrosion resistance. Typical applications include diesel and petrol
engine pistons, connecting rods, water pump bearings and helicopter rotor parts.
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Titanium Alloys (I)
NITRIDING
Usually gas (and more recently plasma) nitriding used to produce a 1-2 µm thick
TiN compound layer and a thicker (25–250 µm) diffusion zone beneath. Typical
treatment temperatures are 650–1050ºC. The (very poor) friction and wear
characteristics of Ti-alloys are markedly improved – and the corrosion resistance
is further enhanced – but fatigue strength can be reduced significantly at higher
treatment temperatures. Typical applications include racing car components (eg.
cam followers, wheel hubs and bolts), lightweight gear applications in aircraft.
CARBURISING
Not widely used for titanium, but gas carburising is relatively common – and a
pack-type system has also been developed. Tends to give good wear resistance
but treatment temperatures need to be high (850ºC+) so distortion on cooling is
a major problem.
OXIDATION
Usually performed in a fused salt bath (although gaseous and plasma processes
are being developed) at 650-800°C for 2-4 hours; the bath contains mixtures of
lithium and potassium carbonates. Wear resistance is significantly improved but
(again) fatigue life can be reduced.
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Titanium Alloys (II)
OTHER SALT BATH TREATMENTS
Cyanide salt baths can be used to produce a diffusion layers which are rich in C, N
and / or O. Oxygen content in particular must be closely controlled to avoid excessive
Ti loss and brittleness. Treatment at 800ºC for 2 hours followed by water quenching
produces a friable outer layer of TiO2 and C (which appears black). This ‘compound
layer’ can be removed by glass bead blasting without impairing the wear properties.
No loss in fatigue resistance is reported, as a result.
BORIDING
Not commercially available, but can be performed in BCI3 / H2 gas mixtures or using
high purity amorphous B in a vacuum environment. Several hours’ treatment at
1000ºC is required to produce a 50 µm thick layer of hardness 2500 HV.
The layer is usually duplex in nature containing both TiB and TiB2.
CHROMO-SILICIDING
Components are packed into a mixture containing 50% Cr / 50% Si in a vacuum
furnace at 850ºC for 8 hours. A tough composite layer of TiCr2 (containing hard
intermetallic compounds such as Ti3Si5, TiSi2 and TiSi) is produced. A surface
hardness of 1000 HV is obtained and wear resistance is significantly improved.