VI.

Cell Types and Modification

Since the cell is the basic unit of any tissue, it decides the type, nature and function of the
tissues. A group of different types of cells form tissues in the human body and one or more types of
tissues form organs. These body organs working in a mutual manner form the organ systems.

If any tissue is damaged, it actually means the cells and cell structure in the organ is
damaged. These damaged cells decide the fate of entire tissue i.e. to recover or die. Many cells
have internal tendency to multiply and help in repair while few don’t have this property.

 Different Types of tissues in the human body (Based on Tissue formation)

1. Epithelial Tissue—this type of tissue is commonly seen outside the body as coverings or as
linings of organs and cavities. Epithelial tissues are characterized by closely-joined cells
with tight junctions (i.e., a type of cell modification). Being tightly packed, tight junctions
serve as barriers for pathogens, mechanical injuries, and fluid loss.
- Cells that make up epithelial tissues can have distinct arrangements:
• Cuboidal—for secretion
• Simple columnar—brick-shaped cells; for secretion and active absorption
• Simple squamous—plate-like cells; for exchange of material through diffusion
• stratified squamous—multilayered and regenerates quickly; for protection
• pseudo-stratified columnar—single layer of cells; may just look stacked because of
varying height; for lining of respiratory tract; usually lined with cilia (i.e., a type of cell
modification that sweeps the mucus).

2. Connective Tissue—These tissues are composed of the following:

 BLOOD —made up of plasma (i.e., liquid extracellular matrix); contains water,
salts, and dissolved proteins; erythrocytes that carry oxygen (RBC), leukocytes for
defense (WBC), and platelets for blood clotting.
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER (CTP)—made up of loose connective tissue that is
found in the skin and fibrous connective tissue that is made up of collagenous
fibers found in tendons and ligaments. Adipose tissues are also examples of loose
connective tissues that store fats which functions to insulate the body and store
energy.

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  CARTILAGE —characterized by collagenous fibers embedded in chondroitin
sulfate. Chondrocytes are the cells that secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate.
Cartilage functions as cushion between bones.
 BONE —mineralized connective tissue made by bone-forming cells called
osteoblasts which deposit collagen. The matrix of collagen is combined with
calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions to make the bone hard. Blood vessels
and nerves are found at a central canal surrounded by concentric circles of
osteons.

3. Muscle Tissue—these tissues are composed of long cells called muscle fibers that allow
the body to move voluntary or involuntary. Movement of muscles is a response to signals
coming from nerve cells. In vertebrates, these muscles can be categorized into the
following:
• Skeletal—striated; voluntary movements
• Cardiac—striated with intercalated disk for synchronized heart contraction; involuntary
• smooth—not striated; involuntary

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 4. Nervous Tissue—these tissues are composed of nerve cells called neurons and glial cells
that function as support cells. These neurons sense stimuli and transmit electrical signals
throughout the animal body. Neurons connect to other neurons to send signals. The
dendrite is the part of the neuron that receives impulses from other neurons while the
axon is the part where the impulse is transmitted to other neurons.

VII. The Cancer Cell

Cancer is when abnormal cells divide in an uncontrolled way. Some cancers may
eventually spread into other tissues.

There are more than 200 different types of cancer.

 How does cancer start?

Cancer grows as cells multiply over and over.

-
Cancer starts when gene changes make one cell or a few cells begin to grow and
multiply too much. This may cause a growth called a tumor.
 How does cancer grow?

Some cancers can spread to other parts of the body.

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 - A primary tumor is the name for where a cancer starts.
- Cancer can sometimes spread to other parts of the body – this is called a secondary
tumor or a metastasis.
- Cancer and its treatments can affect body systems, such as the blood circulation,
lymphatic and immune systems, and the hormone system.

 How does cancer affect our body systems?

Is cancer genetic?

 How faulty genes lead to cancer?

Our genes pick up mistakes that occur when cells divide. These mistakes are called faults or
mutations and happen throughout our lives. They are caused by the natural processes in our cells,
and by various other factors. These include:

 Tobacco smoke
 Radiation
 Ultraviolet radiation from the sun
 Some substances in food
 Chemicals in our environment

Sometimes people inherit certain faulty genes from their parents that mean they have an
increased risk of cancer.

Usually, cells can repair faults in their genes. If the damage is very bad, they may self-
destruct instead. Or the immune system may recognize them as abnormal and kill them. This helps
to protect us from cancer.

But sometimes mutations in important genes mean that a cell no longer understands its
instructions, and starts to multiply out of control. It doesn't repair itself properly, and it doesn't die
when it should. This can lead to cancer.

There are four main types of gene involved in cell division. Most tumors have faulty copies of
more than one of these types:

1. Genes that encourage the cell to multiply (oncogenes)

- Oncogenes are genes that, under normal circumstances, play a role in telling cells to
start multiplying and dividing. Normally, in adults, this would not happen very often.
- We can think of oncogenes as being a bit like the accelerator pedal in a car. When
they are activated, they speed up a cell's growth rate. When one becomes
damaged it is like the accelerator becoming stuck down. That cell, and all the cells
that grow from it, are permanently instructed to divide. So a cancer develops.

2. Genes that stop the cell multiplying (tumor suppressor genes)

- Usually, cells can repair faults in their genes. If the damage is very bad, genes called
tumor suppressor genes may stop the cell growing and dividing.

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 - Mutations in tumor suppressor genes mean that a cell no longer understands the
instruction to stop growing and starts to multiply out of control. This can lead to
cancer.
- The best known tumor suppressor gene is p53. The p53 gene is damaged or missing in
most human cancers.

3. Genes that repair other damaged genes (DNA repair genes)

- The DNA in every cell in our body is constantly in danger of being damaged. But cells
contain many different proteins whose job is to repair damaged DNA. Thanks to
these, most DNA damage is repaired immediately, with no ill effects. But if the DNA
damage occurs to a gene that makes a DNA repair protein, a cell has less ability to
repair itself. So errors will build up in other genes over time and allow a cancer to
form.
- Scientists have found these genes to be damaged in some human cancers, including
bowel cancer.

4. Genes that tell a cell to die (self-destruction genes)

- Some genes normally tell a cell to self-destruct if it has become too old or damaged.
This is called apoptosis or programmed cell death. It is a highly complex and very
important process. Cells usually die whenever something goes wrong, to prevent a
cancer forming.
- There are many different genes and proteins involved in apoptosis. If these genes get
damaged, a faulty cell can survive rather than die and it becomes cancerous.

 Why cancer might come back?

- Cancer may come back some time after its initial treatment. This idea can be
frightening. There are a number of different reasons for why cancer might come
back.
- One reason is that the original treatment did not get rid of all the cancer cells and
those that were left grew into a new tumor. Another is that some cancer cells have
spread to other parts of the body and gradually grown there to form a tumor.
 After surgery
- Cancer can come back after surgery because:

• Some cancer cells were left behind during the operation

• Some cancer cells had broken away from the primary cancer before the operation
and spread to elsewhere in the body.

-
Surgeons do their best to make sure that all the primary cancer is removed. But it is
always possible that a tiny group of cancer cells has been left behind. Your surgeon
may recommend additional treatment if they feel that there is a risk that the cancer
could come back. The extra treatment might be chemotherapy, radiotherapy,
hormone therapy or biological therapy. These treatments aim to try to control or kill
any cells that are left.
 After cancer drug treatment or radiotherapy
- Cancer may sometimes come back after cancer drug treatment or radiotherapy
because the treatment did not destroy all of the cancer cells.
- Chemotherapy drugs kill cancer cells by attacking cells that are in the process of
doubling to form two new cells. But not all the cells in a cancer will be dividing at the
same time. Normal cells go into a long rest period between divisions. Cancer cells do
too, although the rest period may be much shorter.
- Giving chemotherapy in a series of treatments helps to catch as many cells dividing
as possible and so kill them. Hopefully, cells that were resting when you had your first
treatment (so didn't die) will be active when you have your next and so will be more
likely to die.
- But it is unlikely that any cancer treatment will kill every single cancer cell in the body.
Doctors try to reduce the numbers of cancer cells so much that the remaining cells
will be killed off by the body's own defenses. Or the cells may just die off naturally.
a. Radiotherapy makes small breaks in the DNA inside cells. These breaks stop cancer cells
from growing and dividing, and often make them die. Normal cells close to the cancer can

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 also be damaged by radiation but most of them recover and go back to working normally.
If radiotherapy doesn't kill all of the cancer cells they will regrow at some point in the future.
b. Biological therapies control cancer by changing the growth processes in cancer cells. Some
treatments may get rid of a cancer completely but others may shrink the cancer or control
it for some months or years. So a cancer may seem to have gone and may not show up on
any scans or blood tests but there may be a small group of cells that remain in the body
and start to grow and develop into a larger tumor after a while or when the treatment stops.
 Cancers can become resistant to treatment
- Sometimes cancer can become resistant to cancer drug treatment. Cancers
develop from normal cells that have changed or mutated to become cancerous.
The mutation happens in the genes of the cell. These gene changes make the cell
behave differently to a normal cell. Cancer cells continue to mutate, so that they
become more and more abnormal. Sometimes the mutations make the cells resistant
to cancer drugs such as chemotherapy, biological therapies or hormone therapy.
- If this happens you can sometimes have a different type of treatment. But
unfortunately, sometimes cancers develop resistance to many drugs at the same
time. Doctors call this multi-drug resistance.
 The main categories of cancer
- Cancers can be grouped according to the type of cell they start in. There are 5 main
categories:
• Carcinoma – cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal
organs. There are a number of subtypes, including adenocarcinoma, basal cell
carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and transitional cell carcinoma.
 Squamous cell carcinoma- starts in squamous cells. These are the flat, surface
covering cells found in areas such as the skin or the lining of the throat or food
pipe (esophagus).
 Adenocarcinoma- start in glandular cells called adenomatous cells that
produce fluids to keep tissues moist.
 Transitional cell carcinoma- cells that can stretch as an organ expands, and
they make up tissues called transitional epithelium. An example is the lining of
the bladder. Cancers that start in these cells are called transitional cell
carcinoma.
 Basal cell carcinoma- Basal cells are found in the deepest layer of skin cells.
Cancers that start in these cells are called basal cell carcinomas. They are
common.
• Sarcoma – cancer that begins in the connective or supportive tissues such as bone,
cartilage, fat, muscle, or blood vessels.
 Bone sarcomas- Sarcomas of bone start from bone cells.
 Soft tissue sarcomas- Soft tissue sarcomas are rare but the most common types
start in cartilage or muscle.
 Cartilage- Cancer of the cartilage is called chondrosarcoma.
 Muscle- Cancer of muscle cells is called rhabdomyosarcoma.

• Leukemia – cancer that starts in blood forming tissue such as the bone marrow and
causes large numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced and go into the
blood. “Cancers of blood cells”.
- A condition in which the bone marrow makes too many white blood cells. The blood
cells are not fully formed and so don't work properly to fight infection. The cells build
up in the blood.
- Most common type of cancer in children.
• Lymphoma and myeloma – cancers that begin in the cells of the immune system.
“Lymphatic system cancers”.
a. Lymphomas start from cells in the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system is a
system of tubes and glands in the body that filters body fluid and fights infection. It
is made up of the lymph glands, lymphatic vessels and the spleen. Because the
lymphatic system runs all through the body, lymphoma can start just about
anywhere. Some of the white blood cells (lymphocytes) start to divide
abnormally. And they don't naturally die off as they usually do. These cells start to
divide before they are fully mature so they can't fight infection. The abnormal

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 lymphocytes start to collect in the lymph nodes or other places such as the bone
marrow or spleen. They can then grow into tumors.
b. Myeloma is also known as multiple myeloma. It is a cancer that starts in plasma
cells. Plasma cells are a type of white blood cell made in the bone marrow. They
produce antibodies, also called immunoglobulin, to help fight infection. In
myeloma, the plasma cells become abnormal, multiply uncontrollably, and make
only one type of antibody that does not work properly to fight infection.
• Brain and spinal cord cancers – these are known as central nervous system cancers.
- Cancer can start in the cells of the brain or spinal cord. The brain controls the body
by sending electrical messages along nerve fibers. The fibers run out of the brain and
join together to make the spinal cord, which also takes messages from the body to
the brain. Together, the brain and spinal cord form the central nervous system. The
brain is made up of billions of nerve cells called neurons. It also contains special
connective tissue cells called glial cells that support the nerve cells.
- The most common type of brain tumor develops from glial cells and is called glioma.
Some tumors that start in the brain or spinal cord are non-cancerous (benign) and
grow very slowly but others are cancerous and are more likely to grow and spread.

-Cancers can also be classified according to where they start in the body, such as
breast cancer or lung cancer.
 Stages of Cancer
- Staging is a way of describing the size of a cancer and how far it has grown. When
doctors first diagnose a cancer, they carry out tests to check how big the cancer is
and whether it has spread into surrounding tissues. They also check to see whether it
has spread to another part of the body.
- Cancer staging systems may sometimes include grading of the cancer, which
describes how similar a cancer cell is to a normal cell.
 Why staging is important?
- Staging is important because it helps your treatment team to know which treatments
you need. If a cancer is just in one place, then a local treatment such as surgery or
radiotherapy could be enough to get rid of it completely. A local treatment treats
only one area of the body.
- If a cancer has spread, then local treatment alone will not be enough. You will need
a treatment that circulates throughout the whole body. These are called systemic
treatments. Chemotherapy, hormone therapy and biological therapies are systemic
treatments because they circulate in the bloodstream.
- Sometimes doctors aren't sure if a cancer has spread to another part of the body or
not. They look at the lymph nodes near to the cancer. If there are cancer cells in
these nodes, it is a sign that the cancer has begun to spread. Cancer doctors call this
having positive lymph nodes. The cells have broken away from the original cancer
and got trapped in the lymph nodes. But it is not always possible to tell if they have
gone anywhere else.
- If cancer cells are found in the lymph nodes, doctors usually suggest adjuvant
treatment. This means treatment alongside the treatment for the main primary tumor
(chemotherapy after surgery, for example). The aim is to kill any cancer cells that
have broken away from the primary tumor.
 Stage 1 - usually means that a cancer is relatively small and contained within the organ it
started in.
 Stage 2- usually means the cancer has not started to spread into surrounding tissue but the
tumor is larger than in stage 1. Sometimes stage 2 means that cancer cells have spread into
lymph nodes close to the tumor. This depends on the particular type of cancer.
 Stage 3- usually means the cancer is larger. It may have started to spread into surrounding
tissues and there are cancer cells in the lymph nodes in the area.
 Stage 4- means the cancer has spread from where it started to another body organ. This is
also called secondary or metastatic cancer.
- Sometimes doctors use the letters A, B or C to further divide the number categories –
for example, stage 3B cervical cancer.

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VIII. The Cell Cycle and Cell Division
 Cell Division Functions in Reproduction, Growth, and Repair
- Cell division involves the distribution of identical genetic material, DNA, to two
daughter cells. What is most remarkable is the fidelity with which the DNA is passed
along, without dilution or error, from one generation to the next.
 Core Concepts:

- All Organisms Consist of Cells and Arise from Preexisting Cells

o Mitosis is the process by which new cells are generated.
o Meiosis is the process by which gametes are generated for reproduction.
- The Cell Cycle Represents All Phases in the Life of a Cell
o DNA replication (S phase) must precede mitosis, so that all daughter cells
receive the same complement of chromosomes as the parent cell.
o The gap phases separate mitosis from S phase. This is the time when molecular
signals mediate the switch in cellular activity.
o Mitosis involves the separation of copied chromosomes into separate cells
- Unregulated Cell Division Can Lead to Cancer
o Cell-cycle checkpoints normally ensure that DNA replication and mitosis occur
only when conditions are favorable and the process is working correctly.
o Mutations in genes that encode cell-cycle proteins can lead to unregulated
growth, resulting in tumor formation and ultimately invasion of cancerous cells
to other organ.

In order to better understand the concept of cell division and genetics, some basic definitions are
in order:

 gene - basic unit of heredity; codes for a specific trait

 locus - the specific location of a gene on a chromosome (locus - plural loci)
 genome - the total hereditary endowment of DNA of a cell or organism
 somatic cell - all body cells except reproductive cells
 gamete - reproductive cells (i.e. sperm & eggs)
 chromosome - elongate cellular structure composed of DNA and protein - they are the
vehicles which carry DNA in cells
 diploid (2n) - cellular condition where each chromosome type is represented by two
homologous chromosomes
 haploid (n) - cellular condition where each chromosome type is represented by only one
chromosome
 homologous chromosome - chromosome of the same size and shape which carry the same
type of genes
 chromatid - one of two duplicated chromosomes connected at the centromere
 centromere - region of chromosome where microtubules attach during mitosis and meiosis

Chromosome structure

 composed of DNA and protein (histones)

all tightly wrapped up in one package
 duplicated chromosomes are
connected by a centromere

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 Example - an organism is 2n = 4.

 Chromosomes 1 & 2 are homologous chromosomes

 Chromosomes 3 & 4 are homologous chromosomes
 Chromosomes 1 & 3 came from the mother
 Chromosomes 2 & 4 came from the father

The Cell Cycle

Interphase

 The "resting" or non-mitotic portion of the cell cycle.

 It is comprised of G1, S, and G2 stages of the cell cycle.

DNA is replicated during the S phase of Interphase.

G1 - first gap

S - DNA synthesis (replication)

G2 - second gap

M - mitosis

 Mitosis - nuclear/chemical events resulting in two daughter nuclei which have identical
genetic material to each other and to the mother cell.
 Cytokinesis - division of the cytoplasm. This usually occurs with mitosis, but in some organisms
this is not so.

Prophase - the first stage of mitosis.

 The chromosomes condense and become visible

 The centrioles form and move toward opposite ends of the cell ("the poles")
 The nuclear membrane dissolves
 The mitotic spindle forms (from the centrioles in animal cells)
 Spindle fibers from each centriole attach to each sister chromatid at the kinetochore

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 Metaphase

 The Centrioles complete their migration

to the poles
 The chromosomes line up in the middle
of the cell ("the equator")

Anaphase

 Spindles attached to kinetochores begin

to shorten.
 This exerts a force on the sister
chromatids that pulls them apart.
 Spindle fibers continue to shorten, pulling
chromatids to opposite poles.
 This ensures that each daughter cell gets
identical sets of chromosomes.

Telophase

 The chromosomes decondense

 The nuclear envelope forms
 Cytokinesis reaches completion,
creating two daughter cells

Cytokinesis Divides the Cytoplasm

In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process known as cleavage.

 First, a cleavage furrow appears

o cleavage furrow = shallow groove near the location of the old metaphase
plate
 A contractile ring of actin microfilaments in association with myosin, a protein.
o Actin and myosin are also involved in muscle contraction and other
movement functions
 The contraction of a the dividing cell's ring of microfilaments is like the pulling of
drawstrings
o The cell is pinched into two.

 Cytokinesis in plant cells is different because plant cells have cell walls.
 There is no cleavage furrow.
 During telophase, vesicles from the Golgi apparatus move along microtubules to the
middle of the cell (where the cell plate was) and coalesce, producing the cell plate.
o Cell-wall construction materials are carried in the vesicles and are continually
deposited until a complete cell wall forms between the two daughter cells.

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 Chromosome Separation Is the Key Event of Mitosis

 Mitotic spindle fibers are the railroad tracks for chromosome movement.
o Spindle fibers are made of microtubules.
o Microtubules are lengthened and shortened by the addition and loss of
tubulin subunits.
o Mitotic spindle shortening during anaphase is a result of the loss of tubulin
subunits.
 A kinetochore motor is the engine that drives chromosome movement.
o Multiple studies have shown that the kinetochore contains motor proteins that
can walk along the spindle fiber during anaphase.
o These proteins presumably remove tubulin subunits, shortening spindle fibers
and facilitating the chromosome movement.

Regulation of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is controlled by a cyclically operating set of reaction sequences that both
trigger and coordinate key events in the cell cycle

 The cell-cycle control system is driven by a built-in clock that can be adjusted by
external stimuli (chemical messages)
 Checkpoint - a critical control point in the cell cycle where stop and go-ahead
signals can regulate the cell cycle
o Animal cells have built-in stop signals that halt the cell cycles and checkpoints
until overridden by go-ahead signals.
o Three Major checkpoints are found in the G1, G2, and M phases of the cell
cycle
 The G1 checkpoint - the Restriction Point
o The G1 checkpoint ensures that the cell is large enough to divide, and that
enough nutrients are available to support the resulting daughter cells.
o If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, it will usually
continue with the cell cycle
o If the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal, it will exit the cell cycle and
switch to a non-dividing state called G0
o Actually, most cells in the human body are in the G0 phase
 The G2 checkpoint ensures that DNA replication in S phase has been completed
successfully.
 The metaphase checkpoint ensures that all of the chromosomes are attached to the
mitotic spindle by a kinetochore.

Cells Which No Longer Respond to Cell-Cycle Controls - Cancer Cells

 Cancer cells do not respond normally to the body's control mechanism.

o They divide excessively and invade other tissues
o If left unchecked, they can kill the organism
 Cancer cells do not exhibit contact inhibition
o If cultured, they continue to grow on top of each other when the total area of
the petri dish has been covered
o They may produce required external growth factor (or override factors)
themselves or possess abnormal signal transduction sequences which falsely
convey growth signals thereby bypassing normal growth checks
 Cancer cells exhibit irregular growth sequences
o If growth of cancer cells does cease, it does so at random points of the cell
cycle
o Cancer cells can go on dividing indefinitely if they are given a continual
supply of nutrients
 Normal mammalian cells growing in culture only divide 20-50 times
before they stop dividing.

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  Meiosis

More definitions:

 Allele - alternate forms of the same gene

 Homozygous - having two identical alleles for a given gene
 Heterozygous - having two different alleles for a given gene
 Genotype - genetic makeup of an organism
 Phenotype - the expressed traits of an organism

 Meiosis Is a Special Type of Cell Division That Occurs in Sexually Reproducing

Organisms
o Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half, enabling sexual
recombination to occur.
 Meiosis of diploid cells produces haploid daughter cells, which may
function as gametes.
 Gametes undergo fertilization, restoring the diploid number of
chromosomes in the zygote
o Meiosis and fertilization introduce genetic variation in three ways:
 Crossing over between homologous chromosomes at prophase I.
 Independent assortment of homologous pairs at metaphase I:
 Each homologous pair can orient in either of two ways at the
plane of cell division.
 The total number of possible outcomes = 2n (n = number of
haploid chromosomes).
 Random chance fertilization between any one female gamete with
any other male gamete.
 The Role of Sexual Reproduction in Evolution
o Sexual reproduction in a population should decline in frequency relative to
asexual reproduction.
 Asexual reproduction- No males are needed, all individuals can
produce offspring.
 Sexual reproduction- Only females can produce offspring, therefore
fewer are produced.
o Sexual reproduction may exist because it provides genetic variability that
reduces susceptibility of a population to pathogen attack.

The stages of meiosis can be broken down into two main stages, Meiosis I and Meiosis II

 Meiosis I can be broken down into four sub stages: Prophase I, Metaphase I,
Anaphase I and Telophase I

 Meiosis II can be broken down into four substages: Prophase II, Metaphase II,
Anaphase II and Telophase II

Meiosis I

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 Prophase I - most of the significant processes of Meiosis occur
during Prophase I

 The chromosomes condense and become visible

 The centrioles form and move toward the poles
 The nuclear membrane begins to dissolve
 The homologs pair up, forming a tetrad
o Each tetrad is comprised of four chromotids - the
two homologs, each with their sister chromatid
 Homologous chromosomes will swap genetic material
in a process known as crossing over (abbreviated as
XO)
o Crossing over serves to increase genetic
diversity by creating four unique chromatids.

Crossing Over

 Genetic material from the homologous

chromosomes is randomly swapped
 This creates four unique chromatids
 Since each chromatid is unique, the
overall genetic diversity of the gametes is
greatly increased

Metaphase I

 Microtubules grow from the centrioles and attach to the

centromeres
 The tetrads line up along the cell equator

Anaphase I

 The centromeres break and homologous

chromosomes separate (note that the sister chromatids are
still attached)
 Cytokinesis begins

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 Telophase I

 The chromosomes may decondense (depends on

species)
 Cytokinesis reaches completion, creating two haploid
daughter cells

Meiosis II

Prophase II

 Centrioles form and move toward the poles

 The nuclear membrane dissolves

Metaphase II

 Microtubules grow from the centrioles and attach to the

centromeres
 The sister chromatids line up along the cell equator

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 Anaphase II

 The centromeres break and sister chromatids separate

 Cytokinesis begins

Telophase II

 The chromosomes may decondense (depends on

species)
 Cytokinesis reaches completion, creating four
haploid daughter cells

Reference/s:

Belardo, G.M.2016.General biology.Philippines:Vibal Group

Jabilles, A.B. et al.2013.Biological science- A simplified approach. Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.Mandaluyong
City.Phils.

Manosa, S.D. et al.2009.Breaking through biology.C & E Publishing, Inc.Quezon City, Philippines

Marquez, R.M.2015.Biological science- A modular approach.Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.Mandaluyong

City.Phils.

Cancer Research UK.(29 October 2014).Stages of Cancer.Retrieved from

http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/what-is-cancer/stages-of-cancer

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