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LoGic—METHODOLOGY AND CONCEPTS Statcraent: Statementie generally meant soup of words thet have anewning hut in Logie slatement means group of words that has two torms, first terms user! under svbject and the serond term under predicale, The stavwments in logic are called propositions or pro:niues. Premises: The premises that has the major lerm 1s called -najor premise and the premise that hue che minor term is coiled nuinor promiae, ‘Term: The predicate uf major premise is called major term and ie denoted by P and its sulyect zs catled caincr tezm and is denated by Sand the terms which are common in both the Premises are called middle term which is denned by M. for example, Exampl All men are muztal. (Major Premive} Ravi 28 man. (Miner Premise! lam is mortal (Conclusion) Nore ‘mortal’ ss major teem znd ite subject is not minor term here because it je imminon promise also go it és middle term. Minor tote here is “Ram In logic unit of argument is dalled proposition cr premise and unit of HOUght is called term. A propesitiow/is different frum a sentence thutite predicate g-liter Bitirm or Cony the subject, ie. ifwe say thabbhave taken food, In this sentence prégjeate neither affirms nur donies the subjaBabat it We say ther man is suurtal then the word'Mdetal affirms the man so this isa profiosifienjand "L have Laken food" is just o sentanc Now the queetion is hew will we identify (qe ajor and minor premises in a sylligisBiroup of lowical statemer ts. It is woasible Ly identifying the major and manor teenit Bur Chis purpose study the {st and Tad Puwhiises aud idensity the predicate which hus vital and wide concept. ILwill be the major teem and the terms which come in both the preises will be the middle loxme. A. wem may have of word av ricxe than ona ward, Mercaver iihior torm will be need us subject of the condlucini and its predicate Wall be the rinjor gern ‘Pypes of Syllogism: 1. Categorical: Flere all the proposiligfts ave CWusGorical in positive or nogatie fotm und no dochtfullnens ia aeen at Rlked 3. Allgraduntns ypmeligitle Major! All eligibte ae mon fino Some menareyradieces. (Cone) Typouletica: ‘The syllogism 9f this ype uses premise of conitign si” he works hard, he will ssapeged'a\Here the first part 1s ssllod antdgedent snd the second partis called consejent. ir this type of ayllogisan the ‘Major premiae is hypethetical loaing enrge thing oud the ciinoy premise will be eategorteal. e.g. It he eames. | akull meet him. In thes s¢Mlogism [the comes, Oitajer) T shall eet him. (how) 8, Disjunot Tn this type of syllogism the major premise ix disjanctive and the nchor two premises are categorical, 2g Either he is an honest man ora Tho (iajor) He ia an honest man. (tinor} He is not a thier (Conclusion) Tn disjunctive statements two terms opposite in meaning ary used. TE firet is aitiemed the secund must be denied . Relational: Hore relations between yavious terme are showr orderly, e.g A>B,B>C,C>B, SoA >D (conclusion) 5. Dilemma: Ta euch type of syllogiams the major premise is double hypothetical and minor premise iz of digjunctive type ond the conclusion will be cithers disjunctive or cateyoriva, e. W If these books confirm to Quran they are reliable ifthey donotthay aresuperfluous. Gi) Bither they confiem to Quran or they do nat fui) Fiver they are rlisble or euperfluons. in the above example the asoond and third premises are disjunctive. 6. Copel ‘The verb used in the promises in Logie is called copula. For chis purpose “is” and ‘are’ arc generally used and lugiclans du not use ‘was’ anid ware’ a copula because ogicians always talk in torme of the present. ‘Types of Proposition 1. From the qualitative point of view— ton the quality point of view itis of two types: A. Affirmative «ie, A'l graduates are B. Negative - Ee, No man is hart. working, 2, From the quantitative point of view From the quanhly peint of view iis Ottwe typos @ Universal—in which thef aubiei i> universal and refere fp all{withbut exeoplion. ie, human heli are mortal Q) Particular - uy hieli zhawubjoct dows pat refer to allyge.. dome people are bard-werkcing “The propsatiotwbith begins with proper noun will aleGSke, treated av universal ‘Similaxiys ¥yAtwpositions which woes parasea Like “gil bi one", 90% about 60%, ete, will be trojsted dmpaztivular propositions, The words Mike Wome times, often, generally, ete, also make th@prupseitions particular, ‘The propesitiona which use words like few, Little, hardly, seareely, ote. sxe cinsidervd tn be negative proposition. Simataly if there are double negatives used in a prop proposition will heeome alfirn buaia of ubuve divisions we van say that there are four types of categorical propositions in lows. 1. Universel affirmative -it ie valled “A propositions, fe. —AMlahcurers axe habd-warking I childton ae true spersing 2, Universal Nogative—Thev ar called “E prepositions, be, — No minister is dadieate —No huraan bemg ‘= hupiif ete 3. Particular Affirmative *T". propantions. ie. ~Some men arc ard Maer! Some peopleagp labyarinns, 4, Particular Negative [by are clled “O proposisons. i, = Som men FeV. hard-working —Someminiers aro not honest. Diftribation of = terms in propésition "— Ugyeuee of A prepoustions oulg subject is distributed, © In case of “E* propne:tion both aubjeet and predicate ore disteibuted. In case of “I” proposition neither subject nor predicats i= disctibuted. — Tn case of “C0” proposition only predicates distributed. Now, the question is how will the terms be distributed, Toke the example af’ proposition SMan is mortal’. Flere the term min has two ‘mouaing, The firsts, man yreans hueis being rand the record, s man means auimahiy. Wehr> farm ‘roan’ har heen used as denotation, 1, ‘man recuns human being, the term man will be distributed. On the other hare f man means animelity, 1. vonnotation of Use term, it will not be distribited becanse Uber ste vilier sex als borides tnan and the pzopssilion ill net comain universal Similuzly, in case of 'E” proposition both all, Examples wil) illustrate these aubject. and predicate are disuributed, i.c., no point. nan is happy. Tere ao man rofors to all human, @ All_ministors are politicians? boing and hsppy aleo rofere to all without {A Proposition). its converte oxception. So both can be distributed for logical form is Some politicians arc coneluvions, In the third ense of T proposition ministers (I pro-position) noithar subject nor predicate can be distributed, (@) Some men are hard-warking_(U Le. ‘sore men are hard-working, Here neither pro-positicn) the term mon reforo to ‘ail novther the term Its converted form ig Some ard hard.workang” refers to all wo bath of thei syerking are men ( propasisin eamnct bo divinbuted. (a) Noman is unmbrlel, V(t Th the last case of “0” proposition only ropeaation), Toone fag t= prodicate is dstributed, Ze, rome men ace not : honest, Hore the term ‘men’ does not refer to all 0 immortal We Ban, Ge torm honest nay veter to all woit cn 1 preposition) betel Saule (ie) Some etydeRts aveguot intelligent (Opropenien)y Distribution of the middle ov other vermss helps us to arrive at logical conclusion, legome' MQ Joaveriod ian the following way. Some intelligente Types of Logical Inforcnees: a not dlidonts. ‘AL Imuicdliate Inference 2, obyérsion: B, Mediate Inforence Qbverbed fO¥mn oF infowence iv eased on se A. Immediate Inforencos: followings: Sometimes promises ate arranged m @pSubjeez doce not underyo any change diffcrent forme. Out of thom some are true and Fat predicate is changed nto some are false, iv, ‘some students are contradictory. Here contradictory industsiows, is a premise. Jf it is considered 10, doos not mean the antonym of otrua then ‘soune etndents are not industrious’ term. Tt i¢ not used in louie. For 10 alo true bul if we soy that ‘no stiideyt jp making cmtradiciney of fe terin ‘ot industrious’ st:s-falao, All those arsfingeiiier, should be added| before il, F¢., contra: are based on ceriusn rues, Thigh is_calfed dictory of ‘kind’ i not ‘creel bul “not imatediate inference, We shall diseue® here Kind” is the real contradictory of only two mothads of mmediato tifertnace: “kind! 4) Negative propositions are changed into affirmative and viee-veraa. te. A is obverted intr F and E is ubvevtec into‘A’ proposition (©) The quantity of the proposition will remain the same. [the proposition is universal it will eimain unsversal and if it is parneular it will remain 1. Conversion: Hore we devivogonsivain@hy taking the following rules sto segpunt: {a} PrecacateFeqgnges the subjec and the suljpethedon.ds the predicate, (6) Quality of propostion does not ‘Ulergo any change, i.¢., Affirmative Fopasivin wall Jead to affirmative Shicsce ned negative preposition particular inthe abverted fore af the conchision, Following examples will illustrate these pints leary @ All evligious people an: enntended peuple, Proposition A) vill lend to negative conclusion (6)°*A" proposition is converted into pro-position. proposition is converted into T and “B'into' itself, fa) Proposition G’ cannot be converted at

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