Earth and Space, Science - Grade 10

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the possible causes of plate movements.

Plate continuously move on Earth's surface. What causes the movement of plates?

Learn about it!

Convection current is a circular movement of magma produced due to uneven heating.
This is due to the temperature difference of the magma near Earth's core and the magma closer to crust. Once
heated, magma rises and then cools and sinks. The rising and sinking of magma creates a circular movement
(convection current) that moves the plates above.

Slab-pull is a mechanism that returns slab of new crust back into hot region of mantle.
When new oceanic crusts are formed due to seafloor spreading, they move away from oceanic ridge, cool, and
become denser. The weight of the newly formed crust pulls the neighbor plates downwards, closer to mantle.

Slab-push is sliding of plates due to gravity. This happens when the rising magma heats the rocks in lithosphere
and causes rock expansion. After some time, heated rocks in lithosphere cools and becomes denser. Its density
(weight) causes the surrounding rocks to slide through the elevated position of oceanic ridge. As rocks fall, molten
rocks or magma rises and becomes new rocks in lithosphere.

Hot plume is an upward flow of hot material due to difference in density (less dense materials tend to move
upward). The hot material moves upward and pushes the plates apart (plate movement) by adding materials at the
edge of the plates.
Hot plume may lead to the formation of volcanic vent. Hot plume is the source of hot materials released by a
volcano. When volcanoes move along with the plates, hot plume stays on its place. When this happens, a volcano
becomes inactive because there will be no source of hot materials.

What do you think?

What will be the effect if there is equal temperature from the surface of Earth downwards?

Key Points
 Convection current is a circular movement of magma produced due to uneven heating.
 Slab-pull is a mechanism that returns slab of new crust back into hot region of mantle.
 Slab-push is sliding of plates due to gravity. This happens when the rising magma heats the rocks in
lithosphere and causes rock expansion.
 Hot plume is an upward flow of hot material due to difference in density (less dense materials tend to move
upward).

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to enumerate the lines of evidence that supports plate movement.

 In 1912, the German scientist Alfred Wegener proposed a radical theory for the time.
 Wegener hypothesized that all of Earth’s landmasses had once been connected, but had been drifting apart
ever since.
 He proposed the continental drift theory.
What are the lines of evidence that support plate movement?

Learn about it!

Evidence of Plate Movement
Fossil and Puzzle Evidence

From the given figure above, you can draw out the following observations:

 South America tucks nicely into Africa, as do Antarctica, India and Madagascar
 It also shows how the fossil record supports the theory of continental drift. Cynognathus was a land reptile
so it could not have swam across an ocean, and yet its fossil remains are found on both sides on the
Atlantic.
 Fossil remains of the fern Glossopteris can be found in Antarctica even though its present day climate is too
cold for plant life. This indicates that Antarctica was much closer to the equator at some point in its
geological past.

Glacial Evidence

 Besides fossil evidence, there is a large body of rock and glacial evidence which also supports the theory of
continental drift. Distant landmasses contain rocks of similar age and composition.
 Throughout the southern hemisphere are similar glacial till deposits, even though the climates of these
regions are too warm for glaciers and the pattern of deposits is erratic.

Example
The Appalachian mountain range stretches northwards from the United States into Canada, only to abruptly stop at
the island of Newfoundland. However, mountains of the same age and composition appear and disappear in
Greenland, Ireland, and Great Britain. When these landmasses are put together, a single, continuous range forms.

Try it!
Research for other examples that highlight the evidence of plate movement.

What do you think?

Do you think the Philippines is a part of another country or continent?

Key Points
 Alfred Wegener proposed the continental drift theory.
 Evidence of plate movement can be found using traces of fossils and glacial evidence.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the distribution of active volcanoes, epicenters, and
mountain belts in the Philippines.
What are the locations of the active volcanoes, epicenters, and mountain belts in the Philippines?

Learn about it!

Distribution of Active Volcanoes

Refer to the image above. The image shows the volcanoes in the Philippines. A volcano is considered active if it has
shown frequent activities within the last 10 000 years. The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
(PHILVOLCS) listed 23 active volcanoes in the country (see table below).
Learn about it!
Epicenters
Epicenters are points on Earth's surface located directly above the focus of an earthquake.

Every year, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHILVOLCS) plots the epicenters of
earthquakes. Refer to the figures below.
Notice from the figures that more earthquakes took place in 2013 compared to 2014.

Learn about it!

Mountain Belts in the Philippines
Mountain belts, also known as mountain ranges, is a group of geographically related mountains.

What do you think?

Are the positions of the epicenters of earthquakes related to the plate movements?

Key Points
 Active volcanoes are volcanoes that have at least one recorded eruption in the last 10 000 years.
 Epicenters are the points on Earth's surface directly above the focus of the earthquake.
 Mountain belts are a group of geographically related mountains.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the different types of plate boundaries.

What are the different types of plate boundaries?

Learn about it!

There are three main types of Tectonic Plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform-fault boundaries.

Divergent boundaries
Divergent boundaries occur where plates move apart. When this happens, magma is pushed up from the mantle,
creating new crust. On land, a divergent boundary will create a rift which will split apart into separate land masses
over time.

Shield volcanoes (with very fluid Mafic lava) are found at divergent boundaries and hot spots.

Lava flows are more common at this type of boundary than explosive eruptions. In 2010, Iceland's tongue-twister
volcano, Eyjafjallajökull, erupted with ash, affecting millions of travelers around the world. It was the largest air-traffic
disruption
since World War II.

Example
Iceland is slowly splitting apart along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is a divergent boundary between the Eurasian
Plate and North American Plate. The North American Plate is moving west, and the Eurasian Plate east. Eventually
Iceland will split into two.

When the ridges spread apart the mantle material is decompressed. This decompression causes the mantle
material to partially melt, creating basalts and Mafic (basaltic) magma. Rock melts this way at all mid-ocean ridges,
but is only exposed on Iceland.

Learn about it!

Convergent boundaries

Convergent boundaries destroy crust. This destruction occurs as plates collide and one is forced to dive under
another. Different kinds of lithosphere result in different collisions. In other words, the type of convergence depends
on whether two ocean plates, an oceanic and continental plate, or two continental plates are converging. When the
crust is destroyed, sometimes one plate sinks below another, and this is called a Subduction Zone.

Oceanic-continental convergence creates trenches along the ocean floor. As magma rises at the subduction
zone, volcanic island arcs are formed, like the Marianas.

The subducting plates carry water into the overlaying mantle which lowers the melting point of the mantle material.
This partial melting of the mantle produces basalt, and the basaltic magma then rises to the base of the continental
crust, causing it to melt. When it melts, magmas with felsic compositions are produced, which in turn mix with Mafic
(basaltic) magmas, resulting in intermediate (andesitic) magmas. The majority of the Earth's active volcanoes are
the result of oceanic-continental convergence at subduction zones.

Stratovolcanoes (steep, with periodic explosive and damaging eruptions) are commonly found at subduction
zones.

Intermediate (andesitic) magmas are more common at subduction zones. Intermediate (andesitic) magmas make
volcano eruptions rather explosive, typically with layered flows that are very hot and flow the fastest.

Example
The Peru-Chile trench exists because the oceanic Nazca Plate is being subducted under the continental South
American Plate. When two continental plates converge volcanic mountain chains are created. The Andes mountains
were created from the South American Plate being lifted this way. The majority of the world's mountain ranges exist
along convergent boundaries.
What do you think?
Convergent plate boundaries are associated with strato volcanoes while divergent plate boundaries are associated
with shield volcanoes.

Why are transform-fault boundaries not associated with volcanoes?

Key Points
 Divergent boundaries occur where plates move apart. When this happens, magma is pushed up from the
mantle, creating new crust.
 Convergent boundaries destroy crust. This destruction occurs as plates collide and one is forced to dive
under another.
 Transform-fault boundaries, or faults, are places where the tectonic plates move side to side. They are
most commonly found on the ocean floor, and are responsible for shallow earthquakes.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the internal structure of Earth.

What's inside Earth? What is it made of?

Learn about it!

Earth is the third planet from the sun. It is the only planet where life is known to exist.

What's Inside Earth?

Earth is not just a huge ball of rock. It has different layers. Here are the different layers of Earth:
Crust is the outermost layer of Earth. It is the thinnest layer of Earth containing 47% oxygen, 28% silica, 8%
aluminum, and 17% different metals.

Mohorovicic discontinuity is the boundary between crust and mantle. It includes lithosphere (rocky part)
and asthenosphere(semi-solid part).

Mantle is the second layer of Earth. It is also called mesosphere. It is the thickest layer that makes up 58% of
Earth's mass.

Gutenberg discontinuity is the boundary between mantle and outer core.

Outer core is the third layer of Earth. It is composed of molten iron and nickel.

Jeffreys discontinuity is the boundary between outer core and inner core.

Inner core is the innermost layer of Earth. It is made of solid iron and nickel. Its rigidity is caused by high pressure
exerted by outer layers of Earth.

Try it!
Which of the following is the outermost layer of Earth?

 crust
 mantle
 inner core
 outer core
What do you think?
What do you think will happen to Earth if the outer core is solid?

Key Points
 Earth is the third planet from the sun. It is the only planet where life is known to exist.
 Crust is the outermost layer of Earth.
 Mohorovicic discontinuity is the boundary between crust and mantle.
 Mantle is the second layer of Earth.
 Gutenberg discontinuity is the boundary between mantle and outer core.
 Outer core is the third layer of Earth.
 Jeffreys discontinuity is the boundary between outer core and inner core.
 Inner core is the innermost layer of Earth.

_____44. In 1912, Alfred Wegener proposed a theory that the earth is once a single landmass. What
Is the name of the Mesozoic supercontinent that consisted of all of the present continent?
A. Eurasia B. Laurasia C. Pangaea D. Gondwanaland

_____32. Why does the oceanic crust sink beneath the continental crust at the Subduction zone?
A. The oceanic crust has a greater density.
B. The oceanic crust is pushed from the ridge.
C. The continental crust has a denser composition
D. The oceanic crust is pulled downward by Earth’s magnetic field.
_____43 Alfred Wegener is a German scientist who hypothesized that the earth was once made up of a
Single large landmass called Pangaea. Which of the following theories did Wegener propose?
A. Plate Tectonics B. Continental Drift Theory
A. Continental Shift Theory D. Seafloor Spreading Theory
_____45.Who were the two scientists who proposed the theory of seafloor spreading in the early 1960s?
B. A. Charles Darwin & James Hutton B. Harry Hess & Robert Dietz
C. John Butler & Arthur Smite D. F. Vine and D. Mathews