Chapter 1

Organization of the Human Body

 Definitions
n Anatomy: science that studies structure
n Physiology: science that studies body functions
n Anatomy (structure) determines physiology
(functions)
Levels of Organization
n Chemical: atoms àmolecules
n Cellular: cells containing organelles
q Basic unit of life
n Tissue: groups of cells and surrounding material
q 4 basic types: epithelial, connective, muscular,
nervous
n Organ: group of tissues performing a common
function
n System: group of organs with a common function
n Organism: contains all systems of an individual
Levels of Organization

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Life Processes
n Metabolism- the sum of all the chemical
processes that occur in the body.
n Responsiveness - the body’s ability to detect
and respond to changes.
n Movement - includes motion of the whole body,
individual organs, single cells, and even tiny
structures inside cells.
Life Processes
n Growth - is an increase in body size that
results from an increase in the size of existing
cells, an increase in the number of cells, or
both.
n Differentiation - the development of a cell
from an unspecialized to a specialized state.
n Reproduction - refers either to the formation
of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or
replacement, or to the production of a
new individual.
Autopsy
n Postmortem examination
n Examination and dissection of a body to
determine the cause of death when life
processes have not been maintained
adequately.
Homeostasis
n is the condition of equilibrium in the body’s
internal environment due to the constant
interaction of the body’s many regulatory
processes.
n Maintaining a stable internal environment
n Dynamic process because of many changes
n Examples of variable factors
q Body temperature, Blood pressure
q Water and nutrient levels
n Maintained by feedback systems
Feedback sys. or Feedback loop

n cycle of events in which the status of a body

condition is monitored, evaluated, changed,
remonitored, reevaluated, and so on.
n monitored variable, such as body
temperature, blood pressure, or blood
glucose level, is termed a controlled
condition.
n three basic components of Feedback sys :
receptor, control center, and an effector.
Components of Homeostatic Mechanisms
n Stimulus disrupts a controlled variable
n Receptor recognizes the change and
sends message = input (afferent pathways)
to:
n Control Center that evaluates input and
sends output (efferent pathway) to:
n Effector receives output and produces a
response
Operation of
Feedback
System
Negative Feedback Systems
n reverses a change in a controlled condition
n Most homeostatic control mechanisms are
negative feedback systems
n “Negative” means “opposite” (not “bad”)
n These systems reverse a change in the
controlled variable, bringing it back to
“normal”
q Example: high blood pressure (BP) is detected
and then lowered to normal BP
Negative
Feedback
Systems

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Positive Feedback Systems
n Few homeostatic control mechanisms are of
this type
n These systems strengthen a change and
must be shut down by an outside force.
n Examples:
q Contractions of uterus cause even more
contractions at child birth
q Hormonal control of ovulation
q Systems that control blood clotting
 Clinical Terms
n Disorder: abnormality of structure/function
n Disease: specific illness characterized by signs
and symptoms
q Symptoms: subjective changes not observable from
outside a person. Examples: pain, headache,
nausea, anxiety
q Signs: observable or measurable changes.
Examples: can be either anatomical, such as
swelling or a rash, or physiological, such as fever,
high blood pressure, or paralysis.
Aging and Homeostasis
n Normal process that:
q Includes a progressive loss in the ability to
maintain homeostasis (homeostatic imbalance)
q Affects all body systems
q Can be slowed down or minimized by healthy
living
Anatomical Terms
n Precise use of language to define position,
direction, and location in the body.
q Anatomical position
n Stands erect facing the observer, with head level and
eyes facing forward, and palms facing forward
q Common and anatomical terms
q Directional terms
q Planes and sections
q Body cavities
Anatomical Position
Directional Terms
• words that describe the position of one body part
relative to another
n Superior - toward the head

n Inferior - away from the head

n Anterior (ventral) - nearer to or at the front of the

body
n Posterior (dorsal) - nearer to or at the back of the
body
n Medial – nearer to the midline

n Lateral- farther from the midline

n Intermediate – between two structures

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Directional Terms
n Ipsilateral -On the same side of the body as
another structure
n Contralateral - On the opposite side of the body
from another structure
n Proximal - Nearer to the attachment of a limb to the
trunk; nearer to the origination of a structure
n Distal - Farther from the attachment of a limb to the
trunk; farther from the origination of a structure
n Superficial (external)-Toward or on the surface of
the body
n Deep (internal)- Away from the surface of the body.
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Directional Terms

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Planes Through the Human Body
n Planes - imaginary flat surfaces that pass
through the body parts
q Sagittal plane - a vertical plane that divides the
body or an organ into right and left sides.
q midsagittal plane or a median plane - a plane
passes through the midline of the body or an organ
and divides it into equal right and left sides
q parasagittal plane - divides the body or an organ
into unequal right and left sides
q frontal or coronal - divides the body or an organ
into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.
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Planes Through the Human Body
q Transverse plane - divides the body or an
organ into superior and inferior portions.
q aka cross-sectional or horizontal plane

q Oblique plane - passes through the body or an

organ at an oblique angle.

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Planes Through the Human Body

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Planes and Sections: Brain
•Section - is a cut of the body or one of its organs
made along one of the planes

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Planes and Sections: Brain

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Planes and Sections: Brain

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Anatomical Terms
n Body cavities - are spaces within the body
that help protect, separate, and support
internal organs.

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Anatomical Terms
n Body cavities
q Cranial (brain) and vertebral (spinal cord)
q Thoracic (chest cavity): pleural, pericardial, and
mediastinal (region between lungs)
q Abdominopelvic (inferior to diaphragm):
n Abdominal
q Larger; contains most abdominopelvic organs
q Subdivided into 9 regions or 4 quadrants

n Pelvic
q More inferior and smaller
q Contains urinary bladder, lowest portions of digestive
tract, and internal reproductive organs

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Anatomical Terms
n Body cavities
q Serous membranes are located in thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities
n Functions: protect organs, reduce friction
n Layers
q Visceral layer covers organs
q Parietal layer lines cavity

n Names:
q Pleural (covers lungs, lines thorax)
q Pericardial (covers heart, lines central part of thorax)

q Peritoneal (covers organs, lines abdominopelvic cavity)

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Body Cavities

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Body
Cavities

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Anterior view of thoracic cavity

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Anterior View of Abdominopelvic cavity

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Abdominopelvic Cavity: 4 Quadrants

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Abdominopelvic Cavity: 9 Regions

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Abdominopelvic Cavity: 9 Regions

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Organs in the Regions

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Other body cavities
n Oral (mouth) cavity, which contains the tongue
and teeth
n Nasal cavity in the nose
n Orbital cavities (orbits), which contain the
eyeballs
n Middle ear cavities which contain small bones
n Synovial cavities which are found in freely
movable joints and contain synovial fluid

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References

n Tortora, G.J., & Derrickson, B. (2012). Principles of ANATOMY &

PHYSIOLOGY. (13th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken (NJ)
n Tortora, G.J., & Derrickson, B. (2009). Principles of ANATOMY &
PHYSIOLOGY. (12th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken (NJ)

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.