Chapter 5 Introduction to Solar Photovoltaic Components and Systems

5.2 Charge Regulators

Charge regulators (also called charge controllers) are the electronic gadgets used to
protect the storage batteries from being over charged or over discharged. The basic
function of the charge regulator (CR) is to disconnect the module or array from the
battery when the battery is charged to a preset level and disconnect the load (which is
connected to the battery) when the battery is discharged to the preset level. Advanced
CR also senses the battery temperature and adjusts the charging current accordingly.
Another, but less important, use of the CR is as a meeting point of all the cables
coming from module to battery and battery to load. In other words the CR also serves
the purpose of junction box. As the PV cell costs continue to fall, the battery in a
stand-alone PV system becomes an increasingly large part of the system cost. The life
of the battery now has the greatest impact on the economic viability of a small PV
system. The CR in small PV system is the primary driver of system reliability and
battery life. A good regulator will affect the system performance more than any other
component, and an improved regulator can potentially reduce 20-year system costs by
20 to 40 percent because the battery needs to be replaced less often.

CR may not be the part of the solar PV system where the module or array output is
directly connected to the load other than the battery.
Basic Principle of Operation
The state of the charge of a battery is proportional to its open circuit terminal voltage.
Therefore the terminal voltage of the battery can be taken as the reference to assess its
state of the charge. The electronic circuitry of CC continuously monitors the battery
voltage and depending upon the preset voltage levels, disconnects the array from the
battery or battery from the load. The CR is broadly subdivided into two categories:
the shunt regulator (SHR) or the series regulator (SR).
 The Shunt Regulator
The SHR bypasses the module or array current through an active load (other than the
actual load). In this case the bypass load is connected parallel to the module (fig.
5.2.1).

+
Switch
+
Voltage sense
and control
Module
circuit
Battery
Load

Active
Load

Fig. 5.2.1 Operation of a Shunt Regulator

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In normal charging mode, i.e. when the battery is not fully charged, the switch is in
OFF position and the entire module current is passed to the battery via blocking
diode. When the state of the charge of the battery reaches pre-determined level, as
indicated by the voltage level of the battery, the control circuit turns ON the switch. In
this case the entire module current is passed to a very low resistance active load,
which dissipates all the module power. In fact the active load could be any other
usable device or the second set of battery that needs charging. When the battery
charge level drops below module reconnect level, the control circuit turns the switch
OFF and the module current is again passed to the battery. Note that when the switch
is in ON position, the current from the battery does not flow to the active load because
of the blocking diode. Hence the blocking diode has two-fold application in case of
use of shunt regulators.

The SHR are simple in design, cost effective but are not suitable for large power
applications. In large power application, the active load has to dissipate large power as
heat. Therefore for small PV applications, like solar home systems, shunt regulators
are preferred over series regulators.

 Series Regulators

Series regulators (SR) operate in entirely different principle that the shunt regulator.
In SR the path between the module and the battery is simply disconnected by a switch
when the charge level of the battery is over the preset level (fig. 5.2.2).

Switch

+
Voltage sense
and control
Module
circuit
Battery
Load

Fig. 5.2.2 Operation of a Series Regulator

In normal charging condition the switch is in ON position and the current from the
modules is passed to the battery through the blocking diode. When the state of charge
of the battery reaches the pre-set level, the control circuit turns the switch OFF
blocking passage of current to the battery. SR is more suitable for large power PV
application as there is no need to dissipate the module power in the form of heat. The
module is simply disconnected and remains idle. The circuitry of the SR is more
complex that that of SHR. The only remarkable drawback of SR is the loss of energy

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in switching element. This loss depends upon the internal resistance of the switching
element.

The CR also disconnects the load from the battery when the discharge level is below
the set point. The control circuit senses the battery voltage level and when it falls
below certain set point, the circuit turns OFF the switch (load switch) inserted in
series between the battery and the load. When the battery state of charge is increased
by charging, the load switch is turned ON by the circuit and power is available for use
by load.

In earlier designs, the switches used in both of the versions were mechanical switches
(relays) controlled by control signal. These mechanical switches have limited life span
and are prone to mechanical as well as electrical failure. In more recent design the
mechanical switches are replaced by electronic (semiconductor) switches. These
electronic switches (Bipolar transistors, MOSFETs, SCRs) can handle large current
and operate reliably.

Parameters of CR

The basic parameters of a CR are:

 Low Voltage Disconnect (LVD) – This is the voltage level of battery at which
the load is disconnected from the battery to protect it from over discharge. The
LVD level depends upon the type of battery used and the type of load. If the
load is critical (e.g. vaccine refrigerator) then LVD is set to very low. For non-
critical loads like laps or TV the LVD level can be set at relatively higher side
to ensure higher life cycle of the battery.
 Low Voltage Reconnect (LVR) – This is the voltage level of the battery at
which the load is reconnected after being disconnected due to LVD. LVR
value is higher than the LVD value. For example for a 12 V lead acid battery
the LVD level could be 11.8 V (corresponding to 50% discharge level). The
LVR in this case may be 12 V or greater. The difference between LVR and
LVD is called hysteresis. Provision of LVR is required to avoid toggling of the
load between on and off.
 High Voltage Disconnect (HVD) – This is the voltage level of the battery at
which the module is disconnected from the battery to protect it from over
charging. The HVD level again depends upon the type of battery used, the
battery temperature and the ambient temperature. The HVD set pint for lead
acid battery is around 14.2 – 14.8 V. In general HVD set point corresponds to
100% state of charge (SOC) of the battery type used.
 High Voltage Reconnect (HVR) – This is the voltage level of the battery at
which the module is reconnected to the battery after being disconnected at
HVD. The HVR is applicable to the CR based on simple ON-OFF design. For
PWM based CR, the HVR has no significance.
 Voltage drop across CR while charging – It is the permissible voltage drop in
CR while charging the battery. For shunt type CR, it is the drop in blocking
diode only. In case of series CR, it is the total drop in blocking diode and the
switch element.

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 Voltage drop across CR while discharging – It is permissible voltage drop in

CR while discharging the battery through the load. It is basically the voltage
drop in series load switch for both types of regulators. Normally the
permissible total drop (charging and discharging) is less than 5% of the system
voltage.
 Maximum charge current capacity (Icmax) - It the maximum charging current in
Amperes that CR can handle safely. Note that it is not the peak charging
current which can occur due to surge or other interference.
 Maximum load current capacity (Ilmax)- It is the maximum current in Amperes
that CR can deliver to the load safely.
 System Voltage- It is the voltage for which the CR is designed.
 Self consumption (or quiescent) current- It is the current in mA that the CR
draws from the battery for its operation.
 Level of Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) – It as indication of the level of
interference caused by the CR to other electronic devices (e.g. radio, TV).
 Reverse Leakage Current- It is the current that is passed from the battery to the
dark module through the CR. Usually the blocking diode is used to limit this
current in shunt regulators. In series regulators this value depends upon the
type of switch used, provided no blocking diodes are used.
 Reverse Polarity Protection Level- It is the type of protection incorporated in
the CR design to avoid the damage to the CR, module or battery from the
wrong sequence of polarity of module and battery connected to the CR.
Generally the protection level shall be such that nothing is damaged by
connecting the module and/or the battery in wrong polarity sequence.

Other parameters may include permissible environmental conditions for safe

operation of CR, enclosure characteristics, labeling etc.

Methods of Charging the Battery by CR

Independent of the basic type of CR (shunt or series) the technique used to charge the
battery may vary from CR to CR. In this sub-section brief overview of various
techniques will be discussed.

 Simple ON-OFF Method

The early design of CR used simple ON-OFF regulation mechanism. The regulator
interrupts charging early in the cycle when the HVD set point is reached. To prevent
instability, a hysteresis of 1 V ( i.e. HVR is less than HVD by 1 V)is generally used to
reconnect the module or array, and this causes the battery voltage to drift down for a
period of time before charging can start again (fig 5.2.3).

Research has shown that the batteries charged with standard set points will typically
average between 55% and 60% SOC for a period of years. This causes stratification of
the electrolyte and sulfation of battery plates, thus increasing internal resistance,
which further reduces charge efficiency. Because of these problems ON-OFF charge
regulators are replaced by more advanced Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) regulators.

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Status of charging
switch (series
regulator)
Battery is being Module is disconnected
charged from the battery

ON

Hysteresis
Module is
reconnected

OFF

HVR HVD Battery

voltage, Volts

Fig. 5.2.3 ON-OFF charging algorithm

 PWM Method

The better algorithm to charge the battery is Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). While
in ON-OFF method the module was disconnected from the battery during the last part
of charging cycle, in PWM the module is switched on and off with the certain
frequency. Normally the voltage level of the most of the batteries goes down when the
charging device is removed. By connecting and disconnecting the charging device
with a duty cycle, charging can go on much longer and the battery will reach a much
higher state of charge. The duty cycle is defined as the ratio between ON time and
OFF time of the charging current. In PWM method the ON time of charge current (or
the ON time of the series switch) is gradually decreased (the OFF time gradually
increased) as the battery SOC increases. When the battery reaches its 100% SOC, the
series switch is completely turned OFF. The figure 5.2.4 below illustrates the charging
algorithm with PWM method.

Charging current Charge current ON time gradually

Constant current Regulator decreases as the SOC increased
charging upto enters into
HVD point PWM mode

Time

Charge current OFF time gradually increases as

the SOC increased

Fig. 5.2.4 PWM charging algorithm

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 Three Stage (or Trickle charge) Method

In this method the battery is charged with maximum constant current (Imax) till the
battery voltage reaches some preset value (normally 2.3 Volt per 2 V cell). After this
point, the battery is charged with a constant voltage (from this point the current drawn
by the battery starts decreasing). When the battery reaches its (almost) full state of
charge, i.e. when the charge current accepted by the battery is around 20% of Imax,
maintenance charging is applied by limiting the magnitude of charging current to very
low level. The figure 5.2.5 illustrates the charging algorithm of three stage method.

Charging Cell
current voltage
Constant maximum
current charging
upto this point

Charging voltage is
Imax maintained constant

Maintenance charging by
low level of current

Time

Fig. 5.2.5 Three stage charging algorithm

While ON-OFF regulators stop the whole charging process when the cell voltage is at
its maximum (HVD set point), trickle charging continues maintenance charging until
the battery reaches its full state of charge. When the cell voltage just reaches its
maximum value, the actual state of charge is only 60%. With maintenance charging
the SOC could be increased to 100%. In PWM regulators there is no such term as
maintenance charging. The regulator continues charging the battery until the duty
cycle is zero. If there is self discharge of the battery, a low duty cycle charging will
again be initiated. This process can be considered as maintenance charging.

The advantage of PWM regulators with controlled pulses compared to other methods
are:
 Compact lead sulfate can be broken up to improve battery capacity and charge
acceptance.
 Charge efficiency can be improved and effects of aging can be reduced.
 Operating life of the battery can be increased.
 Higher voltage pulses can punch through resistive coating between the grid
and active materials on the plates.
 The opportunity for a gas bubbles to form can be reduced, and
 Down pulses further improve charge efficiency and reduce gassing.

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The recent advancement in CR design has helped to produce intelligent regulators

which senses the battery temperature and adjust the maintenance charging current to
suite the given temperature, adjusts the HVD, HVR set points depending upon the life
of the battery and the battery temperature, displays the SOC of the battery and total
Ah drawn from the battery etc. These intelligent CR are microprocessor based and
relatively costlier than conventional simple design regulators.

 Battery temperature consideration in CR

The end of charge voltage (or the HVD level) used by the CR to switch off
module/array current or to switch into a trickle charge mode should be allowed to
vary according to the battery temperature. As the battery internal temperature
decreases, the chemical reactions all proceed slower. In order to fully charge the
battery, the voltage must be allowed to rise more for a colder battery, so that the
chemical reaction can proceed to completion. The nominal final charge voltage at 250
C is about 14.5 V for a 12 V lead –acid battery. As the battery temperature drops, the
voltage for final charge must increase, and conversely as the battery heats up, the final
charge voltage must be reduced. This phenomenon is handled by an option in many
CR designs and called "temperature compensation" or TC. The temperature
compensation coefficient for a 12 V lead –acid battery can be taken as 30 mV/ 0C (this
value is often given in battery specification sheet).

For example, if a 12 V battery were at 15 0C, the final charge voltage should not be
14.5 V (set for 250C) but should be almost 14.8 V. conversely, if the battery is in hot
climate, and the battery temperature is 30 0C, the final charge voltage should be
reduced to about 14.35 V.

With temperature compensation, or TC, built into the CR, batteries in cold climates
will receive the full charging they require, and batteries in hot climates will not be
overcharged and experience excessive gassing.

 Boost charging option

All batteries require some overcharging now and then to reverse sulfation and reach
full charge. Gassing in the battery, which is initiated by some small overcharge, cleans
the internal plates. If this is done once every three weeks, it will reduce battery
deterioration and increase deep recharge capacity. The process of overcharging the
batteries beyond their final end of charge voltage is called boost charging. While
boost charging the HVD set points are temporarily increased to higher value. Some
CR incorporate the function of this "boost charging". The biggest difference between
the various types of CR is the timing when the boost charging takes place. Some CR
only boost charge the battery when it is connected for the first time, just after
installation. This cost more in electronic circuits, while the boost function is not very
effective. Others apply the boost charge function every time the LVD set point is
reached. In this way, the extra sulfation is removed shortly after it is formed on the
plates. However, overcharging too frequently also is not recommended, because this
will shorten the battery life. The optimum situation seems to be to make boost charge
possible about once every three weeks.

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