Psychological types. Introduction.

Through insights gained from the clinical study of patients, two broad personality types are distinguished: the
introverted and the extraverted. In the introduction to “Psychological Types,” the theory is stated; the method to
be followed to understand them is described; and, the definition, characteristics and effects of these two
personality types are summarized. For the introverted personality, subjective and psychological processes are
the center of interest: all life-giving energy seeks the subject himself; the object has a lower value than the
subject. The extraverted personality, on the other hand, is drawn to the object as the center of interest: ultimate
value rests in the object and the subject subordinates his own subjective processes to the object. The
psychological result of these two standpoints is two totally different orientations: one sees everything in terms of
the objective event (extraverted); the other sees everything in terms of his own situation (introverted). This broad
classificatio does not exclude the existence of a second set of psychological types determined by the four basic
psychological functions: thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition, found within both introverted and extraverted
personalities. This work, then, will discuss both sets of types: one determined by the predominant center of
interest; the other determined by the predominance of one of the four basic psychological functions.

The problem of personality types in the history of classical and medieval thought. 1. Psychology in the
classical age: the Gnostics, Tertullian, Origen

The psychological types postulated by Gnostic philosophy, the types represented by Tertullian and Origen, and
the relationship of Christianity to later thought and ‘knowledge are discussed. In early history, one finds a
collective attitude rather than a concept of the individual. Gnostic philosophy postulated three personality types,
corresponding to three basic psychological functions: the pneumatikoi, related to the thinking function; the
psychikoi, related to feeling; and the hylikoi, related to sensation. In Gnosticism, feeling was devalued in favor of
thought; in Christianity the reverse was true. Tertullian, the fanatic who created Church Latin is described as a
classic example of introversion, sacrificing intellect to the inner soul. Origen, another Christian. scholar, is
classified as. a classic extravert. By his self-castration he sacrificed feeling and sensation to intellect or objective
fact.

2. The theological disputes of the ancient church

The early religious schisms resulting from attempts to define the nature of Christ are examined as examples of
the opposition between extraverted and introverted psychological types. The Ebionite/Docetist opposition, the
homoousia/homoiousia debate of Arianism, and the Monophysite/Diophysite struggle all reveal a great
psychological schism beneath the theological disputes. One set of positions placed an extreme value on the
sensually visible; the other valued the abstract and extrahuman. This type conflict reappeared in the
Pelagian/Augustinian controversy of the fifth century: Pelagius and Celestius’ defended the rightness of the
feeling of human value against Augustine’s pessimistic view of man and his exaltation of the Church as idea.
Nestorius and Cyril, in their respective definitions of Mary as Christ bearer and God bearer, are also considered
as typifying the opposition of the attraction of the sensual versus that of the abstract.

3. The problem of transubstantiation.

Continuing the progression through history in search of other examples of the appearance of the two basic
psychological types, Radbertus’ doctrine of Communion (transubstantiation) is contrasted with that of Scotus
Erigena (commemoration) as examples of the opposition between extraverted and introverted thinking. Abbot
Paschasius Radbertus concretized the symbols of bread and wine by maintaining that the* wine and bread of
Communion were transformed into the body and blood of Christ. Scotus Erigena, praised by Hales in his History
of the Christian Church as one of the most advanced thinkers of his day, maintained that Communion was

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nothing more than a commemoration of the last supper of Christ with his apostles. No conclusions are drawn
about the individual psychology of the two protagonists, but a brief description of their lives and their fates is
given. The effect of the belief in miracles analyzed; extraverted thinking is qualified as “rational,” introverted as
“programmatic.” The fact that Radbertus’ extraverted thinking was accepted as doctrinal and Scotus’ introverted
thinking rejected as lifeless, is considered to indicate that the age itself longed for the reality of religious miracles
and that Radbertus’ thought was perceived as life giving because it concretised the desire of the age.

4. Nominalism and realism. a. The problem of universals in antiquity.

The definition, historical roots, characteristics and significance of Nominalism and Realism are examined. The
Nominalists held that universals such as beauty, goodness, animal, man, etc., are nothing but names or words;
the realists maintained that universals exist in themselves, before the thing, (ante-rem). The roots of the
opposition between these two philosophies are traced to the Platonic and Megarian schools. Gromperz is
credited with perceiving the fundamental opposition in terms of inherence and predication. Using the progression
from our perception of warm to our recognition of the existence of energy as an example, the development of the
thing- likeness of the purely conceptual is demonstrated. This “thing-likeness” was apparent in primitive man’s
perception of the imago as a sensory colored memory image or hallucination. Since modem man desensitizes
the psychic image and thinks abstractly, this process can only be recaptured in dreams or mystical vision. Both
these examples support the theory that the reality of the predicate is given a priori, since it has always existed in
the human mind.

b. The problem of Universals in Scholasticism.

The problem of defining the nature of universals and the relationship between these definitions and God
concepts is reviewed. Porphyry defined the problem as the opposition between the belief that universals are
substantial, corporeal and existing in corporeal things and the belief that they are intellectual, incorporeal and
separate things. Between the Platonic view of reality in which the universal idea was considered to exist before
the thing and the Nominalist attitude that generic concepts were mere words, stood Aristotle’s realistic view that
form and matter coexist. In the Middle Ages, this controversy became the quintessence of Scholasticism.
Roscellinus represented the Nominalist view; Anselm and Abelard, the realistic. Anselm’s ontological proof of the
existence of God — that the idea of God proves his existence is considered psychologically important: it is a
demonstration of the reality of the world of ideas. Psychology must recognize the difference between these two
approaches, since they now influence current oppositions between idealism and realism, spiritualism and
materialism. Other champions of the opposing arguments are discussed and Kant’s position is summarized.
Kant’s mediatory position is accepted as being as definitive and conclusive. The God concept is explained in
terms of analytical psychology. The God concept coincides with a particular ideational complex, which, in
accordance with its definition, concentrates in itself the maximum amount of libido or psychological energy.

c. Abelard’s attempt at conciliation.

The analysis of Abelard’s conceptualism as an intermediary position between Nominalism and Realism leads to
the discussion of the role of psychology and fantasy in establishing a point of conciliation between the idea and
the object and concludes with an examination of the theories of Freud and Adler. From Nominalism Abelard took
the idea that universals are words, in that they are intellectual conventions expressed by language. From realism
he borrowed the theory that genera and species are combinations of individual facts and things by reason of
similarity. His position, conceptualism, maintained that individual objects are perceived and classified into genera
and species by reason of similarities, thus reducing the absolute multiplicity of the Nominalists into a relative
unity. Abstraction and empathy are discussed as the underlying methods of the conceptualist. Had psychology

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existed in Abelard’s age, his position would have been that of esse in anima (reality in the self). However, his
conciliation was unsatisfactory and confusing because he attempted to resolve the differences on the level of a
logical/intellectual formulation, whereas the problem is a psychological one requiring the recognition of concrete
reality. Psychology, on the other hand, in so far as it recognizes that the unity of the idea and the thing occurs
within the human psyche, arrives at a true conciliation. The process of conciliation and the role of fantasy in this
process are described. Fantasy is defined as the clearest expression of the psyche, the creative activity from
which all answers come, the sole mechanism which unites introversion and extraversion. Some of the difficulties
that prevent the recognition of the role of fantasy are examined. The influence of Christianity in suppressing the
unconscious in the individual, thus paralyzing the activity of fantasy, is analyzed, as is the role of the sciences.
Psychology, as an abstract science, does not escape the tendency to condemn fantasy. It is only in practical
psychology that the conciliation in its totality is treated. Freud viewed fantasy as a causal, elementary process;
he explained the problems of the psyche as resulting from the repression of incompatible wish tendencies.
Adler’s psychology is dominated by the belief in ego superiority that never allows man to be subject to the object.
It is concluded that the theory of Freud was extraverted; that of Adler introverted. Fantasy is seen as the key to
the synthesis of the opposing mechanisms.

The Holy Communion controversy between Luther and Zwingli.

The difference between the subject oriented and the object oriented types (introverts and extraverts) is illustrated
with an example drawn from a religious controversy: the differing beliefs of Luther and Zwingli regarding Holy
Communion. Luther, the object oriented type, believed in the doctrine of transubstantiation, not because he was
unable to let go of tradition, but because the actual sense contact with the bread and wine and the feeling value
resulting therefrom determined his belief. Zwingli, in his belief that Communion was a symbol, was faithful to the
new evangelism and the dictates of reason. He ignored the sense impression and the feeling value derived from
the contact with the object and thought only of the principle or ideal beneath the object. Their views were
mutually exclusive and irreconcilable since they sprang from the extraverted (Luther) and introverted (Zwingli)
conceptions of things.

Schiller’s ideas on type problem. 1. Letters on the aesthetic education of man. a. The superior and
inferior functions.

Friedrich Schiller’s conscious differentiation of typical attitudes into superior and inferior functions serves as the
basis for the analysis of the typical conflict present in the introverted thinking type. Schiller’s letters on the
esthetic education of man, -Uber die asthetische Erziehung des Menschen” (1795), are used as the source of the
analysis. Schiller’s perception of culture as cause of the separation is examined; the ancient world’s emphasis on
the development of the few is contrasted with Christianity’s collective culture; the present situation of individual
development is analyzed in relation to collective functions. Schiller’s recognition that certain functions have been
repressed (inferior functions) and his fear of the conflict that would ensue within the individual once he was
liberated is the basis for an analysis of the effects of an imperfectly developed function, operating unconsciously
and autonomously, on the conscious mind. Schiller overcame his fear of confronting the conflict by relating his
personal struggle to the larger contemporary scene as did Rousseau. Both sought the solution in earlier historical
periods. The disadvantages of the retrospective orientation is exposed and it is proposed that the beginning of a
solution resides in the acceptance of the inferior functions and the creation of a gradient that will allow them to
come into play. A detailed description of the way in which the inferior functions rise to the surface is provided.
Schiller’s perception of the problem is that of the introvert; Goethe’s that of the extrovert. This judgement is
substantiated by examples drawn from Schiller’s definition of God and by a quotation from Schiller that
expresses the conscious attitude of the introvert: “Externalize all within and shape everything without.”

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b. Concerning the basic instincts.

Schiller’s identification of two basic functions: feeling/sensation and thinking, his awareness of their opposition
and the need for a third function (play instinct), to mediate this opposition are discussed. Schiller’s ideas are
examined in the light of the theory on the role of fantasy and the symbol in resolving the conflict between the two
instincts. Schiller’s theories are colored by his own introverted thinking and personality type. Nevertheless, it is
demonstrated that Schiller was aware of several psychological realities: the two basic functions can replace each
other; identification with one differentiated function can occur; both sensuality and spirituality have a fight to exist;
and symbols arise from the living out of both instincts at the same time. Schiller is also credited with the
discovery of an individual nucleus in which both instincts exist but which is not identified with either. These
discoveries of Schiller are the springboard for descriptions of the transcendent function of the symbol, the
collaboration of the unconscious in fantasy and the methods by which the basic instincts can be defused.
Schiller’s “esthetic condition” is compared to the state produced by certain Indian practices: yoga, tapas,
brahmanism, rta and the like. Schiller’s solution is criticized and his limitations are analyzed as reflecting his own
unconscious ideal. Schiller is praised for his intuitive grasp of the things he observed and for recognizing that the
mediatory position produces -something positive,” namely the symbol. The conclusion emphasizes the
importance of the symbol: it unites antithetical elements within its nature — conscious and unconscious, real and
unreal, psychic and physical, real and apparent.

Schiller’s ideas on the type problem. 2. A discussion of naive and sentimental poetry. a. The naive
attitude.

Schiller’s definition of the naive poet as he who “follows nature and sensation and who confines himself to the
mere copying of reality” is examined. The characteristics of the naive poet, as described by Schiller, are listed
and analyzed as an example of a typical mechanism. Insofar as the naive poet’s relation to the object expresses
an introjection of the object or an a priori identification based on an analogy between the object and the
unconscious of the poet, the naive poet is conditioned by the object. The poet, in turn, tends his expressive
function to the object as it represents itself to him. It is concluded that the poet, described by Schiller as naive, is
extraverted to the extent that this process gives the object supremacy over the subject.

b. The sentimental attitude.

Schiller’s commentary on the naive and sentimental poets is continued; the characteristics of the sentimental
poet are examined and are shown to be expressive of the introverted attitude. Additional consideration is given to
the functions of sensation and intuition in order to further specify the introverted and extraverted attitudes.
Schiller’s description of the sentimental poet indicates that an a priori separation from the object is the foundation
of the sentimental poet’s attitude. The work that results is a product of reflection and abstraction. The dualism of
the sentimental poet is discussed as stemming from the twofold source of his creativity: the object itself and the
poet’s perception of it. In that the sentimental poet stands above the object and bestows value or quality on it, his
attitude is that of introversion. The introverted and extraverted attitudes do not exhaust the understanding of the
two types of poetry, however. Sensation and intuition are considered in their relation to the introverted and
extraverted attitudes: a preponderance of sensation characterizing the naive poet; a preponderance of intuition
characterizing the 11 sentimental” poet.

c. The idealist and the realist.

The division of the poets into naive and sentimental types leads Schiller to the recognition of two fundamental
psychological types whose significance in Schiller’s scheme of things corresponds to the introverted and
extraverted types. By subtracting the creative genius from both mechanisms, Schiller arrived at the isolation of

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two reciprocal psychological types: the realist and the idealist. The former, the naive poet, depends on the
testimony of his senses and is attached to the object which maintains an autonomy in the subject; the latter, the
sentimental poet, remains detached from the object, depends on his speculative powers and uses the object to
arrive at the absolute. Schiller’s observations are abandoned at this point since they relate exclusively to the
familiar phenomena of the realist and idealist attitudes. 1 reference.

The Apollonian and the Dionysian.

The analysis of Nietzsche’s Apollinian and Dionysian types, as defined in his “The Birth of Tragedy,” leads to a
discussion of intuitive and sensation psychological types. The Apollinian type based on an inner perception of
beauty and producing a psychological state that Nietzsche called dreaming, is analogous to the mechanism of
introversion. The Dionysian type is based on a streaming outwards, akin to Goethe’s diastole or Schiller’s world
embracing. It produces a psychological state that Nietzsche termed intoxication; this “streaming outwards” is
analogous to the extraverted mechanism. The reconciliation of the two types was perceived by Nietzsche to be
an esthetic solution apparent in Greek tragedy. This explanation is rejected and religion is posited as the source
of the reconciliation. The esthetic solution, however, leads to the identification of sensation and intuitive types.
These two types are defined, and a distinction is made between them and the rational thinking, feeling types.
The intuitive type raises the unconscious perception of the world to the level of a differentiated function; the
sensation type relies exclusively on sense impression and is psychologically oriented toward instinct. Nietzsche
himself is classified as an intuitive leaning toward introversion and reasons are given for this classification

The type problem in human character. 1. General remarks on Jordan’s types.

The two characterological types proposed by Furneaux Jordan in “Character as Seen in Body and Parentage”
are examined and compared to function types. Jordan’s typology reveals his intuitive grasp of the introverted and
extraverted types. Although his analysis of function types is confused by the introduction of the activity factor,
ascribing a more impassioned but less active nature to the introvert and a less impassioned but more active
nature to the extravert, Jordan is praised for his characterization of the types in terms of affectivity. The reflective,
contemplative nature of the introvert is compensated by the archaic unconscious instinct and sensation; the
busy, outward seeking nature of the extravert is compensated by unconscious archaic thinking and feeling. Thus
the introvert is more influenced by his passions and the extravert by his inner psychic life. Jordan’s intuitive
analysi’s is compared to rational analysis, showing that both arrive at the same conclusions. Jordan’s
intermediate group is recognized as analogous to sensation and intuitive types. 1 reference.

2. Special description and criticism of Jordan’s types. a. The introverted woman.

A psychological portrait of the introverted woman is drawn from Jordan’s analysis of her affectivity and the
description of her conscious inner life and its relation to affectivity. Jordan’s view is seen as relying too heavily on
the introverted woman’s capacity for deep hatred, love, sympathy, jealousy, intensity and capacity for intimacy.
This limitation is counterbalanced by the analysis of her contemplative, analytical, logical powers. Her well
ordered intellectual life is perceived as a defense Against an elemental, confused and ungovernable affective life;
this view leads to the conclusion that the mind of the introverted woman is more to be relied upon than her
untamed affectivity.

b. The extraverted woman

Jordan’s description of the extraverted or less impassioned woman is given, with comments on the manner in
which thought and affect appear in this type. Jordan describes the extraverted woman as “idealess, restless,
emotionless and spotless.” It is agreed that the tendency toward incoherent and inconsequential criticism that
Jordan ascribes to this type reveals an absence of independent reflection. However, it is felt that Jordan

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undervalues affect in the extraverted woman. In contrast, the value of the differentiation of affectivity is
emphasized: although shallow, it is socially oriented, thus promoting the life of the community and the welfare of
society. It is maintained that neither the introverted nor extraverted type is the more valuable; both are necessary
to the individual and to society. 1 reference.

c. The extraverted man.

Jordan’s description of the extraverted or less impassioned man is given along with the criticism that Jordan’s
intellectual approach is an inadequate method for evaluating the extraverted man. Jordan’s description of the
extravert is felt to be a caricature of the concrete man. The difficulty that a reflective man like Jordan encounters
in attempting to grasp the value of the lived reciprocal relationship of the extravert to the object is explained. The
reflective man or introvert sees the shadow cast by the unconscious of the positive man. Although the judgment
of the unconscious is correct, it neglects the conscious man. A warning is given to psychologists: they must
differentiate the conscious man from the unconscious in order to arrive at true understanding and avoid reducing
the man to his unconscious background. 1 reference.

d. The introverted man.

Jordan’s brief description of the introverted or more impassioned man is given with an explanation for the cause
of its inadequacy. It is observed that the brevity of Jordan’s description and the total absence of a description of
the passion attributed to this type can be explained by positing that Jordan himself was an introvert and was
therefore incapable of perceiving and explaining his own unconscious. This leads to the conclusion that neither
the extravert nor the introvert is capable of giving an adequate description of his own unconscious nor can one
adequately explain the concrete in the other. Jordan’s observation on the introvert’s genuine love of pleasure is
considered important, however, since it provides a valuable insight into the nature of introverted feeling. Jordan’s
analyses are abandoned at this point because of the fallacies derived from the introduction of the activity factor,
although Jordan is credited with having given an appropriate character sketch of the emotional types. 1
reference.

The type problem in poetry. Carl Spitteler: Prometheus and Epimetheus. 1. Introductory remarks on
Spitteler’s typology

Using the poetic work of Carl Spitteler, Prometheus and Epimetheus, the struggle waged for the possession of
the ego by the introverted and extraverted lines of development in one individual is illustrated. Prometheus, an
example of the introverted side, surrenders himself to his inner psychic function * He perceives the soul as an
object separate from the individual ego, rejects the tendency to adapt to the real, and hence experiences great
suffering. This surrender reveals the demonic nature of the soul; that is, it allows a glimpse of all the engrams or
traces of the functions of the human psyche as they appear in the unconscious from time immemorial.
Epimetheus, on the other hand, the extraverted side of man, abandons his soul, is caught up in the desires and
expectations of the world and, with his conscience as a shield against surrendering totally to the object, conforms
to society. He fulfills the wishes of all with self-righteousness and self-assurance, thus achieving success. The
confrontation between Prometheus and Epimetheus makes visible the conflict in the man who is outwardly
Epimethean and inwardly Promethean. 3 references.

2. A comparison of Spitteler’s with Goethe’s Prometheus.

The struggle between differentiated and undifferentiated functions, whether introverted or extraverted, is
presented by means of a comparison between Goethe’s Prometheus and that of Spitteler. The attempts at a
solution, as evident in Schiller, Spitteler and Goethe, are examined, with Goethe’s Faust offering the best grasp
of the necessary steps for reconciliation. Spitteler’s Prometheus, the introvert, in his withdrawal into the soul’s

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depths, represents the psychological principle of compensation. The Pandora interlude describes in full the
compensatory process; her jewel becomes a symbol of the redeeming work of Prometheus. Epimetheus, the
rational attitude, cannot comprehend the jewel, the work of the unconscious, and thus it is lost. In Spitteler’s
work, this marks the beginning of Epimetheus’ downfall: the collective undifferentiated attitude stifles man’s
highest values, forcing Promethetus to place himself at the service of the uncon- scious. Goethe’s Prometheus is
a creative artist who works outwards toward the world, the extraverted side, whereas his Epimetheus is the
brooding introvert. It is Prometheus who represents the collective function while Epimetheus is the un-
differentiated function of thinking and feeling. The soul, Pan- dora, is coupled with the undifferentiated function,
producing a pathological egocentricity. Goethe’s solution is the marriage of Phileros, the unconscious erotic
compulsion of Prometheus, with Epimetheus’ daughter, Care. Thus the two are reconciled in the recognition that
Prometheus’ industriousness is nothing but unadmitted eroticism and Epiemtheus’ brooding, a rational misgiving
that would have checked the uncontrolled produc- tivity of Prometheus. The myths are seen as illustrations of the
conflict that arises whenever an individual or an historical change of attitude takes place: a difficult task is
encountered; libidio withdraws (regression) and a primitive analogue of the conscious situation emerges. The
choice of a classical image is considered to be a reaction on the part of the 18th century classicists to the
Christian division of man into two halves: one valuable, the other degraded. It is pointed out that this regressive
renaissance of paganism was stillborn; Geothe’s Faust, in taking into account the Christian heritage of the age, is
viewed as providing a better solution to the conflict. 6 references.

3. The significance of the uniting symbol. a. The Brahmanic conception of the problem of opposites.

The significance of the religious symbolism used in Spit- teler’s solution to the conflict between opposite
psychological types is discussed and related to the Brahman solution. The religious solutions of Spitteler,
Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, and Goethe are analyzed as voicing the workings of the collective unconscious: the
god image is the symbol of the unconscious while the symbol of god renewal is intimately connected with the
opposition of types and functions. The renewal of god is a primordial, universal image of a transformation in
attitude. The psychological point of departure for this symbol is the splitting of the libido (Prometheus and
Epimetheus); the un- conscious, a middle way between the two, is projected as a mediating god or messiah. In
Western religions, this new life bearer is perceived as God or Savior who ends the division in his time and
according to his will. Several quotations from Sanskit texts reveal that, in the Eastern religions, this redemp- tive
middle ground is attainable by a conscious attitude. The Brahmanic solution and its meaning are explained: the
exter- nal, emotional and ideational opposites are denied participation in the psyche in order to liberate the self
for the new life in Brahman. Brahman is then both the state of the irrational union of opposites and the process
by which one arrives at this state. This irrational union is expressed in the Upanishads as libido symbols. 19
references.

b. The Brahmanic concept of the uniting symbol

Examples of Brahmanic symbols provide the basis for a discussion of the role of libido in the creation of symbols,
the psychological phenomenon of personification and the effects of one-sided introversion or extraversion. The
symbols of Brahman, usually pairs of opposites, reveal the Eastern concept of Brahman as both a divine entity
and a redemptive psychological state. These symbols of dynamic or creative power are related to the concept of
libido and the yogi’s method of prayer is explained as producing a concentration of libido by withdrawing it from
both extraverted and introverted functions. From the Rig Veda and Shatapatha Brahmana, symbols representing
the paring of opposites are selected; these symbols are interpreted as principles of the psychological functions of
extraversion and introversion. The speech/mind opposition (vac-Manas), takes the form of devouring monsters,
and indication of the dissociation that results when the con- scious ego, with a selected function (extraversion or

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introversion), splits away from the other components of the personality. This form of dissociation is common in
people who are too deeply immersed in one of their psychic functions, such as we find in Goethe’s Faust. In
conclusion, the demonic nature of libido in those persons who are unconsciously caught in a one- sided
extraverted or introverted attitude is demonstrated. 18 references.

c. The uniting symbol as the principles of dynamic regulation.

The uniting symbol of Brahman philosophy and its relation to the concept of libido are discussed as basic
principles for amving at true morality. Rta represents the source of libido in Brahman philosophy, although it is a
less concretistic symbol than sun, wind and rain. It can be likened to the Stoic concept of heimarmene, a
predetermined regular process or an established order. Libido, the energy of the life process, follows the same
laws as all vital energy: it passes through many transformations, keeping to a definite path in order to allow for
the optimal discharge of energy. Libido, then, is the law of our being. This understanding of libido is basic to the
un- derstanding of morality. It is stated that there can be no higher moral principle than harmony with natural
laws that guide the libido in the direction of life’s optimum. It is not surrender to instinct but a difficult path to be
attained, as is evident in the philosophy of the Upanishads. It requires freedom which modem man fears because
of the barbarism lurking beneath the veneer of modern culture. It is concluded however, that it is only in
experiencing the conflict of opposites that an individual will recognize moral principles as constituents of his own
nature and not as external restriction. 8 references.

d. The uniting symbol in Chinese philosophy.

The unifying of opposites as it appears in Tao is described and related to Brahman philosophy, the philiosophy of
the Japanese Toju, Wagner’s Parsifal and the role of analytical psychology. The two mutually antagonistic
tendencies, ex- pressed as yeng/yin and shen/kwei in Chinese philosophy, are perceived as striving to bring man
into extreme attitudes. Tao is the middle way, the irrational counterweight which enables man to live in harmony
with the opposites and to find deliverance from cosmic tensions. This same perception of two opposing forces
and a mediating third way is evident in Brahman, in the ri/ki/ryochi formulation of the Japanese philosopher Toju,
and in the Kundry/Amfortas/Parsifal creations of Wagner. The constant recurrence of this perception is explained
by showing that it is part of the collective unconscious of all ages, an exteriorization of the lived conflict which
involves the domestication of libido. The role of analytical psychology is to raise the conflict to the level of con-
sciousness and, through self-awareness, to enable man to reflect on what he experiences rather than living it
blindly..