R R
R ( x , y) x 2 y2 1
R ( x , y) x 2 y2 1
R is an open region. R is a closed region.
recall :
( x, y)
x 2 y2 1
is the boundary
Given a real-valued function of n independent variables ( x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
w f ( x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
the symbol w is the dependent variable of f.
The domain of a real-valued function f consists of all possible values
of x and y in which the function f generates real numbers.
The range of the function f thus consists of those valid values of f.
Example 1: Determine the domain and the range of the real-
valued function
f ( x , y)
2
y x
Solution: The domain of the function f is given by all possible
values of x and y such that y x 2
The range of f is given by those valid values of f , that is
f ( x , y ) 0 or 0, it is called the
right - opened interval
Level Curve and Level Surface:
The set of points (x, y) in the plane where a function f (x, y) has a
constant value c such that
f ( x , y) c
it is called a level curve of f.
Now if the function f (x, y) is set as a dependent variable z, instead
of a constant value such that
z f ( x, y)
we call that the surface described by z = f (x, y).
The set of all points (x, y, z = f (x, y)) in space is also called the
graph of f, actually, it is the surface z = f (x, y).
A collection of many level curves (also called contour lines)
f ( x, y) c1 , f ( x, y) c2 , . . . , f ( x, y) cn
will give us a contour map.
Example 2: Show the graph and some selected level curve of the
function f ( x , y) 100 x 2 y2 .
Solution: Just show three level curves (three different c) of f (x, y)
f ( x , y) 0, f ( x , y) 51, and f ( x , y) 75
and the graph (the surface) defined by z f ( x , y) 100 x 2 y2 as
below
for f ( x , y) 51
for f ( x , y ) 0
x 2 y 2 49
x y 100
2 2
z f ( x, y) gives the graph, and f ( x, y) c gives the level curves.
There are more examples of computer-generated level curves and the
graphs of some typical functions of two independent variables
( x y )
(a) z e ( x y ) 8 (sin x 2 cos y2 ) (b) z (4 x y )e
2 2 2 2
2 2
zc zc
(c) z (sin x 2 sin y)
Different c values
just give different
level curves, so we
have the contour
map with many
zc level curves.
The set of points (x, y, z) in space where a function of three
independent variables f (x, y, z) has a constant value c such that
f ( x, y, z ) c
it is called a level surface of f.
For example, given a function of three independent variables:
f ( x, y, z ) x 2 y2 z 2
The level surfaces of f (x, y, z) for
constant value c, say equals 1, 2, and 3 are
concentric spherical surfaces (of
different radius).
f ( x, y, z ) x 2 y 2 z 2 1
x 2 y2 z 2 2
x 2 y2 z 2 3
Limit of a Function of Two Variables:
A function f (x, y) approaches the limit L as (x, y) approaches
(x0, y0), and write lim f ( x , y) L
( x , y )( x0 , y0 )
if given any 0 , there exists 0 such that for all (x, y) in the
domain of f (x, y), where 0
f ( x, y) L whenever 0 ( x x0 )2 ( y y0 )2 .
That means the absolute difference between f (x, y) and L is very
small (less than 0 ) in a small neighborhood around (x0, y0).
Continuous Function of Two Variables:
A function f (x, y) is continuous at the point (x0, y0) if
1. the function f (x, y) is defined at the point (x0, y0),
2. the limit exists ( x , y )lim f ( x, y)
( x , y )
0 0
x 2 xy
(0)( 0 0 ) 0
x y
Two-path Test for Nonexistence of a Limit:
A function f (x, y) has different limits (values) along two different
paths as (x, y) approaches (x0, y0), then the limit
does not exist. lim f ( x , y)
( x , y )( x0 , y0 )
find f f 2
f 2
f 2
f 2
f
, , , , and .
x y x 2
y xy
2
yx
Solution: We have the first partial derivatives
f f
cos y ye ,
x
x sin y e x
x y
2 f f
The second partial derivatives: ye x
,
x 2
x x
2 f 2 f f 2
f
x cos y,
sin y e x
, sin y e x
.
y 2
xy x y yx
We notice that the mixed partial derivatives fxy = fyx.
The Mixed Derivative Theorem: If f (x, y) and its partial derivatives
fx , fy , fxx , fyy , fxy , fyx are defined throughout an open region
containing a point (a, b) and are all continuous at (a, b), then
f xy ( a, b) f yx (a, b).
f f
recall : f x and fy
x y
The Chain Rule:
For functions of single variable, if y = f (x) and x = x (t), then the
function becomes y f ( x ( t ))
and the derivative dy df dx
by the chain rule:
dt dx dt
For functions of two independent variables, if w = f (x, y)
has continuous partial derivatives fx and fy , if x = x (t), y = y (t) are
differentiable functions of t, then we could write w as a function of
t such that w f ( x ( t ), y( t )) ( x and y are called
by the chain rule, intermediate variables,
dw f dx f dy and t is called
dt x dt y dt independent variable )
Similarly, for functions of three independent variables w = f (x, y, z),
if x, y , z are differentiable functions of t, then we have
( x, y , z are the dw f dx f dy f dz
intermediate variables ) dt x dt y dt z dt
Example 9: Given w f ( x , y, z ) xy z , find dw if
x cos t , y sin t , z t . dt
Solution: Just directly apply the chain rule to the given function
dw f dx f dy f dz
dt x dt y dt z dt
Substitute for the ( y )( sin t ) ( x )(cos t ) (1)(1)
intermediate variables so
as to have the answer (sin t )( sin t ) (cos t )(cos t ) (1)(1)
just in terms of the
sin 2 t cos2 t 1
independent variable t.
dw
1 cos 2t .
recall :
dt
1 cos 2 1 cos 2
cos
2
, sin
2
2 2
Now we try to deal with functions of two intermediate variables and
two independent variables, if w = f (x, y) has continuous partial
derivatives, and x = x (u, v), y = y (u, v) are differentiable
functions, then the function w becomes a function of u and v
w f ( x ( u, v ), y( u, v ))
by the chain rule, we can easily work out the partial derivatives
with respect to the two independent variables u and v respectively
w f x f y
u x u y u
and
w f x f y
v x v y v
Find w and w .
r s
Solution: Directly apply the chain rule to the function w
w w x w y w z 1 1
( 2)2r 2 z ( 2) 12r
r x r y r z r s s
w f x f y f z r 1 2 r
(1) 2 ( 2) 2 z ( 0) 2
s x s y s z s s s s s
Substitute for all the Notice: we can work out the
intermediate variables same answer of the partial
so that we obtain the derivatives by direct substitution:
answer in terms of the
independent variables. w x 2 y z2
r
s
2 r 2 ln s 2r
2
there is an implicit function x 3 xy2 yz 2 z 3 5 in example 7
f ( x x0 h) f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )
h h
2
f ( x0 )
h
3
f ( x0 )
1! 2! 3!
For example, if f ( x ) e x , where x x0 h, if x0 0, h 1
f ( x ) e f ( 0)
x 1
f ( 0 )
1
2
f
( 0 )
1
3
f ( 0) 2.66667
1! 2! 3!
compare to the exact value of e 2.71828. . ., the error is about 1.8%
x
h
recall : f ( x ) f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )
h f ( x ) . . . h f ( n1) ( x ) R ( h)
2 n1
n
( n 1)!
0 0
1! 2!
Similarly, for functions of two or more variables with continuous
partial derivatives of all orders, it can be expanded in Taylor’s series.
Consider a function of two independent variables f (x, y), where
x x0 h and y y0 k , the Taylor’s series of f (x, y) about (x0, y0)
f ( x0 h, y0 k ) where
f ( x0 , y0 ) h f ( x0 , y0 ) k f ( x0 , y0 ) f ( x , y ) f ( x, y)
x x
0 0
x y (x ,y )
0 0
1 2 2 2 2
2
h f ( x0 , y0 ) 2hk f ( x0 , y0 ) k f ( x0 , y0 ) . . . Rn ( h, k )
2! x 2
xy y 2
where Rn(h, k) is called the remainder term and Rn ( h, k ) 0 as n
It can be written in terms of the orders of partial derivative operators
1 2 2 2 2
2
f ( x0 , y0 ) h k f ( x0 , y0 ) h 2hk k f ( x0 , y0 ) . . .
2
x y 2! x xy y
2
p
n1
1
Hence, in general, f ( x0 h, y0 k ) p 0
h k f ( x0 , y0 ) Rn ( h, k )
p! x y
p
n1
1
recall : f ( x0 h, y0 k ) h k f ( x0 , y0 ) Rn ( h, k )
p 0 p! x y
Similar to the case of single variable function, from the expansion,
we can approximately evaluate the value of f (x, y) up to some orders.
For the zero-order approximation, p = 0, (or called the constant
approximation) f ( x, y) f ( x0 , y0 ) where x x0 h, y y0 k
For the 1st order approximation, p = 1, (or called the tangent plane
approximation)
f ( x, y) f ( x0 , y0 ) h f ( x0 , y0 ) k f ( x0 , y0 )
x y
this approximation just considers the linear terms, so it is also called
the linearization, and we define the standard linear approximation of
f (x, y) at (x0, y0) as
f ( x, y) L( x, y)
and
L( x, y) f ( x0 , y0 ) ( x x0 ) f x ( x0 , y0 ) ( y y0 ) f y ( x0 , y0 ) .
recall f ( x0 , y0 ) f ( x , y) where h x x0 , k y y0
x x (x ,y )
0 0
p
n1
1
recall : f ( x0 h, y0 k ) h k f ( x0 , y0 ) Rn ( h, k )
p 0 p! x y
For the 2nd order approximation, p = 2, (called the quadratic surface
approximation) where h x x0 , k y y0
f ( x , y ) f ( x0 , y0 ) h f ( x0 , y0 ) k f ( x0 , y0 ) h2
x 2
k 2
y 2
x y ~ , ~
1 2 2 2 2
2
h f ( x0 , y0 ) 2hk f ( x0 , y0 ) k f ( x0 , y0 )
2! x 2
xy y 2
It is quite straight-forward to generalize the expansion for the function
of three variables f (x, y, z) where x x0 h, y y0 k , z z0 l with
continuous partial derivatives of all orders in terms of the partial
derivative operators p Rn 0 as n
1
n1
f ( x0 h, y0 k , z0 l ) h k l f ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) Rn ( h, k , l )
p 0 p! x y z
Then the standard linear approximation (the 1st order approximation,
that is the summation up to p = 1) of f (x, y, z) at (x0, y0, z0) is given by
L( x , y, z ) f ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) ( x x0 ) f x ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) ( y y0 ) f y ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
( z z0 ) fz ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
recall : f ( x0 , y0 ) f ( x, y)
x x ( x0 , y0 )
Example 14: Find the 1st and 2nd order approximations given by the
Taylor’s theorem at the point (1, 0) for the function f ( x, y) x 2 y 2
Hence estimate f (0.9, 0.1).
Solution: Let’s work out all the relevant partial derivatives
f x f y 2 f y2 2 f x2
, , , ,
x x y y x y x x 2 y2 y x 2 y2
2 2 2 2 2 3 2 3
2 f 2 f xy
xy yx x 2
y2
3
which exists everywhere except at the origin (0, 0). The 1st order
approximation (the tangent plane approximation) at the point (1, 0) is
f ( x , y ) f ( x0 , y0 ) h f ( x0 , y0 ) k f ( x0 , y0 )
x y
f (1,0) ( x 1)
x
f (1,0) ( y 0)
y
f (1,0) x
where h x 1, k y 0
1st order approximation : f ( x, y) f (1,0) ( x 1) f (1,0) ( y 0) f (1,0) x
x y
Example 14: Find the 1st and 2nd order approximations given by the
Taylor’s theorem at the point (1, 0) for the function f ( x, y) x 2 y 2
Hence estimate f (0.9, 0.1).
Solution: (continued)
The 2nd order approximation (the quadratic surface approximation) at
the point (1, 0) is recall h x 1, k y 0
f ( x , y ) f (1,0) ( x 1) f (1,0) ( y 0) f (1,0)
x y
1 2
2
2 2
2
( x 1) f (1,0 ) 2 ( x 1)( y 0 ) f (1, 0 ) ( y 0 ) f (1,0 )
2! x 2
xy y 2
1 2
x y
2
Hence using the 1st order approximation f (0.9, 0.1) x 0.9
y 2
( 0.1 ) 2
and the 2nd order approximation f (0.9, 0.1) x 0.9 0.905
2 2
The exact value (to 4 sig. fig.) gives f (0.9, 0.1) (0.9)2 (0.1)2 0.9055
Example 15: Find the standard linear approximation of
f ( x , y, z ) x 2 xy 3 sin z
at point (x0, y0, z0) = (2, 1, 0).
Solution: The standard linear approximation L is given by
L( x , y, z ) f ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) ( x x0 ) f x ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) ( y y0 ) f y ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
( z z0 ) fz ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
Let’s work out all the terms for the L
f ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) 2 2 3(0) 2,
2
f ( x, y, z ) 2( 2) (1) 3
x ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
f ( x, y, z ) ( 2) 2 and f ( x, y, z ) 3(1) 3
y ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
z ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
L 3 x 2 y 3z 2.
where x a h, y b k for small h and k
At the origin (0, 0), the stationary point, obviously, is a saddle point.
After getting the stationary points, we want to classify their natures,
whether it is a local minimum, local maximum, or a saddle point.
For a given stationary point (a, b), it is not easy to inspect the sign
(positive or negative) of f ( x , y) f ( a, b) where x a h, y b k
for small h and k.
Now we can use Taylor’s theorem to derive a criterion which may
help us to determine the natures of the stationary points.
At the stationary point (a, b), Taylor’s theorem gives
f ( a h, b k ) we also notice that
f ( a, b ) f ( a, b ) f ( a, b) f ( a, b)
f ( a, b ) h k 0
x y x y
1 2 2 f ( a, b ) 2 f ( a, b ) 2
f ( a, b )
h 2 hk k 2
R3 ( h, k )
2 x 2
x y y 2
For h and k sufficiently small, we may assume R3(h, k) is negligible in
comparison with the other terms.
Hence, from Taylor’s theorem, we have
f ( a h, b k ) f ( a, b )
1 2 2 f ( a, b ) 2 f ( a, b ) 2 f ( a, b )
2
h 2hk k
2 x 2
x y y 2
Now we let q be the term
2 2 f ( a, b ) 2 f ( a, b ) 2 f ( a, b )
2
q h 2hk k
x 2
x y y 2
h2 f xx 2hkf xy k 2 f yy ( a, b )
2 hkf kf
2
kf
2
f xx h
2 xy
xy
k f yy f xx
2 xy
f xx f xx
f xx
( a, b )
finally, we have
2
q f xx h
kf xy
f xx
k2
f xx
f xx f yy f xy
2
( a , b )
2
q f xx h
kf xy
f xx
k2
f xx
f xx f yy f xy
2
( a , b )
Now it is easy to show that the sign (positive or negative) of q
q > 0 ( f xx f yy f 2 xy ) 0 and f xx ( a , b ) 0
( a, b )
q < 0 ( f xx f yy f 2 xy ) 0 and f xx 0
( a, b ) ( a, b )
( no matter f xx ( a , b ) is
q is sign indefinite ( f xx f yy f 2
xy ) 0
( a, b ) positive or negative)
the function ( f xx f yy f 2 xy ) is called the discriminant function of f .
Since q
f ( a h, b k ) f ( a, b )
2
we can make use of the q to identify the type of the extreme values
(local minimum, local maximum, or saddle point) at (a, b) such that
1. If ( f xx f yy f 2 xy ) 0 , then
( a, b )
2
q f xx h
kf xy
f xx
k2
f xx
f xx f yy f xy
2
( a , b )
Example 16: Given f ( x , y ) x y 3 x 12 y 20, determine the
3 3
P0 ( x0 , y0 ) f ( x0 , y0 ) cosα
where is the angle between f and û.
P0
That is exactly the concept of vector projection: projecting the scalar
component of the vector f P to the direction of the given vector.
0
Therefore, at the point P0, the following questions will arise:
1. Along which direction we have the maximum rate of change of f ?
Clearly, the angle = 0 gives the maximum value of the
directional derivative, it is equal to f ( x0 , y0 )
that means the unit vector (the direction of the given vector) must
be along the direction of the gradient of f at the point P0, in short,
they should be in the same direction (in parallel) so as to give a
maximum projection.
f P0
uˆ f ( x0 , y0 ) cos α
0 0
1
2
f ( x0 , y0 ) ( su1 ) f x ( su2 ) f y ( x , y ) ( su1 ) 2 f xx ( su2 ) 2 f yy . . . ( x , y ) . . .
0 0
as we will take the limit ( s0 ) to the derivative, we can neglect the
2nd and all the higher order terms, now the derivative becomes
df f ( x0 , y0 ) ( su1 ) f x ( su2 ) f y ( x , y ) . . . f ( x0 , y0 )
lim 0 0
ds u , ( x0 , y0 )
s 0 s
recall : f P0
f x iˆ f y ˆj and u u1i u2 j
P0
ds u , ( x0 , y0 )
s 0 s
Obviously, this result is the dot product of the gradient of f at P0 and
the unit vector u ( u u1i u2 j )
f P0
u
It just recovered the formulation for the directional derivative of f at
P0 along the direction of the given vector (unit vector) we obtained
previously
( Duˆ f ) P0 f P uˆ where uˆ u
0
P0 0 0 0
x 2 x y
R
dy 2 16 y dy 2 y 8 y
1 x 2 1 1
3 2
4
1 x 0 1 1
2
y 3x y
0
2 2
y 1
y 1
2
dx 2dx 4
0
recall a rectangular region : a x b, c y d .
( x sin y)dydx
x 0 y 0
dy
Solution: yx
x y x
sin x x 2
1
0 dx
0 x2 2
x 1
1sin x cos x
dx
0 2 2 x 0
1 cos(1)
2 2
Basic properties of double integrals:
If f (x, y) and g(x, y) are continuous throughout the region R, then
where
R = R1 + R2
the region R is the union of two non-overlapping regions R1 and R2
h1 ( y) x h2 ( y ), c y d
f g ( u, v ), h( u, v ) J ( u, v ) dudv
G
where J(u, v) is called the Jacobian of the
coordinate transformation x = g(u, v), y = h(u, v).
I f ( x , y )dxdy f g ( u, v ), h( u, v ) J ( u, v ) dudv
R G
2 x y
u
2
y
v
2
I f ( x , y )dxdy f g ( u, v ), h( u, v ) J ( u, v ) dudv
R G
y
2x y y 4 x 1
Example 23: Evaluate I f ( x , y )dxdy dxdy y
2
R 2 y 0 x
2
by applying the coordinate transformation x u v , y 2v .
Solution:(continued) Work out the Jacobian of the transformation
x x
u v 1 1
J ( u, v ) 2
y y 0 2
u v recall :
The integral in the region G is given by 2x y y
u , and v
x x 2 2
x x
cos r sin
where J r r
y y sin r cos
r
Example 24: Change the following Cartesian integral into an
equivalent polar integral, then evaluate the polar integral.
0 y 1 x 2
( x 2 y 2 )
e dydx
1 y 0
x 1 y 0 z 1
D
This triple integral simply gives the total mass M of the block:
z 0
x 2 y 3 z
2
M x ( y 1) z dzdydx x ( y 1) z dydx
x 2 y 3 z 0
x 1 y 0 z 1 x 1 y 0
2 z 1
y 3
1 x 2 xy y
2
x 2 y 3
x 1 y0 x ( y 1)
2
dydx x 1
2
xy dx
2 y 0
x 2
15 x 2
3x 51
4 2 x 1 4
For non-rectangular region D, suppose the region is bounded below
by the surface z = f1(x, y), and above by another surface z = f2(x, y),
now we project the region D (the volume bounded by these two
surfaces) onto the xy-plane, the projection in the xy-plane is described
by a x b, g ( x ) y g ( x ) or h ( y ) x h ( y ), c y d ,
1 2 1 2
The triple integral of f (x, y, z) over the region D bounded by these two
surfaces ( z = f1(x, y) and z = f2(x, y) ) is given by
x b y g2 ( x ) z f2 ( x , y )
f ( x, y, z )dV
D
x a y g1 ( x )
z f1 ( x , y )
f ( x , y, z )dzdydx
or yd x h2 ( y ) z f2 ( x , y )
f ( x , y, z )dzdxdy
yc x h1 ( y ) z f1 ( x , y )
Similarly, we can project the volume V (the solid region D) onto the
xz-plane and the yz-plane as well, wherever is more convenient.
For the projection onto the xz-plane, the order of integration will be
either dydxdz or dydzdx; for the projection onto the yz-plane, the order
of integration can be either dxdydz or dxdzdy.
where f ( x , y, z ) 1 in this case
Example 26: Find the volume of the non-rectangular region D,
enclosed above by the surface z 8 x 2 y2 , and below by the
surface z x 3y .
2 2
Solution: We project the region D (the volume) onto the xy-plane, and
evaluate the triple integral over the region D in this order of integration
x b y g2 ( x ) z f2 ( x , y )
f ( x, y, z )dV
D
x a y g1 ( x )
z f1 ( x , y )
f ( x , y, z )dzdydx
Now we define all the lower and upper bounds (limits) for the integral,
for z, the lower limit: z x 2 3y 2 , the upper limit: z 8 x 2 y 2
for y, which is the surface projected onto the xy-plane (z = 0), we can
solve for the function g1(x), g2(x) (the lower and upper bounds of the
projected surface in the xy-plane) by setting
4 x 2
z 8 x 2 y2 x 2 3 y2 0 x 2 2 y2 4 y
2
4 x2 4 x2
so we have the lower limit: y , the upper limit: y
2 2
Solution: (continued) For x, just refer to the projected surface in the
xy-plane, x 2 2 y 2 4 , we can solve the lower and upper bound for x
by setting (y = 0): the lower limit: x = – 2, and the upper limit: x = 2
Now we can sketch D the region
of integration with all the lower
and the upper bounds (limits)
well defined as the sketch shown:
the non-rectangular
x b y g2 ( x ) z f2 ( x , y ) region D
x a y g1 ( x )
z f1 ( x , y )
f ( x , y, z )dzdydx
cos 2 1
recall the identity cos2 recall f ( x , y, z ) 1 in this case
2
Solution: (continued) Now we just evaluate the triple integral directly
4 x 2 4 x 2
1dzdydx
x 2 y z 8 x y
2 2
x 2 y z 8 x 2 y 2
I 2
4 x 2 2
4 x 2
z z x 2 3 y2 dydx
x 2 z x 2 3 y2 x 2
y y
2 2
4 x 2
I
x 2 y
x 2 2
4 x 2
8 2 x 2
4 y 2 dydx
y
2 4 x 2
y
x 2 4 y 3
2
8 y 2 yx 2
dx dx
x 2
3 y 4 x 2
let x 2 sin , 2 cos
2 d
3
4 2 x 2
x dx
2 2
4
3 x 2 x 2 ,
2
4 2 2
3
8 cos 3
2 cos d
x 2
2
2
64 2 2
3
cos 4
d
8 2
3
2
cos 4 4 cos 2 3d
2 2
θ π 2
cos 4 1 8 2 sin 4
hint : cos 2
2
2 sin 2 3 8 2
2 3 4 θ π 2
where f u, v, w f x ( u, v, w), y( u, v, w), z ( u, v, w)
f ( r , , z ) J ( r , , z ) dzdrd
where the Jacobian J(r, θ, z) of the coordinate transformation is given
by x x x
r z cos r sin 0
( x , y, z ) y y y
J ( r, , z ) sin r cos 0 r
(r, , z ) r z
z z z 0 0 1
r z
Finally, we have the triple integral in cylindrical coordinates (r, θ , z)
f ( r , , z ) r dzdrd
recall f ( x , y, z ) 1
where x 2 y 2 r 2 z 4 x 2 y 2 4 r 2
the given surface x 2 y 2 r 2 1 the max r 1 the plane z 0
when r 0 z 4 r 2 2; r 1 z 3
recall f ( x , y, z ) 1
2
0
r 0
r 1
4 r rdrd
2
let u 4 r 2 ,
du
dr
2r
1 2 r 1
2 0 r 0
u dud or du 2rdr
r 1
1 2 3
u2 d
3 0 r 0
r 1
2 3 2 3
2 3 3 3
1
4r 2 2
d 4 2 3 2 2 3 2
3 0 r 0
3 3
Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates:
The spherical coordinate system is a 3D coordinate system with the
variables (ρ, ϕ, θ). A point P described by the spherical coordinates
in space is given by P(ρ, ϕ, θ) shown below, in which
• ρ is the distance from the origin to the point P ( 0 )
• ϕ is the angle OP makes with the positive z-axis ( 0 )
• θ is the angle from cylindrical coordinates ( 0 θ 2 ).
Hence we have the relation
between the spherical
coordinates ρ, ϕ, θ and x, y,
z given by the following
equations:
x sin cos ,
y sin sin , and
z cos
With the range of spherical coordinates ( 0, 0 , 0 θ 2 )
we also notice some facts/ a few special cases:
• ρ equals constant, we have a sphere with a constant radius (ρ),
• ϕ equals constant, we have a right circular cone (up side down),
• θ equals constant, we get a plane. For example, if θ equals zero,
it is the x-z plane.
we notice that x 2 y 2 z 2 r 2 z 2
The transformation between spherical coordinates (ρ, ϕ, θ) and the
Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) is given by
x sin cos , y sin sin , and z cos
with
0, 0 , 0 θ 2
The Jacobian J(ρ, ϕ, θ) of the coordinate transformation is given by
x x x
sin cos cos cos sin sin
( x , y, z ) y y y
sin sin cos sin sin cos
( , , )
z z z cos sin 0
2 sin
Now just rewrite the triple integral in spherical coordinates (ρ, ϕ, θ)
f ( , , ) J ( , , ) d d d
where the Jacobian J(ρ, ϕ, θ) of the coordinate transformation equals
J ( , , ) 2 sin
Finally, we have the triple integral in spherical coordinates (ρ, ϕ, θ)
f ( , , ) 2 sin d d d
In summary,
F x y z dx dy
dz f sin d d d
2
( , , ) ( , , )
D dV in D* dV in
rectangular spherical
in this case we have f ( , , ) 1
Example 28: Find the volume of the “ice cream cone” D cut form
the solid sphere 1 by the cone .
3
Solution: Refer to the given boundary, the solid region is spherically
symmetric, we just evaluate the triple integral in spherical coordinates,
and we have the region of integration shown below and the
triple integral (the volume) is given by
f sin d d d
2
( , , )
where 1, 0 , and 0 θ 2
Now 3
V (1) 2 sin d d d
2 1
3
2 sin d d d
0 0 0
1 2
cos 0 d .
3
3 0 3