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INTRODUCTION MANUFACTURE OF STEEL

Metals possess many unique fundamental properties that make them an ideal material for use in a Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) also known as Linz–Donawitz steelmaking or the oxygen converter
diverse range of applications. Structures ranging from bridges, silos and tractors to gym lockers and lawn process is a method of primary steelmaking in which carbon-rich molten pig iron is made into steel.
mowers all contain some form of metal. Properties such as high tensile strength, high fracture toughness, Blowing oxygen through molten pig iron lowers the carbon content of the alloy and changes it into low-
malleability and availability are just some of the many advantages associated with metals. Metals are carbon steel. The process is known as basic because fluxes of burnt lime or dolomite, which are chemical
chemical elements that are known generally for their metallic luster, strength, hardness, and ability to bases, are added to promote the removal of impurities and protect the lining of the converter.
conduct heat and electricity.
Blast Furnace is a vertical shaft furnace that produces liquid metals by the reaction of a flow of air
METALS – A substance that usually has a shiny appearance. It is a good conductor of electricity and heat. introduced under pressure into the bottom of the furnace with a mixture of metallic ore, coke and flux
It can be melted and usually capable of being shaped. fed into the top. Blast Furnaces are used to produce pig iron from iron ore for subsequent processing into
steel and they are also employed in processing lead, copper and other metals.
CATEGORIES OF METALS
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) is a furnace that heats charged material by means of an electric arc. Industrial
1. NON-FERROUS METALS - are metals that do not contain iron. In general nonferrous metals do not arc furnaces range in size from small units of approximately one ton capacity used in foundries for
corrode as quickly as ferrous metals due to the rapid formation of a thin protective oxide layer on their producing cast iron products up to about 400 ton units used for secondary steelmaking. Industrial electric
surface although they are still susceptible to corrosion when exposed to atmospheric conditions. arc furnace temperatures can be up to 1,800 °C (3,272 °F), while laboratory units can exceed 3,000 °C
(5,432 °F).
a) Aluminum is a chemical element with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white,
soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal in the boron group. Bessemer Process is the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel from molten
pig iron before the development of the open hearth furnace. The principle is removal of impurities from
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten pig iron. The oxidation also raises the
temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten.
Aluminum is a relatively soft, durable, lightweight, ductile and malleable metal with appearance ranging
from silvery to dull gray, depending on the surface roughness. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily TYPES OF STEEL
ignite.
1. Carbon steel - is steel with carbon content up to 2.1% by weight. Carbon steels contain
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES trace amounts of alloying elements and account for 90% of total steel production.

Corrosion resistance can be excellent because a thin surface layer of aluminium oxide forms when the Classes of carbon steel by AISI classification
bare metal is exposed to air, effectively preventing further oxidation in a process termed passivation. The
strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. 1. Low-carbon steel – with 0.05 to 0.30% carbon content.

b) Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu from Latin word cuprum and atomic number 2. Medium-carbon steel - approximately 0.3 – 0.6% carbon content. Balances ductility and
29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical strength and has good wear resistance; used for large parts, forging and automotive components.
conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a reddish orange color.
3. High-carbon steel - approximately 0.6–1.0% carbon content. Very strong, used for springs,
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES swords, and high-strength wires.

Copper is usually supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form, which has greater strength than 4. Ultra-high-carbon steel - approximately 3.25 – 4.0% carbon content. Steel that can be
monocrystalline forms. The softness of copper partly explains its high electrical conductivity and high tempered to great hardness. Used for special purposes like non-industrial purpose knives, axles or
thermal conductivity, second highest among pure metals at room temperature. punches. Most steels with more than 2.5% carbon content are made using powder metallurgy.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 2. Stainless Steels - generally contain between 10-20% chromium as the main alloying element
and are valued for high corrosion resistance. With over 11% chromium, steel is about 200 times more
Copper does not react with water, but it does slowly react with atmospheric oxygen to form a layer of resistant to corrosion than mild steel.
brown-black copper oxide which, unlike the rust that forms on iron in moist air, protects the underlying
metal from further corrosion. Group of stainless steel based on crystalline structure:

c) Zinc is a chemical element with symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in 1. Austenitic steels - are non-magnetic and non heat-treatable, and generally contain 18%
group 12 of the periodic table. In some respects zinc is chemically similar to magnesium. chromium, 8% nickel and less than 0.8% carbon. Austenitic steels form the largest portion of the global
stainless steel market and are often used in food processing equipment, kitchen utensils, and piping.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
2. Ferritic steels - contain trace amounts of nickel, 12-17% chromium, less than 0.1% carbon,
Zinc is solid, shine, bluish-white metal. It is either ductile or malleable at room temperature. When it is along with other alloying elements, such as molybdenum, aluminum or titanium. These magnetic steels
heated it become ductile and malleable and it can be rolled into sheets. cannot be hardened by heat treatment but can be strengthened by cold working.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 3. Martensitic steels - contain 11-17% chromium, less than 0.4% nickel, and up to 1.2%
carbon. These magnetic and heat-treatable steels are used in knives, cutting tools, as well as dental and
Zinc is a reactive metal that will combine with oxygen and other non-metals. It tarnishes in moist air and surgical equipment.
burns in air to form the white zinc oxide. It is a fair electrical conductor and will react with dilute acids to
release hydrogen. Zinc does not react with water. 3. Tool Steels - contain tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt and vanadium in varying quantities to
increase heat resistance and durability, making them ideal for cutting and drilling equipment.
d) Lead is a chemical element that is assigned the symbol Pb from the Latin word plumbum
and the atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Tool steel product applications:

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Long/Tubular Products include bars and rods, rails, wires, angles, pipes, and shapes and sections. These
products are commonly used in the automotive and construction sectors.
Lead is a heavy, soft, gray solid. It is both ductile and malleable. Ductile means capable of being drawn
into thin wires. Lead is easily worked. Working a metal means bending, cutting, shaping, pulling, and Flat Products include plates, sheets, coils, and strips. These materials are mainly used in automotive
otherwise changing the shape of the metal. parts, appliances, packaging, shipbuilding, and construction.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Other Products include valves, fittings, and flanges and are mainly used as piping materials.

Lead is a moderately active metal. It dissolves slowly in water and in most cold acids. It reacts more 4. Alloy Steels - contain alloying elements like manganese, silicon, nickel, titanium, copper,
rapidly with hot acids. It does not react with oxygen in the air readily and does not burn. chromium and aluminum in varying proportions in order to manipulate the steel properties, such as its
hardenability, corrosion resistance, strength, formability, weldability, or ductility.
e) Nickel is a chemical element with symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery white
lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel belongs to the transition metals and is hard Applications of alloy steel: pipelines, auto parts, transformers, power generators and electric motors.
and ductile.
HEAT TREATMENT
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Is a group of industrial and metal working processes used to alter the physical and sometimes chemical
Nickel is silvery-white, hard, malleable, and ductile metal. It is of the iron group and it takes on a high properties of a material. The most common application is metallurgical
polish. It is a fairly good conductor of heat and electricity.
Types of heat treatment processes:
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
(a)Annealing (b)Normalizing (c)Hardening (d)Tempering (e)Refining
It is highly resistant to rusting and corrosion. Nickel metal does not react with air under ambient
conditions but in the finely dispersed state nickel it ignites spontaneously in air. Annealing

2. FERROUS METALS - contain iron as the main component. Unprotected ferrous metals are extremely Annealing is one of the most important heat treatment operation applied to steel. It is the process of
susceptible to corrosion commonly referred to as rust, which can occur almost immediately under the heating the steel in a furnace to a point not exceeding 50° above its upper critical point and maintaining
correct conditions. the steel at that temperature for a considerable time 30-60 minutes to convert the whole steel to
austenite.
Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from Latin word ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal
in the first transition series. It is by mass the most common element on earth, forming much of earth's Purpose:
outer and inner core.
(a) To soften the metal. While working on metals in cold condition, it becomes hard. For
Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with carbon content greater than 2%. It derives from its further work on the metal without any cracks, it should be soften by annealing process.
relatively low melting temperature. The alloy constituents affect its color when fractured.
(b) To improve machinability.
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon. Because of its high tensile strength and low
cost, it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, (c) To refine grain size, structure and to improve mechanical properties.
and weapons.
(d) To relieve internal stresses which were developed during working over the metal.
(e) To modify physical properties. Different Methods of Tempering – The different methods of tempering are:

(f) To increase ductility of metal. (a) Austie Tempering – Steel jobs of smaller diameter not exceeding 1/4” and containing 0.9%
carbon are heated to above the upper critical point and quenched in a salt or lead bismuth bath of 260-
(g) To prepare the steel for cold working. 340C. Thus there are no stress/strain effects, but strength, ductility and hardness are induced.

Types of Annealing (b) Mar Tempering – In this process the steel is heated above its upper critical point and
quenched in a bath (260˚C). It is held in the bath for a definite time and then cooled down to room
Low Temperature Annealing (Spherodising) – This process consists of heating the steel to a temperature temperature in still air.
little below the lower critical point and cooling is done to carbon steels at a very slow rate (25 to 30ºC per
hour) before cold working. This process reduces hardness to the minimum and brings the steel to elastic Refining
limit and yield point.
This is a heat treatment process carried out in order to break down large, coarse grains formed by the
Blue Annealing – Severely cold worked steels, which are quite hardened and have a very high yield point, overheating of steels. The process involves heating the job to above the upper critical point and then
are heated to 300ºC blue color in an open furnace and cooled down slowly. It helps to work further on quenching it. This is repeated three or four times, the maximum temperature being lowered by 50 ˚C
the sheet without crack. each time, first heating to 900 ˚C, second heating to 850 ˚C and the fourth heating to 750 ˚C. This process
is done in addition to normalizing.
Box Annealing – In this process the job is kept in a closed annealing pot or box, heated to a sub-critical
temperature and cooled down slowly together with box. It is used mainly for sheet, strip, or wire. Hot Rolled Steel

Black Annealing – In this process, the iron base alloys are heated to 400ºC and cooled down slowly. After Hot rolling is a mill process which involves rolling the steel at a high temperature (typically at a
this the job appears in a black color, which is free from oxide. temperature over 1700° F), which is above the steel’s recrystallization temperature. When steel is above
the recrystallization temperature, it can be shaped and formed easily, and the steel can be made in much
Flame Annealing – When hollowing on a sheet or working on a particular part or area of large job, the larger sizes.
area tends to become hard due to work hardening. It is impossible to work further.
Uses: Hot rolled products like hot rolled steel bars are used in the welding and construction trades to
Pack Annealing – In this process the articles are covered with sand (pack), heated to a light red color make railroad tracks and I-beams. for example. Hot rolled steel is used in situations where precise shapes
(800ºC) and cooled down slowly together with pack. It is done on various shock resisting tool steel like and tolerances are not required.
chuck key, power tools, etc.
Cold Rolled
Water Annealing – This is a process of heating the article to above its upper critical point, slowly cooling it
down to black heat approx. 400ºC and then finally quenching in water. This is carried out to speed up the Cold rolled steel is essentially hot rolled steel that has had further processing. The steel is processed
annealing process when there is lack of time. further in cold reduction mills, where the material is cooled at room temperature followed by annealing
and/or tempers rolling. This process will produce steel with closer dimensional tolerances and a wider
Isothermal Annealing – Isothermal annealing reduces the total time required for an annealing operation. range of surface finishes. Advantages:
In this process, steel is heated to austenite state and then cooling it down to a temperature of about
650°C at a relatively faster rate. • Cold drawing increases the yield and tensile strengths, often eliminating further costly
thermal treatments.
Normalizing
• Turning gets rid of surface imperfections.
The process consists of heating of steel to a point 40 to 50°C above its upper critical temperature. Hold at
that temperature for a short duration and subsequently cooling in still air at room temperature. This is • Grinding narrows the original size tolerance range.
also known as air quenching. It produces microstructures consisting of ferrite and pearlite for hypo -
eutectoid steels and pearlite and cementite for hypereutectoid steels. • Polishing improves surface finish.

Purpose: Uses: Any project where tolerances, surface condition, concentricity, and straightness are the major
factors.
(a) To eliminate coarse grain structure which is produced during forging, rolling, etc.
Possible types of failures in a steel structure
(b) To improve machinability.
1. Failure of a connection
(c) To reduce internal stresses.
The most critical and most frequent failure in the steel structure. But generally the connection fails first
(d) To improve certain mechanical properties. in case there is an unpredicted force. Any steel member can take the secondary loads because the
material is uniform and casted as a single piece, but joint behaves in a brittle fashion and takes some
Effects of Normalizing: predicted loads but not all of it.

(a) Normalizing raises the yield point, ultimate tensile strength and impact strength of steel. 2. Failure of Beams

(b) Normalized steels are harder and stronger but less ductile than annealed steels with the Flexural failure occurs when the beam fails in bending. Or the lateral loads on the beam increase beyond
same composition. its limit then this kind of failure takes place. But these are one of the least occurring failure in steel
structure and it is because of straight-forward formula and need to see that which section will satisfy the
(c) Reduces the grain size caused by over heating or by slow cooling. criteria.

(d) Produces uniform granular structure. 3. Failure in compression

(e) Improves the machine ability of the steel. Applied load on a structural member causes compressive stress. Similar to beams, column members
subjected to high compressive stresses may experience buckling.
(f) It prevents the cracking of High Carbon Steel, High Speed Steel and High Tensile Steel, when
these steels are hardened. 4. Failure in Tension

Hardening This failure occurs when you stretch a material bit too far. The possibilities of this is very rare if the
structure is designed properly. This leads to a very high strain energy and it takes a large amount of load
In hardening process, the steel is first heated to a point exceeding 50ºC above the upper critical point for to fail the member in tension.
hypo-eutectoid steels and 30-50ºC above for hypereutectoid steel. Then the steel is soaked at this
temperature for a considerable time to ensure that all the pearlite and cementite have changed into 5. Local failure
austenite. After that the steel is cooled rapidly to keep the austenite to remain as such at room
temperature. This process consists of two operations – heating and quenching. Suppose if member is very strong and it cannot fail at global level like tension or compression or bending
or anything. But then if the forces exceeds from a certain limit, then it can lead to some local failure. One
EFFECTS OF HARDENING of the most common local failure is local buckling of I sections.

(a)Maximum hardness (b)Smallest grain size (c)Minimum ductility (d)Maximum tenacity.

Types of Hardening

Work Hardening – Low carbon steels which have been cold rolled or hammered, become hard to a
certain extent, thereby increasing yield point and ultimate strength with reduction of ductility and
toughness.

Flame Hardening – This is a surface hardening process done by the oxy-acetylene flame. In this process
heat is applied to the skin of the job and then before the heat penetrates to the core, it is suddenly
cooled. This method is normally used on pinions, gear surface, crown wheels, cams and camshafts.

Induction Hardening – This is a surface hardening process, in which the heating medium is the high
frequency current. No sooner is the surface heated, the supply of the current is shut-off and a high-
pressure jet of water sprayed on the job.

The hardening temperature of Ni-Cr steel of 900-1000º C and that of high-speed steel is 1100-1300ºC.

Tempering

Martensite is stable only up to 200ºC. If a piece of steel, which has been hardened, is subsequently
heated to a temperature above 200ºC, the decomposition of martensite will start taking place. This
decomposition is in the order of troostite first and then sorbite.

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