Blood Vessels I

-Arteries: away from heart.

-Veins: to the heart (usually lower-oxygenated…but not always)

-Vessels closest to the heart have to be the strongest…but they also need to be responsive to the
changes in blood pressure…so they are elastic (Closer you are to the heart, the strong the vessel
has to be so that is can withstand the pressure of the blood. They need smooth muscle and
connective tissue)

Vessels lead to organs. So you need to modify the arteries into capillary beds. Then on the way
back, blood takes the venials which turn into veins.

Covering vessels with skeletal muscle….pressurizes the vessels. To insure that blood only moves
in one direction (towards the heart), veins have valves that prevent backflow.

Capillary bed: little tiny vessels surrounding a larger canal. (if we don’t need to use the
capillaries, then the blood goes through the thoroughfare channel. Sometimes we don’t need to
use the capillaries. So we shut off the bloodflow to the capillary beds using valves called
sphincters)

Blood Pressure: the amount of force being applied by blood to the walls of surrounding vessels.
(the smaller the vessel, the more pressure there is on the walls of that vessel).

R= 1/r^4 (R is resistance. 1/r^4 is the diameter of a vessel)

The closer you are to the heart, the higher the blood pressure is going to be.

Close to the heart (120/80) systole/diastole. The farther away you go…the lower the
pressure gets, and the variation between the systole and diastole gets smaller and smaller.

Blood Pressure: BP= CO * PR (peripheral resistance) -anything that effects CO effect

blood pressure (aka: sympathetic nervous system)

Venus return: amount of blood coming back to the heart.

Different mechanisms to control blood pressure:

Diameter of vessels (PR, therefore BP)

Rate of heartbeat (therefore CO, therefore BP)

The ESV (therefore SV, therefore CO, therefore BP)

The EDV (therefore SV, therefore CO, therefore BP)

Regulation of Blood Pressure:

Know how any single control mechanism works.

SV=EDV-ESV

CO=SV*HR

BP=CO*PR

Within the medulla: Vasomotor center (regulates the diameter of vessels)

Baroreceptors.

3. Vasomotor center

a. Regulation of blood vessel diameter

b. Vasomotor fibers

i. Sympathetic efferents

ii. Innervate smooth muscle of blood vessels

iii. Primarily arterioles

iv. Release NE

v. Vasoconstrictor

c. Vasomotor tone

i. Tonic vasoconstriction

4. Baroreceptors

a. Detect changes in arterial blood pressure

i. Pressure sensitive mechanoreceptors

ii. When BP rises, receptors are stretched

b. Located in carotid sinuses, aortic arch and walls of all large vessels

c. Stretching increases signaling to vasomotor center

i. Inhibits vasomotor center

 ii. Causes dilation of arteries and veins

d. Arteriole dilation reduces peripheral resistance

e. Venodilation shifts blood to venous reservoirs

i. Venous return decreases

ii. Cardiac output declines

f. Baroreceptors also send efferent signals to cardiac centers in the medulla

i. Inhibit sympathetic NS

ii. Stimulate parasympathetic NS

iii. HR and contractile force decrease

g. Respond to acute changes in blood pressure

i. Carotid sinus reflex protects blood supply to brain

ii. Aortic reflex maintains supply to systemic circuit

5. Chemoreceptors

a. Respond to changes in O2 and CO2 concentrations and pH

b. Located in carotid and aortic arch and carotid sinus

c. Primarily involved in control of respiratory rate and depth (see Respiration Lecture)

F. Chemical control of blood pressure

1. Short-term

2. Levels of O2 and CO2 (see Respiration Lecture)

3. Blood-borne chemicals

a. Adrenal medulla hormones

i. NE and EPI (nicotine is a monoamine agonist)

ii. NE is a vasoconstrictor

iii. EPI increase cardiac output by increasing cardiac muscle contractility

Chemical is the most relevant mechanism for controlling blood pressure. Won’t act on a
short-term basis. (unlike brain-based mechanisms….work for short periods of time).

-Chemicals change blood volume: ANP, ADH, Angiotensin, Aldosterone.

b. Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

i. Atrial peptide hormone

ii. Reduces blood pressure by antagonizing aldosterone (only one that decreases)

iii. Increases water excretion from kidney

c. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

i. Posterior pituitary hormone

ii. Increases blood pressure by increasing water absorption by distal tubule

iii. At high concentrations, causes vasoconstriction

d. Angiotensin II **

i. Mediated by release of renin by JGA of kidney tubule

ii. When amount of blood entering kidney tubule is too low, renin is released

iii. Renin catalyzes the conversion of angiotensinogen into angiotensin II

iv. Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction of systemic arterioles

v. Increases BP

vi. Angiotensin II also causes release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex

vii. Aldosterone increases absorption of water by kidney tubules (increases

blood pressure)

g. Alcohol

i. Reduces blood pressure

ii. Inhibits ADH release—increases loss of water in urine

iii. Increases vasodilation (skin) by depressing vasomotor center

I. Arterial System

A. Classification based on size and function

1. Elastic (conducting) arteries

a. Characteristics

i. Thick-walled

ii. Near heart

iii. Largest diameter

iv. More elastic

v. Large lumen

b. Properties

i. Dampen BP changes associated with heart contraction

ii. Passive accommodation results in smooth flow of blood

c. 1.0 – 2.5 cm

2. Muscular arteries—distributing arteries

a. Distal to elastic arteries

b. Deliver blood to specific organs

c. Thick media layer

 i. More smooth muscle

d. 0.3 – 1.0 cm

3. Arterioles

a. Determine flow into capillary beds

b. Mostly smooth muscle

c. 10 μm – 0.3 cm

4. Capillaries

a. Smallest blood vessels

i. 8 – 10 μm

b. Tunica interna only

c. Exchange of materials
B. Capillary beds

1. Capillaries act as networks—capillary beds

2. Microcirculation

a. Arteriole to venule

3. Parts of a capillary bed

a. Vascular shunt

i. Connects arteriole with venule

b. True capillaries
D. Sequence of blood movement through capillary bed

1. Terminal arteriole

2. Metarteriole

a. True capillaries branch off

i. Pre-capillary sphincter controls blood flow into capillary

3. Thoroughfare channel

a. Capillaries rejoin

4. Post-capillary venule

II. Venous System

A. Types of vessels

1. Venules

a. 8 – 100 μm

b. Characteristics vary with size

i. Little muscle

2. Veins

a. Formed from venules

b. Thinner walls and less muscle than arteries

B. Capacitance vessels

1. Veins act as reservoirs

a. Large lumens

b. Low blood pressure allows walls to thin

2. Venous valves
a. Prevent backflow

b. Folds of interna
IV. Physiology of Circulation

A. Terms

1. Blood flow—volume flowing through a given structure per unit time (ml/min)

2. Blood pressure—force per unit area (mm Hg)

3. Resistance—opposition to flow; generally encountered in the systemic circuit—peripheral

resistance (PR)

a. Sources of resistance

i. Blood viscosity—thickness related to formed elements

ii. Total blood vessels length—longer the vessels, the greater the resistance

iii. Blood vessel diameter—flow is inversely related to diameter; the larger the
diameter, the less resistance (1/r4)

b. In healthy humans, diameter is the greatest source of resistance

B. Relationship between flow, pressure and resistance

Blood Flow (F) = ΔP/PR (Difference in blood pressure between two points/peripheral resistance)

V. Systemic Blood Pressure

A. Background

1. Heart pumping generates blood flow

2. Pressure results when flow opposed by resistance

3. Blood flows along a pressure gradient

a. From higher to lower pressure

i. Highest in aorta

ii. Lowest in right atrium

B. Arterial blood pressure

1. Factors affecting arterial pressure

a. Stretching of arteries near heart

i. Compliance

ii. Distensibility

b. Volume of blood forced into the arteries near heart

2. Changes associated with systole

a. Aorta is stretched by blood leaving left ventricle

i. Kinetic energy

b. Blood moves toward periphery because peripheral pressure is lower than aortic
pressure

i. Systolic pressure: 120 mm Hg

3. Changes associated with diastole

a. Semilunar valve closes

b. Aorta recoils

c. Pressure is maintained by reducing volume

 i. Diastolic pressure: 70 - 80 mm Hg

4. Pulse pressure

a. Difference between systolic and diastolic pressure

5. Mean arterial pressure (MAP)

a. Diastolic pressure + 1/3 pulse pressure

C. Capillary blood pressure

1. 40 mm Hg entering

2. 20 mm Hg exiting

D. Venous blood pressure

1. Characteristics

a. Relatively steady throughout cardiac cycle

b. Gradient from venules to vena cava

i. 20 mm HG (60 from aorta to arterioles)

2. Venous return

a. Venous pressure is too low to promote adequate return

b. Need additional functional modifications

3. Functional modification

a. Respiratory pump

i. Abdominal (ventral body cavity) pressure increases squeeze local veins

ii. Backflow is prevented by valves

iii. Blood is forced toward the heart

iv. Chest cavity pressure decreases

v. Thoracic veins expand

vi. Blood enters right atrium

 b. Muscular pump (more important)

i. Contraction of skeletal muscle surrounding veins compress vein

ii. Backflow is prevented by valves

iii. Blood moves in direction of heart

VI. Regulation of Blood Pressure

A. Factors influences blood pressure

1. Cardiac output

2. Peripheral resistance

3. Blood volume

B. Blood pressure = Cardiac output X Peripheral resistance

1. Cardiac output is directly related to blood volume

2. Blood pressure is directly related to CO, BV and PR

C. CO = Stroke volume X HR
D. Factors that enhance CO

1. Reduce parasympathetic control

a. Reduce effect of vagus nerve

i. HR increases

2. Increase sympathetic activity

a. Increases contractility of heart

i. Reduces ESV

ii. Increases stroke volume

b. Releases Epi into blood stream from adrenal medulla

i. Increases heart rate

3. Increase activity of respiratory and muscular pumps

a. Increases venous return

i. Increases EDV

ii. Increases stroke volume

E. Neural control of blood pressure

1. Short-term mechanisms

2. Nervous control of peripheral resistance

a. Alter blood distribution

b. Alter blood vessel diameter

5. Chemoreceptors

a. Respond to changes in O2 and CO2 concentrations and pH

b. Located in carotid and aortic arch and carotid sinus

c. Primarily involved in control of respiratory rate and depth (see Respiration Lecture)

F. Chemical control of blood pressure

1. Short-term

2. Levels of O2 and CO2 (see Respiration Lecture)

3. Blood-borne chemicals

a. Adrenal medulla hormones

i. NE and EPI (nicotine is a monoamine agonist)

ii. NE is a vasoconstrictor

f. Inflammatory chemicals—vasodilators

i. Histamine, etc. (see Immune Lecture)

ii. Increase capillary permeability

G. Renal regulation of blood pressure

1. Long-term mechanisms for blood pressure regulation

2. Kidney controls blood volume by regulating water loss in urine

3. Blood volume affects cardiac output via:

a. Venous pressure

b. Venous return

c. EDV

d. Stroke volume

4. Blood pressure change parallels change in blood volume

a. Increase in volume increases BP

i. Kidney responds by eliminating water to reduce volume

b. Decrease in volume decreases BP

i. Kidney responds by absorbing water to increase volume5. Direct action of the

kidney

a. Alteration to rate of fluid filtration from blood stream to kidney tubules

i. Increased BP increases amount of filtrate entering tubules

ii. Filtrate entering is greater than the amount that can be processed

iii. Fluid leaves body in the form of urine

iv. Blood volume decreases and therefore BP

b. Indirect renal mechanisms

 i. Renin-angiotensin mechanism (see above)

ii. Aldosterone also causes Post. Pituitary to release ADH

iii. ADH promotes water reabsorption from by kidney

VII. Tissue Perfusion

A. Blood flow is distributed to body tissue in an exacting fashion

1. At rest

a. Brain: 13%

b. Heart 4%

c. Kidney: 20%
 d. Abdominal organs: 24%

2. During exercise:

a. Skin, muscles and heart increase

b. Remaining tissues either remain same or decrease

B. Blood flow velocity

1. Inversely proportionate to cross-sectional area of blood vessels to be filled

a. Flow is fastest through vessels with smallest cross-sectional area

i. Aorta has a cross-sectional area (2.5 cm2) and an average velocity of 40-50
cm/s

ii. Capillaries have a total cross-sectional area of 4500 cm 2 and a very slow flow
(0.03 cm/s)

C. Blood flow through individual organs is intrinsically controlled (i.e., autoregulation)

1. Diameter of arterioles feeding a given organ is controlled by that organ

VII. Capillary Dynamics

A. Gases and nutrients diffuse from capillary to interstitial fluid

1. Water-soluble solutes pass through clefts and fenestrations

2. Lipid-soluble diffuse through the plasma membranes of capillary epithelial cells

B. Forces responsible for the direction and amount of fluid crossing capillary walls

1. Hydrostatic and osmotic pressure

a. Forces oppose

C. Hydrostatic pressure

1. Force exerted by a fluid against a vessel wall

a. In the capillary bed

i. Hydrostatic pressure is the same as capillary blood pressure

2. Capillary hydrostatic pressure (HPc) forces fluid through capillary wall

a. Greater at arterial end (35 mm Hg)

b. Lower at venous end (17 mm Hg)

3. HPc is opposed by interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure (Hpif)

a. Hpif is assumed to be zero

i. Interstitial fluid is withdrawn by lymphatic tissue

4. Net effective hydrostatic pressure is equal to HP c (HPc - Hpif)

D. Osmotic pressure

1. Net movement of water from an area of low to high solute concentration

a. Solute concentration in relatively high in capillary blood

i. High concentration of plasma proteins

ii. Capillary colloid osmotic pressure (OPc)

iii. 26 mm Hg

b. Interstitial osmotic pressure (OPif) is much lower

i. 0.1 to 5 mm Hg

c. Net osmotic pressure

i. Approximately 25 mm Hg

E. Net filtration pressure (NFP)

1. Reflects interaction between hydrostatic and osmotic pressure

2. Arterial end

a. NFP = (HPc - Hpif) – (OPc - OPif)

i. 35 – 25 = 10 mm Hg

3. Venous end

a. NFP = (HPc - Hpif) – (OPc - OPif)

i. 17 – 25 = -8 mm Hg