Shinichiro Tanaka
PADECO Co. Ltd, Tokyo, Japan
Table II
Component 2: List of possible education areas where corruption may occur
2.1.3 2.1.4
2.1.2 Sc hool C orruption in
E duc ation are a Key issu es P rocurem ent adm in istratio n c lassroom
1 E stablishm ent o f schoo l App ro va l o f scho ol establishm en t (stan dards) H
E m plo ym ent of te ache rs an d adm in istrative sta ff
2 E duc ationa l activities C urriculum develo pm en t H H
Textbooks
Library
U niform
3 Stud ents Ex am inatio ns for entran ce, p rom otion, and grad uation of stude nts H
R epo rt card
C om m en dation and disc iplinary a ction s
4 H ealth, safety, and H ealth c heck H
m e als H ealth e quipm ent and m e dicines
Safety equ ip m ent
M eals
5 Sc holarship, gu idan ce Loan /grant am oun t H
co unselling Interest rates
C aree r advice
R eferenc e letters
6 Te ache rs an d sta ff Task alloca tion H
P ersonn el m atters
R ecru itm en t
R etire m ent
C om m en da tion and disciplinary a ction for studen ts/ sta ff
In-se rvice training program
P erfo rm anc e evaluatio n
Salary
C ertifica tion and licens e of teac hers
7 B uilding, fa cilities, P rocu rem ent stand ard H
an d equip m ent P rocu rem ent proc edure
Sub sidie s for procu re m ent from uppe r/ other orga nisatio n
U tilisation of fac ilities and equ ipm ent
R ep air and m ain tenan ce
8 Financial Fin ancia l adm inistration H
ad m inis tration C ost-sharing sch em es
Tax re m edy
9 C la ssroom E xplo itation o f studen ts H
m a nagem ent Sex ual ab use
[ 162 ]
Shinichiro Tanaka Earnings Then, the best expectation is that they will
Corruption in education sector If low-paid or unpaid salaries are a major change their behavior. Notwithstanding this,
development: a suggestion for any prevention scheme should at least contain
anticipatory strategy factor in teacher/officer corruption, several
financial measures with anti-corruption measures to: prevent a corrupt player being
The International Journal of
Educational Management conditions can be introduced, such as raising involved; and secure the quality of goods,
15/4 [2001] 158±166 salaries or short-term micro financing. services, personnel resources, etc., which have
implications for student protection. In the case
Students’ protection
of procurement, the introduction of a
The promotion of anti-corruption behavior
competitive bidding system is worth
toward students may be worth considering.
consideration.
In such cases, careful attention should be
paid to the targets of such campaigns. Costs and resources
Alternatively, a consulting/counseling The feasibility of the project with regard to
channel for students may be prepared. finance and staff resources should be closely
examined. As Klitgaard (1998) discusses,
Monitoring
corruption prevention schemes may not be
For monitoring purposes, setting up a
supported, if their costs and losses outweigh
suggestion box or an anti-corruption
the benefits of reduced corruption.
committee is worth considering. An
Table IV summarises key issues in Step 5
advantage of these measures is the low cost
with possible measures for consideration.
for implementation but attention should be
paid to possible biases within the system. The
community can also be involved in the
decision-making process of school A hypothetical example
administration for teachers’ promotion, In this section a hypothetical example of a
salary, and so on. In such a case, the primary school strengthening program
community would work as a monitoring financed by an NGO is described[7].
device to improve accountability of school An NGO has decided to provide financial
administration[6]. support for primary schools in a slum area of
Outsider issues the capital city of a developing country with a
``Corrupted’’ outsiders (such as goods/service strong religious adherence. The residents of
providers, upper/other organisations) tend to the area, most of them from up-countries, are
be the most difficult to deal with. In most considered to be very poor. The project covers
education projects, outsiders are classed as an pairs of public primary schoolswith, typically,
external factor, and possible measures may be around ten teachers and 200 students each. The
limited to simply seeking their co-operation. NGO will provide a grant to:
. up-date textbooks;
Table III
. introduce school meals;
Component 3: dimensions analysis
. procure other educational equipment.
D im ension M ajo r issu es to b e e xam in ed Also some teacher re-training costs will be
financed by the NGO. A programme office
D im ension 1 Sc ale : gra nd or petty
has been set up in the district office, and one
Sca le C oin cid ence s w ith m otivations : brib e/survival
NGO program co-ordinator is assigned to
Straigh tforw a rd b ans on corruption m ay no t w ork, or exac erba te
work with teachers/officers (counterparts)
the situ atio n
and local NGO staff.
D im ension 2 P hysical spa ce w he re corrup tion m ay be arran ged, e.g. offic es,
Loca tion c lassroom s
Define norms on corruption
Te ache rs/ officers’ corruptible m onop olistic pow ers
The country is considered highly corrupted
C oincid ence b etw een above tw o item s
according to the recent corruption ranking
Te ache rs’ m ono polistic pow ers sp ecific ally reg arding studen ts
by an international organisation. Also, the
D im ension 3 D em a nd drive n?
country is one of the main hubs in drug
D em a nd and sup ply Su pply d riven?
trafficking within the region. When the
P ow er rela tions
NGO co-ordinator asked counterparts for
D im ension 4 Tra de of bribe and favo r (both m onetary an d non-m on etary)
comments on the list of examples of
W hat are tra de d? (w in-w in)
E xplo itatio n of stude nt (w in-lose) corruption in education, all of them were
D im ension 5 D efine interna ls/externals in the cu rrent proje ct recognised as taking place. However, most of
Intern al/externa l Fo r issue s/prob lem s m ainly involving intern als, concen trate on them hesitated to consider future actions,
lim its m e asures in cluding preven tion w ithin th e c urrent proje ct because it is not included in the NGO’s
Fo r issue s/prob lem s m ainly involving exte rnals, interna lise in the Terms of Reference (TOR) of the program,
c urrent proje ct or, if diffic ult, interna lise them in forth com ing and is considered dangerous. Few teachers
p rojec ts and officers were interested, or willing to
continue these discussions.
[ 163 ]
Shinichiro Tanaka Locating possible educational areas where If drug dealing is taking place, teachers may
Corruption in education sector corruption may occur be supplied drugs from professional dealers
development: a suggestion for in the area. Monetary benefits are expected to
anticipatory strategy It is known that corruption in any
procurement is common practice within the be in the form of ``daily-harvests’’ within
The International Journal of
Educational Management country, and education is not an exception. classrooms, although the probability of this
15/4 [2001] 158±166 However, according to the counterparts, corruption is not clearly defined. Poor
there may be no incentive for corruption in students cannot afford additional expenses,
free textbook and uniform distribution, although the price of drugs may not be
because monetary benefits are very limited expensive compared with a student’s daily
due to the low income of students’ families. snacks. Also, it is anticipated that teachers
Also, corruption in administrative issues, may not sell them as drugs, rather as, for
example, ``cheap pills to improve
such as teachers’ promotion, rarely happens
intelligence.’’ If this is the case, students may
in primary schools, because such teachers
pay cash in exchange for high risks to their
are already respected and the salary
physical and mental condition.
increment from being promoted is not that
attractive. Instead, they may become
Define internal/external issue
involved in corruptible areas of procurement Clearly, potential meal providers are outside
such as school meal provision, which was the program in the case of school meal
specifically identified as a possible problem. provision. It is considered that there may be
According to the counterparts, teachers’ almost nothing that can be done with them,
corruption in classroom is very rare, except though the procurement progress will be
for teachers selling drugs in the classroom, as controlled and monitored carefully.
recently reported from other slums. Thus, it Similarly, resident drug dealers are outside
was agreed to focus on school meal provision of the program scope and again there may be
and sexual harassment in the classroom. little that can be done to address them, and
drawing on the honesty and diligence of
Locate major players and their motivations teachers should be more effective.
in corruption As stated previously, the original TOR of
From analysis of the meal provision contract, the NGO does not include issues in
is estimated that the possible range of corruption anticipation, so it is necessary to
bribery would be equal to three-six months’ agree the course of action with the
salary of typical teachers/officers. Possible counterparts. Fortunately the head of the
players may be interested companies as counterparts is well aware of such problems,
``givers’’, and officers and teachers in and recognises the potential function of the
charge as ``takers’’. Even if the teachers/ NGO. It is mutually agreed that the NGO
officers are primarily honest, it is supposed would pay attention to the corruption issues
that several companies have strong interests on an informal basis.
(supply-driven) and may contact both offices
and the homes of the teachers/officers. Initiate prevention measures
Based on consideration of the previous steps
and the items in Component 4, the following
Table IV
measures are proposed:
Component 4: Example measures worth considering in a prevention plan . Introduction of competitive bidding is
Ke y issu es M easures w orth con sideration proposed for school meal provision.
1 M orale Ke y personn el’s m o tiva tion Although competitive bidding itself does
Se m ina rs not ensure corruption-free practice, it is
W orkshops expected to increase accountability in the
M orale cam pa igns procurement process.
Syste m s w ith in centive to prom o te ``no n-c orrupted’’ . To ensure adequate quality of meals,
p ersonnel direct involvement of nutrition specialists
2 E arnin g R aising salarie s in the preparation of bidding documents,
Sh ort-term m icro finan ce system w ith anti-co rrup tion and evaluation of bids, should be secured.
c ondition s . Educating teachers on drug problems
3 S tuden ts’ protec tion A lternative consu ltin g/ coun seling ch anne l for studen ts through the re-training program.
4 M on itorin g S ugge stion bo x . Setting up a counselling network for
A nti-corruption com m ittee students involving the community, to
A lternative consu ltin g/ coun seling ch anne l for studen ts cope with the anticipated dealing of hard
5 Ou tsider issues R eq uest co-opera tion w ith corrup tion pre vention sc hem e s drugs in the classroom.
Intro duction o f com p etitive bidd ing system (for pro curem e nt)
As stated previously, educating teachers on
6 Co sts and re so urces P revention cost less th an bene fit of non-corrupted situa tion
drug problems is considered to be most
[ 164 ]
Shinichiro Tanaka effective when the problem is still relatively
Notes
Corruption in education sector new. It aims to stimulate teachers to protect
development: a suggestion for 1 However, the ``oil’’ or ``sand’’ analogy may not
anticipatory strategy students from drug abuse. At the same time, be so readily applied to ``petty’’ corruption
setting up a counseling network involving concerning individuals’ earnings. Another
The International Journal of
Educational Management community/religious leaders and monks for interesting suggestion is that corruption
15/4 [2001] 158±166 students is proposed as religious leaders are creates an environment for ``informal’’
well-respected by society and therefore most competition that may be considered more fair
likely to encourage students to respond, than the formal process, which tends to favor
especially when they are exploited by established participants and exclude new
teachers. Even though the counseling idea players.
originated from corruption prevention 2 Because of the sensitivity of corruption issues,
views, this consultation system would be it may be assumed that the outcome of a
implemented in the context of community straightforward questionnaire method will be
involvement in education. By doing so, the biased, even if the response rate is high.
scheme may work as a device to monitor and 3 Besides these tools, simply collecting
improve education in general; therefore it information on similar projects should be
may be more acceptable for both school and helpful. For example, RRA (Rapid Rural
Appraisal) and PLA (Participatory Learning
the community.
and Action).
4 The book referred to here is Shimomura
(1988). This handbook on educational
Concluding remarks regulations and laws is published in Japanese
Clearly, an anticipatory strategy against for higher school administrators such as
corruption is not a direct anti-corruption principals and assistant principals. Issues
strategy and it may exist as a ``hidden’’ related to teachers’ corruption, violence,
agenda within the main project. Therefore, abuse of students, etc. are not included.
5 To analyse motivations in demand/supply
attention should be paid to diagnosing rather
corruption, a thinking tool provided by
than rectifying the system of corruption,
Klitgaard (1998) may be useful. He presented a
prevention rather than punishment,
simple formula as follows:
informal rather than formal aspects, and
C = M + D ± A, where:
norms rather than formalised legislation.
C: Corruption
Such anticipatory methods may be both (probability of/motivation for)
suitable and feasible to tackle corruption, M: Monopoly
because established corruption can rarely be D: Discretion
tackled in a straightforward way. A: Accountability
Without critical thinking on the norms of It simply implies that, where monopolistic
both professionals’ and project objects, there power and discretion are high and
may be little beneficial change. Without accountability is low, the probability of
candid problem defining, effective corruption is high.
prevention measures cannot be prepared. 6 A report on a community-managed school in
However, corruption is an area where it is El Salvador by Jimenez and Sawada (1998)
difficult for both ``critical thinking’’ and claims that more frequent communication
``candid problem defining’’ to work. Further, among teachers and parents contributes to
any intervention should now be as simple as improve accountability of teachers’ activities,
possible, while meeting all such hence contributing to prevent corruption. In
complexities. All possible attempts are made the example, the parent organisation is
as a preparation for the proposed strategy. involved in the decision-making process of
It should be stressed that this article does school administration, such as teachers’
not assume that education in developing proportions, salary, etc.
7 The purpose of this section is to describe how
countries is widely corrupt. In any case,
a proposed scheme would work in an actual
before that can be argued, the term
project setting, rather than to describe
``corruption’’ needs to be appropriately
anticipated corruption in a given setting
defined. Even in a totally ``corrupt’’
precisely.
environment, there are many diligent and
enthusiastic teachers/officers struggling to References
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