UNIT 2

Advances in
Consumables
 MMAW consumables

• The main developments that have taken place in

these consumables have been in the following
areas:
• Improved toughness;
• Improved hydrogen-controlled electrodes for
ferritic steel;
• Improved performance stainless-steel
consumables..
MMAW has been used extensively in the
ship building, defence, offshore, and
power-generation industries for the
fabrication of carbon-manganese and low
alloy steels.

The achievement of good toughness and

resistance to hydrogen induced cold
cracking (HIC) are important
considerations in these applications.
The operating performance of common austenitic
stainless steel MMA electrodes has been considerably
improved by the introduction of rutile (TiO2) based
flux coatings.

These coatings give improved arc stability and

excellent weld bead surface finish. Electrodes have
also been developed for the fabrication of the new
corrosion-resistant alloys and, in particular, duplex and
high molybdenum stainless steels
Improvements in notch toughness for MMA consumables.
SOURCE Adv. Weld Tech John Norrish
Submerged arc welding consumables
The submerged arc process is well established
and a standard range of wires
and fluxes has been devised for the most
common applications.
Two important advances in the process have
been realized by:
The development of high-toughness
consumables;
-The use of iron powder additions.
High-toughness SAW consumables: lower bound Charpy-V
impact transition curves for different SAW wires

SOURCE Adv. Weld Tech John Norrish

High-toughness consumables
Higher-toughness consumables have been
developed in response to the requirement
for reasonable impact properties down to –
40oC. for offshore structures.

This has been achieved by the use of wires

which are micro alloyed with titanium and
boron and a semi-basic flux.
Addition of iron powder The addition of iron
powder to the submerged arc weld increases the
deposition
rate of the process by more than 60% as well as
offering improvements in weld metal quality. The
technique takes advantage of the fact that excess
arc energy is normally available in submerged arc
welding; this usually results in increased melting of
the parent plate and high levels of dilution. If a
metal powder is added to the weld pool, some of
the arc energy is dissipated in melting this powder
and the additional metal which results improves the
joint completion rate
Unlike other methods of increasing the productivity of
the process, this technique reduces the heat input to the
parent plate and resultant thermal damage in the HAZ
Filler wires for GMAW and FCAW

Increased utilization of the GMAW process has

prompted some development of solid wire
consumable/shielding gas packages, but the most
significant developments in this area are related
to flux cored consumables
Flux-cored wire
Flux-cored wires consist of a metal outer sheath filled
with a combination of mineral flux and metal powders
The FCAW process is operated in
a similar manner to GMAW welding
Typical finished wire diameters range from 3.2
to 0.8 mm. Flux-cored wires offer the following
advantages:
-High deposition rates
-Alloying addition from the flux core;
-Slag shielding and support
-Improved arc stabilization and shielding.
Production of a flux-cored wire
Alternative configurations for flux-cored wires (a) outer sheath, (b) flux
powder
Source Adv. Weld. Tech –John Norrish
Types of flux-cored consumable
The following groups of flux-cored wires
have been developed:

-Plain carbon and alloy steels

-Hard facing and surfacing alloys
-Stainless steel.
 Plain carbon and alloy steels

• Rutile gas-shielded;
• Basic gas-shielded;
• Metal-cored-gas-shielded;
• Self-shielded.
Applications of FCAW
The applications of flux-cored wires include
the joining of thick-section
high-strength steels for critical applications
as in high-speed mechanized welding of
lighter sections using metal-cored wire or the
fabrication of high quality stainless-steel
process plant.
Limitations of flux-cored wires are
- Cost
-Fume
-Consistency of the consumable.
 Deposition rate
• This increase in deposition rate is attributable
to the increased current density and the fact
that all of the current is carried by the sheath.
The
• deposition rate will, however, depend on the
thickness and resistivity of the sheath
material, the polarity and the electrode stick-
out
The melting rate MR of a flux cored
wire may be expressed as

where k, a and b are constants

I is the mean current
l is the stick-out length
A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor.

-The term aI represents arc melting

-blI2/A term indicates the resistive heating in the wire
extension.
The Australian, UK and US specifications for flux-cored
welding consumables

- Rutile (TiO2) based formulations for ease of

operation

- Basic (CaO) high-toughness, hydrogen-controlled

formulations and metal powder cores for high recovery
and low slag formation
Slag shielding and support

-fast freezing rutile slag used to support the weld pool in

vertical or overhead welding enabling higher operating
currents.

-improved productivity and better fusion

-Additional shielding and control of bead shape
Arc stabilization and shielding
The decomposition of the flux constituents to generate
shielding gases as in FCAW welding.

CO2 is produced by the decomposition of calcium carbonate

CaCO3 + CaO + CO2

Arc ionizers added to the flux to obtain improved running

characteristics and arc stability.
operated with AC or DC electrode positive
Beneficial effects on the melting rate and weld bead
properties.
Modes of operation

Flux-cored wires may be operated successfully with or without an

additional gas shield.
In self-shielded flux-cored wires
the flux must provide sufficient shielding to protect the molten
metal droplets from atmospheric contamination as they
form and transfer across the arc.
some nitrogen and oxygen pick-up is inevitable the weld metal
chemistry is often modified to cope with this (by
adding aluminium for example). In addition to this shielding
action, the flux must also perform arc stabilization, alloy addition
and slag control functions.
Formulation of suitable flux compositions and successful design
Merits:- Successfully used at site where winds are experienced.
Gas-shielded operation

Auxiliary shielding may be provided if a conventional GMAW

torch is used.
For steel it is common to use either CO2 or argon/CO2
mixtures for this purpose;
Improves the positional performance, mechanical properties
and process tolerance

In spite, additional cost of the shielding gas, the overall cost

of the process may often be reduced
Summary

There have been steady improvements in

consumables for MMAW, SAW and GMAW welding.
The introduction of high-toughness, moisture-
resistant low-alloy steel and enhanced-performance
rutile-coated stainless steel MMA electrodes, iron
powder addition and Ti–Bo micro alloyed wires for
SAW and the use of low-residual wires for GMAW are
useful examples of this evolutionary process. The
introduction and exploitation of FCAW is perhaps
more remarkable as indicated by the application
trends
Shielding gases for

Arc welding processes

The primary functions of the shielding gas in the arc
welding processes are to provide a suitable medium
for the stable operation of a sustained low voltage
arc and to provide shielding from atmospheric
contamination.
Secondary, but equally important, functions
include the control of weld bead geometry
and mechanical properties.
 Shielding gas options

• Argon is one of the most widely used shielding

gases for GTAW welding. It
• is totally inert and has a high density relative
to air. The low ionization
• potential facilitates arc striking and stability
Helium is chemically inert, has a lower density than
air and requires a higher arc voltage (at the same
current and arc length) than argon. The resultant
increase in power produces increased heat input
and fusion area although
lower depth-to-width ratios are normally
experienced. The cost of helium is considerably
higher than that of argon, but the welding speeds
that are usually obtained make it a viable option,
particularly for high-conductivity materials
Carbon dioxide is chemically active, but has a higher
density than air. It can dissociate in the arc to release
oxygen and carbon monoxide and this can
result in a reduction in the weld metal content of elements
such as silicon, manganese and titanium and an increase in
carbon. Because of its chemical activity its use is restricted
to GMAW welding of steel. The arc voltage is 1–2 V higher
in CO2 (for an equivalent current and arc length) than that
found in argon-based mixtures and the heat input is slightly
higher resulting in increased fusion. Transfer behavior,
operating tolerances and arc stability
are generally poor, especially at high currents.
 Shielding gas mixtures for specific applications

• Carbon dioxide may be used for dip transfer GMAW, but

mixtures based on argon with additions of oxygen and carbon
dioxide are found to give improved arc stability, reduced
spatter and an increased operating range (i.e. voltage,
• wire feed speed and inductance settings are less critical). In
addition, weld bead profile is improved, giving a saving in weld
metal and weld time. The mixtures available normally fall into
one of the following groups:
• argon plus 1–8% oxygen;
• argon plus 1–8% carbon dioxide;
• argon plus 8–15% carbon dioxide;
• argon plus 15–25% carbon dioxide;
• pure carbon dioxide;
• argon/carbon dioxide/oxygen mixtures
The common mixtures for stainless steel
GMAW fall into two categories:
high helium (60–80%);
low helium (20–40%).
The high-helium mixtures are used
predominantly for dip transfer, where
the higher helium level increases welding
speeds, improves bead appearance
and increases the dip transfer frequency.
The arc voltage is increased and
fusion is improved especially at low
currents.
Lower-helium mixtures have been developed
mainly for spray and pulsed transfer
welding. They promote smooth spray
transfer, good fusion and excellent bead
profiles. The addition of 1–2% hydrogen to
these mixtures improves
wetting and bead appearance by chemically
reducing the surface oxide.
Gases for
GTA welding of steels
Argon is the most widely used gas for GTAW although mixtures
of argon with up to 5% hydrogen are often used, particularly
for austenitic stainless steels where increased speed, improved
profile and improved process tolerance are required.
Hydrogen additions cannot be used on ferritic steels, which are
susceptible to hydrogen induced cold cracking.
Helium/argon mixtures with 30–80% helium can be used for
high-speed welding of steels and, on stainless steels, both
helium/argon and argon/hydrogen mixtures have been found
to increase the tolerance to cast-to-cast variation problems
Gases for plasma welding

In plasma welding, two gas supplies are required; the

plasma gas and the shielding gas. For many
applications, the most suitable plasma gas is argon.
It allows reliable arc initiation and protects the
tungsten electrode and the anode orifice from erosion.
The shielding gas may be argon, although, for
austenitic stainless steel, additions of up to 8%
hydrogen may be made to increase arc constriction,
fusion characteristics and travel speed.
Metal-cored wires were originally designed to
give smooth spray transfer in argon/5% CO2
mixtures, but the three-part
argon/oxygen/carbon dioxide mixtures above
give excellent transfer characteristics and
slightly improved fusion. Metal-cored wires,
which operate satisfactorily with CO2 shielding
have also been introduced.
Gases for laser welding

Gases are required in the laser welding process for

operation of the laser, shielding and plasma control. In
gas or CO2 lasers, a gas mixture is used to support the
electrical discharge and generate the laser beam. The
exact mixture will depend on the type and
manufacturer of the laser, but typical gas mixtures are:
80% helium/15% nitrogen/5% carbon dioxide;
61% helium/4% carbon dioxide/31.5% nitrogen/3.5%
oxygen.
The way in which these gases are supplied (i.e.
separate or premixed) will also depend on the type
of gas laser being used. For both gas and solid state
YAG lasers, additional gases are required for
shielding and plasma control. For shielding, the
gases used are similar to those employed for GTAW
and plasma welding, but, in the case of laser
welding, ionization of the gas or metal vapour to
form a plasma is undesirable and gases with a high
ionization potential, such as helium, are favoured.
The common gas mixtures used for shielding are:
 argon, helium and argon/helium mixtures,
used for most materials including steel and
the reactive metals titanium and zirconium;
nitrogen can be used for less demanding
applications on austenitic stainless steel.If a
plasma does form, a jet of gas may be used
to displace or disrupt the plasma;
the normal gas used for this purpose is
helium.
• Narrowgap
• GTAW welding may be justified on thicknesses down to
15 mm. Narrowgap
• type configurations have been used for GMAW in
thicknesses from 15–
• 22 mm upwards. Narrow-gap SAW is normally
considered to be viable at
• thicknesses above 60–70 mm, but, if conventional
equipment is used, this
• lower economic limit may be reduced until it overlaps
conventional square butt SAW procedures in
thicknesses down to 12 mm.
Optimization of welding
parameters and in-process control are essential to
avoid defects in narrowgap applications; the
restricted access of the gap will make progressive
repair difficult, but good procedure control
should obviate these problems and the use of
narrow-gap welding may be seen as a way of
imposing a reasonable level of discipline into the
control of welding operations.