IC6601 Advanced Control System

Part B - Important Questions & Answers Unit I

1. Explain the different methods used to find the state feedback gain matrix.(16)
Method I : Using Transformation Matrix T
Step 1: Check the controllability of the given system. If it is controllable, then go to step2
Controllability matrix |𝐶𝑀| = |𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵 , … … . 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵 | ≠ 0
Step 2: Find the characteristic polynomial
|𝑆𝐼 − 𝐴| = 𝑆 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑆 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑆 𝑛−2 +, … … … … + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑆 + 𝑎𝑛
and hence determine the values of 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … … . 𝑎𝑛
Step 3: Determine the transformation matrix ′𝑇′ which transforms system state equation into controllable canonical form.
𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−2 , … … 𝑎1 1
𝑎𝑛−2 𝑎𝑛−3 , … … 1 0
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𝑇 = 𝑀 × 𝑊 = [𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 , … … … . . 𝐴 𝐵 ] 𝑛−1 ; ; ,……. ; ;
𝑎1 1 ,……. 0 0
[ 1 0 , … … . 0 0]
Note : If the given system is already in controllable canonical form, then 𝑇 = 𝐼
Step 4: Using desired closed loop poles, write the desired polynomial. i.e.
(𝑆 − 𝜇1 )(𝑆 − 𝜇2 )(𝑆 − 𝜇3 ), … … … … … … (𝑆 − 𝜇𝑛 )
= 𝑆 𝑛 + 𝛼1 𝑆 𝑛−1 + 𝛼2 𝑆 𝑛−2 +, … … … … + 𝛼𝑛−1 𝑆 + 𝛼𝑛
and determine the values of 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … … … … . . 𝛼𝑛
Step 5: The required state feedback gain matrix ′𝐾′ is given by
𝐾 = [𝛼𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 𝛼𝑛−1 − 𝑎𝑛−1 , . , , … . 𝛼2 − 𝑎2 𝛼1 − 𝑎1 ] 𝑇 −1
Method II : Using Direct Substitution method
Step 1: Check the controllability of the given system. If it is controllable, then go to step2
Controllability matrix |𝐶𝑀| = |𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵 , … … . 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵 | ≠ 0
Note: If the system is of low order (𝑛 ≤ 3), direct substitution of matrix K into the desired characteristics polynomial may be simpler.
Step 2: If 𝑛 = 3, then 𝐾 = [𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 ]
Step 3: Substitute this 𝐾 matrix into the desired characteristics polynomial |𝑆𝐼 − 𝐴 + 𝐵𝐾| and equate it to (𝑠 − 𝜇1 )(𝑠 − 𝜇2 )(𝑠 − 𝜇3 ).
|𝑆𝐼 − 𝐴 + 𝐵𝐾| = (𝑠 − 𝜇1 )(𝑠 − 𝜇2 )(𝑠 − 𝜇3 )
Since both sides of this characteristic equation are polynomials in ′𝑆′.
Step 4: By equating the coefficients of like power of ′𝑆′ on both sides, it is possible to determine the values of 𝐾1 , 𝐾2 , 𝐾3
Method III : Using Ackermann’s formula
Step 1: Check the controllability of the given system. If it is controllable, then go to step2
Controllability matrix |𝐶𝑀| = |𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵 , … … . 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵 | ≠ 0
Step 2: Determine the desired characteristic equation from the specified closed loop poles, 𝜇1 , 𝜇2 , 𝜇3 , . . , 𝜇𝑛
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 i.e.,(𝑠 − 𝜇1 ) (𝑠 − 𝜇2 ) (𝑠 − 𝜇3 ). . . . (𝑠 − 𝜇𝑛 ) = 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝛼1 𝑠 𝑛−1 +, . . , +𝛼𝑛−1 𝑠1 + 𝛼𝑛
and determine the values of 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … … . , 𝛼𝑛 .
Step 3: Determine the matrix ∅(𝐴) using the coefficient of desired characteristics polynomial.
∅(𝐴) = 𝐴𝑛 + 𝛼1 𝐴𝑛−1 + 𝛼2 𝐴𝑛−2 +, … … . . , +𝛼𝑛−1 𝐴1 + 𝛼𝑛 𝐼
Step 4: Calculate the state feedback gain matrix, ′𝐾′ using the Ackermann’s formula
𝐾 = [0 0 0 , … … . 1] [𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵 , … … . . 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵 ]−1 [∅(𝐴)]
2. Explain the pole placement approach to the design of type I servo system when the plant has an integrator.(8)
Consider a plant, defined by
𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑢 (1)
Where, x = state vector (n-vector)
y = output vector (scalar)
u = control signal (scalar)
A = n × n constant matrix
B = n × 1 constant matrix
C = 1 × n constant matrix
D= constant (scalar)
The control signal 𝑢 and the output signal 𝑦 are scalars. By proper choice of a set of state variables, it is possible to choose the output to be equal
to one of the state variables. Figure shows a general configuration of the type 1 servo system when the plant has an integrator. Here we assumed
that 𝑦 = 𝑥1 . In the present analysis assume that the reference input 𝑟 is a step function.

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 In this system, the following state feedback control system is used
𝑥1
𝑥
𝑢 = −[0 𝑘1 𝑘2 , … … … 𝑘𝑛 ] [ ;2 ] + 𝑘1 (𝑟 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥𝑛
= −𝐾𝑥 + 𝑘1 𝑟 (2)
Where, 𝐾 = [𝑘1 𝑘2 , , , … . . 𝑘𝑛 ]
Assume that the reference input is applied at t= 0. Then, for 𝑡 > 0, the system dynamics can be described by equation (1) and (2), or
𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 = (𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾)𝑥 + 𝐵𝑘1 𝑟 (3)
Now we can design a type 1 servo system such that the closed loop poles are located at desired positions. The designed system will be an
asymptotically stable system, 𝑦(∞) will approach the constant value 𝑟, and 𝑢(∞) will approach 0. At steadystate,
𝑥̇ (∞) = (𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾)𝑥(∞) + 𝐵𝑘1 𝑟(∞) (4)
Where, 𝑟(𝑡) is a step input, we have 𝑟(∞) = 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑟 (constant) for 𝑡 > 0. By subtracting equation (4) from equation (3), we obtain
𝑥̇ (𝑡) − 𝑥̇ (∞) = (𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾)[𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥(∞)] (5)
Define, 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(∞) = 𝑒(𝑡), then equation (5) becomes
𝑒̇ = (𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾)𝑒 (6)
Equation (6) describes error dynamics. The design of the type 1 servo system here is converted to the design of an asymptotically stable regulator
system such that 𝑒(𝑡) approaches zero, given any initial conditions 𝑒(0). If the system defined by equation (1) is completely state controllable,
then, by specifying the desired eigenvalues 𝜇1 , 𝜇2 , , … . . 𝜇𝑛 for the matrix 𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾, matrix 𝐾 can be determined by the pole placement technique.
The steadystate values of 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑢(𝑡) can be found as follows. At steady state 𝑡 = ∞, from equation (2)
𝑥̇ (∞) = 0 = (𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾)𝑥(∞) + 𝐵𝑘1 𝑟 (7)
Since the desired eigenvalues of 𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾 are all in the left half s-plane, the inverse of matrix 𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾 exists. Consequently, 𝑥(∞) can be determined
as
𝑥(∞) = −(𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾)−1 𝐵𝑘1 𝑟 (8)
Also 𝑢(∞) can be obtained as
𝑢(∞) = −𝐾𝑥(∞) + 𝑘1 𝑟 = 0
3. Explain the pole placement approach to the design of type I servo system when the plant has no integrator.(8)
If the plant has no integrator (type 0 plant), the basic principle of the design of a type 1 servo system is to insert an integrator in the feedforward
path between the error comparator and the plant, as shown in Figure 1. (The block diagram of Figure 1 is a basic form of the type 1 servo system
where the plant has no integrator.)
From the diagram, we obtain
𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 (1)
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 (2)
𝑢 = −𝐾𝑥 + 𝑘1  (3)
 = 𝑟 − 𝑦 = 𝑟 − 𝐶𝑥 (4)
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Where, x = state vector (n-vector)
y = output vector (scalar)
u = control signal (scalar)
 = output of the integrator(scalar)
A = n × n constant matrix
B = n × 1 constant matrix
C = 1 × n constant matrix
Assume that the plant given by Equation (1) is completely state controllable. The transfer function of the plant can be given by
𝐺𝑝 (𝑠) = 𝐶(𝑆𝐼 − 𝐴)−1 𝐵
To avoid the possibility of the inserted integrator being cancelled by the zero at the origin of the plant, we assume that 𝐺𝑝 (𝑠) has no zero at the origin.
Assume that the reference input (step function) is applied at 𝑡 = 0. Then, for 𝑡 > 0, the system dynamics can be described by an equation that is a
combination of Equations (1) and (4)
𝑥̇ (𝑡) 𝐴 0 𝑥(𝑡) 𝐵 0
[̇ ]=[ ][ ] + [ ] 𝑢(𝑡) + [ ] 𝑟(𝑡) (5)
 (t) −𝐶 0 (𝑡) 0 1
We can design an asymptotically stable system such that 𝑥(∞), (∞) and 𝑢(∞) approach constant values, respectively. Then, at steady state, and
we get (𝑡) = 0, and 𝑦(∞) = 𝑟. At steady state we have
𝑥̇ (∞) 𝐴 0 𝑥(𝑡) 𝐵 0
[̇ ]=[ ][ ] + [ ] 𝑢(∞) + [ ] 𝑟(∞) (6)
 (∞) −𝐶 0 (𝑡) 0 1
Noting that 𝑟(𝑡) is a step input, we have 𝑟(∞) = 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑟 (constant) for 𝑡 > 0. By subtracting Equation (6) from Equation (5), we obtain
𝑥̇ (𝑡) − 𝑥̇ (∞) 𝐴 0 𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥(∞) 𝐵
[̇ ] = [ ][ ] + [ ] [𝑢(𝑡) − 𝑢(∞)] (7)
 (t) − ̇ (∞) −𝐶 0 (𝑡) − (∞) 0
Define
𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥(∞) = 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡)
(𝑡) − (∞) = 𝑒 (𝑡)
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 𝑢(𝑡) − 𝑢(∞) = 𝑢𝑒 (𝑡)
Then, equation (7) can be written as
𝑥𝑒̇ (𝑡) 𝐴 0 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) 𝐵
[̇ ]=[ ][ ] + [ ] 𝑢𝑒 (𝑡) (8)
𝑒 (t) −𝐶 0 𝑒 (𝑡) 0
Where, 𝑢𝑒 (𝑡) = −𝐾𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) + 𝑘𝑟 𝑒 (𝑡) (9)
Define a new (𝑛 + 1) th order error vector 𝑒(𝑡) by
𝑥𝑒 (𝑡)
𝑒(𝑡) = [ (𝑡)] = (𝑛 + 1) vector
𝑒
Then equation (8) becomes,
𝑒̇ = 𝐴̂𝑒 + 𝐵̂ 𝑢𝑒 (10)
Where
𝐴 0 ̂ 𝐵
𝐴̂ = [ ],𝐵[ ]
−𝐶 0 0
Equation (9) becomes
𝑢𝑒 = −𝐾 ̂𝑒 (11)
Where, 𝐾 ̂ = [𝐾 ⋮ −𝑘1 ]
The state error equation can be obtained by substituting equation (11) into equation (10)
𝑒̇ = (𝐴̂ − 𝐵̂ 𝐾̂ )𝑒 (12)
If the desired eigenvalues of matrix (𝐴̂ − 𝐵̂ 𝐾 ̂ ) are specified as 𝜇1 , 𝜇2 , , … . . 𝜇𝑛 then the state feedback gain matrix 𝐾 and the integral gain constant 𝑘1
can be determined by the pole placement technique, provided that the system defined by equation (10) is completely state controllable. If the matrix
𝐴 0
[ ]
−𝐶 0
n has rank 𝑛 + 1 then the system defined by equation (10) is completely controllable.
4. Explain with the help of block diagram full order state observer.(8)
State Observer Design: A device (or a computer program) that estimates or observes the state variables is called state Observer. In certain systems
the state variables may not be available for measurement feedback. In such situation we need to estimate the unmeasurable state variables from the
knowledge of input and output. Hence a state observer is employed which estimates the state variables from the input and output of the systems. The
estimated state variable can be used for feedback to design the system by pole placement. The state observer can be designed only if the system is
completely state observable.
Full-order Observer: If the state observer observes all the 𝑛 number of state variable of the system then it is called full-order observer.
Reduced-order Observer: If the state observer observes 𝑚 number of state variables, where 𝑚 less than 𝑛 then the observer is is called reduced-
order observer.
Minimum-order Observer: If the order of the reduced-order observer is the minimum possible, then the observer is called a minimum-order observer.
Full-Order State Observer. The order of the state observer is the same as that of the plant. Consider a plant, defined by
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 𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 (1)
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 (2)
Where, x = state vector (n-vector)
y = output vector (scalar)
u = control signal (scalar)
A = n × n constant matrix
B = n × 1 constant matrix
C = 1 × n constant matrix
and the observer model is defined by Equation
𝑥̃ = 𝐴𝑥̃ + 𝐵𝑢 + 𝐾𝑒 (𝑦 − 𝐶𝑥̃) = (𝐴 − 𝐾𝑒 𝐶)𝑥̃ + 𝐵𝑢 + 𝐾𝑒 𝑦 (3)

To obtain the observer error equation, let us subtract Equation (3) from Equation (1)

(4)
Define the difference between x and 𝑥̃ as the error vector e, or

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 𝑒 = 𝑥 − 𝑥̃
Then Equation (4) becomes, 𝑒̇ = (𝐴 − 𝐾𝑒 𝐶)𝑒 (5)
From Equation (5), the dynamic behavior of the error vector is determined by the eigenvalues of matrix 𝐴 − 𝐾𝑒 𝐶. If matrix 𝐴 − 𝐾𝑒 𝐶 is a stable
matrix, the error vector will converge to zero for any initial error vector e(0). That is, will converge to x(t) regardless of the values of x(0) and If the
eigenvalues of matrix 𝐴 − 𝐾𝑒 𝐶 are chosen in such a way that the dynamic behavior of the error vector is asymptotically stable and is adequately fast,
then any error vector will tend to zero (the origin) with an adequate speed. If the plant is completely observable, then it can be proved that it is possible
to choose matrix 𝐾𝑒 such that 𝐴 − 𝐾𝑒 𝐶 has arbitrarily desired eigenvalues. That is, the observer gain matrix 𝐾𝑒 can be determined to yield the desired
matrix 𝐴 − 𝐾𝑒 𝐶.
5. Describe briefly about the property of separation principle in the design of state observers.
In control theory, separation principle states that under some assumptions the problem of designing an state feedback controller for a stochastic
system can be solved by designing an state observer for the state of the system, which feeds into an optimal deterministic controller for the system.
Thus the problem can be broken into two separate parts, which facilitates the design. As an example of such a principle, it has been proved that if
a stable observer and stable state feedback are designed for a linear time-invariant system, then the combined observer and feedback will be stable.
Proof
Consider a plant, defined by
𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 (1)
Where, x = state vector (n-vector)
y = output vector (scalar)
u = control signal (scalar)
A = n × n constant matrix
B = n × 1 constant matrix
C = 1 × n constant matrix
State feedback law using estimated state 𝑥̂
𝑢 = −𝐾𝑥̂ (2)
Estimation error 𝑒 = 𝑥 − 𝑥̂ (3)
Substitute (2) & (3) in (1), the state equation becomes,
𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵(−𝐾𝑥̂) = 𝐴𝑥 − 𝐵𝐾(𝑥 − 𝑒) = 𝐴𝑥 − 𝐵𝐾𝑥 + 𝐵𝐾𝑒
= (𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾)𝑥 + 𝐵𝐾𝑒 (4)
Observer equation is given by
x̂ Axˆ  Bu  L y  Cxˆ   Axˆ  BKxˆ  LC x  xˆ 
(5)
  A  BK  LC xˆ  Ly
Error \dynamics is given by

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 e  x  xˆ
e x x
ˆ   A  LC e (6)
From equation (4) and (6) the overall state equation is given by
𝑥̇ 𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾 𝐵𝐾 𝑥 𝑥
[ ]=[ ] [ ] = 𝐴̃ [ ] (7)
𝑒̇ 0 𝐴 − 𝐿𝐶 𝑒 𝑒
Eigen values of the overall system is given by
𝐼 − (𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾) −𝐵𝐾
|𝐼 − 𝐴̃| = | |
0 𝐼 − (𝐴 − 𝐿𝐶)
= 𝐼 − (𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾) × 𝐼 − (𝐴 − 𝐿𝐶) (8)
Equation (8) states that the eigenvalues of the observer-based state feedback system is consisted of eigenvalues of (𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾) and (𝐴 − 𝐿𝐶). Hence,
the design of state feedback and observer gain can be done independently.
6. Explain with the help of block diagram reduced order state observer.(8)
Minimum order Observer
In certain systems the state variables may not be available for measurement feedback. In such situation we need to estimate the unmeasurable state
variables from the knowledge of input and output. Hence a state observer is employed which estimates the state variables from the input and output
of the systems. The estimated state variable can be used for feedback to design the system by pole placement.
Full-order Observer: If the state observer observes all the 𝑛 number of state variable of the system then it is called full-order observer.
Reduced-order Observer: If the state observer observes 𝑚 number of state variables, where 𝑚 less than 𝑛 then the observer is is called reduced-
order observer.
Minimum-order Observer: If the order of the reduced-order observer is the minimum possible, then the observer is called a minimum-order observer.
If the measurement of output variables involves significant noises and is relatively inaccurate, then use of full order observer may result in a better
system performance
Consider the system
𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 (1)
Where, x = state vector (n-vector)
y = output vector (scalar)
u = control signal (scalar)
A = n × n constant matrix
B = n × 1 constant matrix
C = 1 × n constant matrix

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The state 𝑥 can be partitioned into two parts 𝑥𝑎 and 𝑥𝑏 . Here the state variable 𝑥𝑎 is equal to the output 𝑦 and thus can be directly measured and 𝑥𝑏
is the unmeasured portion of the state vector. The portioned state and output equations become.

(2)
Where, 𝐴𝑎𝑎 = scalar
𝐴𝑎𝑏 = 1 × (𝑛 − 1) matrix
𝐴𝑏𝑎 = (𝑛 − 1) × 1 matrix
𝐴𝑏𝑏 = (𝑛 − 1) × (𝑛 − 1) matrix
𝐵𝑎 = scalar
𝐵𝑏 = (𝑛 − 1) × 1 matrix
From (2) the equation for the measure portion of the state becomes
𝑥̇ 𝑎 = 𝐴𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑎 + 𝐴𝑎𝑏 𝑋𝑏 + 𝐵𝑎 𝑢
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 𝑥̇ 𝑎 − 𝐴𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑎 − 𝐵𝑎 𝑢 = 𝐴𝑎𝑏 𝑋𝑏 (3)
The term on the left side of (3) can be measured. It act as output equation. In designing minimum order observer, the left side of (3) to be known
quantities. Thus it relates the measurable quantites and unmeasurable quantities of the state. From (1) the equation for the unmeasured portion of
the state becomes
𝑥̇ 𝑏 = 𝐴𝑏𝑎 𝑥𝑎 + 𝐴𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑏 + 𝐵𝑏 𝑢 (4)
𝐴𝑏𝑎 𝑥𝑎 and 𝐵𝑏 𝑢 are known quantities and it describes the dynamics of unmeasured portion of the state.

Design of Minimum order observer

The state equation for the full order observer is
𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢
The state equation for the minimum order observer is
𝑥̇ 𝑏 = 𝐴𝑏𝑎 𝑥𝑎 + 𝐴𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑏 + 𝐵𝑏 𝑢
The output equation for the full-order observer is
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 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥
The output equation for the minimum-order observer is
𝑥̇ 𝑎 − 𝐴𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑎 − 𝐵𝑎 𝑢 = 𝐴𝑎𝑏 𝑋𝑏
The observer equation for the full-order observer is
.
𝑥 = (𝐴 − 𝐾𝑒 𝐶)𝑥̂ + 𝐵𝑢 + 𝐾𝑒 𝑦
⏞ (5)
Then making the substitutions of table into equation (5),
.
𝑥 𝑏 = (𝐴𝑏𝑏 − 𝐾𝑒 𝐴𝑎𝑏 )𝑥̂𝑏 + 𝐴𝑏𝑎 𝑥𝑎 + 𝐵𝑏 𝑢 + 𝐾𝑒 (𝑥̇ 𝑎 − 𝐴𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑎 − 𝐵𝑎 𝑢)
⏞ (6)
Where the state observer gain matrix 𝐾𝑒 is an (𝑛 − 1) × 1 matrix. To estimate 𝑥̂𝑏 we need the derivative of 𝑥𝑎 . This presents a difficulty, because
differentiation amplifies noise, if 𝑥𝑎 (= 𝑦)is noisy, the use of 𝑥̇ 𝑎 is unacceptable.
Table 1. List of necessary substitutions for writing the observer equation for the minimum-order observer

To avoid this difficulty 𝑥̇ 𝑎 should be eliminated

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Equation (10) and (8) together defines the minimum-order observer.

Where 0 is a row vector consisting of (𝑛 − 1) zeros, if we define

By subtracting equation (2) from equation (4)

Define

Then Equation (3) becomes

This is the error equation for the minimum-order observer. 𝑒 is an (𝑛 − 1) vector.

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