Course: Introduction to Environment (1421)

Semester: Autumn, 2018

Level: BA (General)
ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q. 1 Differentiate between the following terms. (20)

i) Biocentric and Ecocentric
Answer:

Public concern for the environment became widespread during the 1960s, after Rachel Carson wrote "Silent
Spring." Since that time, several different schools of thought have emerged with regard to the environment and
the role people should play within the natural world. Biocentric and ecocentric philosophies are just two of the
many different theories used to discuss nature. Although the philosophies are quite similar, they vary in some
significant ways.

The Ecocentric Philosophy

People who ascribe to an ecocentric philosophy believe in the importance of an ecosystem as a whole. They
attribute equal importance to living and non-living components of ecosystems when making decisions regarding
their treatment of the environment. It is a holistic school of thought that sees little importance in individuals;
ecocentrists are concerned only with how individuals influence ecosystems as a whole.

The Biocentric Philosophy

In contrast, a biocentric philosophy places the greatest importance on living individuals or living components of
the environment. Biocentric theories do not consider chemical and geological elements of the environment to be
as important as living beings in the way that ecocentric theories do. Biocentrists believe that all living things are
equally important. For example, a tree's life would be considered just as important as a human's life. This is in
contrast to an anthropocentric view in which the lives of humans are given the greatest value.

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ii) Environmental Degradation and Environmental Conservation

Answer:

The environment is the surrounding in which we live. It consists of various aspects like physical, biological,
social, cultural etc. Human beings perform all the activities on the environment like the construction of building,
houses, bridges, industries etc. These activities affect the various aspects of the environment. They change or
disturb their condition. The different aspects of the environment are also changed or disturbed due to various
natural disasters like earthquake, volcano etc. This is also known as environmental degradation. Environmental
degradation can be defined as the deterioration of the environment due to depletion of resources such as air,
water, and soil , the destruction of the ecosystem and the eradication of wildlife.

The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as "The
reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives and needs". There are
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various types of environmental degradation. When the various aspects of the environment are destroyed or
damaged due to human activities or natural disaster, the environment is degraded. There are various causes of
environmental degradation like pollution, overpopulation, deforestation, flood, landslide, earthquake etc. If the
environmental degradation is caused due to the natural disaster like volcano, earthquake, etc. then it is called
natural cause. As the population of the world is increasing day by day, the natural resources are being
excessively used to fulfill the needs and demands. Various human activities like construction of buildings,
industries, bridges, using of chemical fertilizers, pollution, cutting down of trees, etc cause degradation of the
environment. In this note, we study about the major human activities that cause environmental degradation.

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iii) Mineral and Non-Minerals

Answer:
A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic
chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure and specific physical properties. A non mineral is a
substance found in a natural environment that does not satisfy the definition of a mineral and is not even a
mineraloid. Many non minerals are mined and have industrial or other uses similar to minerals, such as jewelry.
Minerals are classified in many ways. One of the most popular way is based on their luster. Minerals with
metallic luster are classified as metallic minerals and minerals with non-metallic luster are classified as non-
metallic minerals. By and large most metallic minerals as ore are used for extraction of metal(s) but all metallic
minerals are not used as ore of metals, e.g. pyrite is a metallic mineral but not used as an ore of iron. Similarly
Bauxite (group of minerals) is non-metallic mineral(s) is used for extraction of aluminum and so on.

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iv) Heterotrophs and Autotrophs

Answer:

Autotrophs are organisms that can produce their own food from the substances available in their surroundings
using light (photosynthesis) or chemical energy (chemosynthesis). Heterotrophs cannot synthesize their own
food and rely on other organisms — both plants and animals — for nutrition. Technically, the definition is that
autotrophs obtain carbon from inorganic sources like carbon dioxide (CO2) while heterotrophs get their reduced
carbon from other organisms. Autotrophs are usually plants; they are also called "self feeders" or "primary
producers".

Autotrophs produce their own energy by one of the following two methods:

• Photosynthesis - Photoautotrophs use energy from sun to convert water from the soil and carbon dioxide
from the air into glucose. Glucose provides energy to plants and is used to make cellulose which is used
to build cell walls. E.g. Plants, algae, phytoplankton and some bacteria. Carnivorous plants like pitcher
plant use photosynthesis for energy production but depend on other organisms for other nutrients like
nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous. Hence, these plants are basically autotrophs.

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 • Chemosynthesis - Chemoautotrophs use energy from chemical reactions to make food. The chemical
reactions are usually between hydrogen sulfide/methane with oxygen. Carbon dioxide is the main source
of carbon for Chemoautotrophs. E.g. Bacteria found inside active volcano, hydrothermal vents
in sea floor, hot water springs.

Heterotrophs survive by feeding on organic matter produced by or available in other organisms. There are two
types of heterotrophs:

• Photoheterotroph – These heterotrophs use light for energy but cannot use carbon dioxide as their
carbon source. They get their carbon from compounds such as carbohydrates, fatty acids and alcohol.
E.g. purple non-sulfur bacteria, green-non sulfur bacteria and heliobacteria.

• Chemoheterotroph – Heterotrophs that get their energy by oxidation of preformed organic compounds,
i.e. by eating other organisms either dead or alive. E.g. animals, fungi, bacteria and almost all
pathogens.

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v) Ozone and Smog

Answer:

Ground-level ozone impairs breathing, irritates the lungs, causes scar tissue in the lungs, and damages
vegetation. Those most at risk are people with asthma, emphysema, heart conditions, as well as children, elderly,
and healthy adults engaged in vigorous work or exercise outdoors. On high ozone concentration days, everyone
is at risk.

The Clean Air Act requires EPA to set air quality standards to protect public health and the public welfare, e. g.,
crops and vegetation. Ground-level ozone affects both.

Ozone and Smog

Ground-level ozone in the Kansas City region is an air quality problem, exceeding the federal health standards at
times, and causing health problems for many citizens. Johnson and Wyandotte Counties in Kansas, and
Jackson, Clay, and Platte Counties in Missouri, collectively make up the Kansas City "airshed" that is subject to
air pollution regulations set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). All five counties in two states work
together along with the Mid-America Regional Council (MARC), the Kansas Department of Health and
Environment, and the Missouri Department of Natural Resources to monitor and evaluate sources of air
pollution and work to decrease it.

There is an established "ozone season" for the Kansas City region; April 1st through October 31st every year.
Historically, June through August is when most exceedences occur.

The images below show downtown Kansas City on a good ozone day (on left) and a bad ozone day. EPA has set
national air quality standards (or health limits) for six air pollutants (also referred to as "Criteria Pollutants".)
These are the six criteria pollutants:

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 1. lead

2. sulfur dioxide

3. particulate matter

4. carbon monoxide

5. nitrogen oxides

6. ground-level ozone.

Find out how each of these pollutants is formed, how they affect human health and public welfare, and what is
being done to reduce them at EPA's Six Common Air Pollutants. EPA is required by the Clean Air Act to
periodically review the standards for each of these pollutants to insure that the standard is protective of human
health and the environment. EPA is tentatively scheduled to start a review of the standard for ozone by the end
of 2013. Kansas City has historically had problems with ozone in the metro area for many years and we are still
working to remain within the standard.

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Q. 2 It is essential to make the public aware of the alarming consequences of the environmental
degradation. Briefly discuss some of the environmental challenges that we face today at the
national as well as the global level.
Answer:

Our environment is constantly changing. There is no denying that. However, as our environment changes, so
does the need to become increasingly aware of the problems that surround it. With a massive influx of natural
disasters, warming and cooling periods, different types of weather patterns and much more, people need to be
aware of what types of environmental problems our planet is facing.

Global warming has become an undisputed fact about our current livelihoods; our planet is warming up and we
are definitely part of the problem. However, this isn’t the only environmental problem that we should be
concerned about. All across the world, people are facing a wealth of new and challenging environmental
problems every day. Some of them are small and only affect a few ecosystems, but others are drastically
changing the landscape of what we already know.

Our planet is poised at the brink of a severe environmental crisis. Current environmental problems make us
vulnerable to disasters and tragedies, now and in the future. We are in a state of planetary emergency, with
environmental problems piling up high around us. Unless we address the various issues prudently and seriously
we are surely doomed for disaster. Current environmental problems require urgent attention.

10 Major Current Environmental Problems

1. Pollution: Pollution of air, water and soil require millions of years to recoup. Industry and motor vehicle
exhaust are the number one pollutants. Heavy metals, nitrates and plastic are toxins responsible for pollution.
While water pollution is caused by oil spill, acid rain, urban runoff; air pollution is caused by various gases and

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toxins released by industries and factories and combustion of fossil fuels; soil pollution is majorly caused by
industrial waste that deprives soil from essential nutrients.

2. Global Warming: Climate changes like global warming is the result of human practices like emission of
Greenhouse gases. Global warming leads to rising temperatures of the oceans and the earth’ surface causing
melting of polar ice caps, rise in sea levels and also unnatural patterns of precipitation such as flash floods,
excessive snow or desertification.

3. Overpopulation: The population of the planet is reaching unsustainable levels as it faces shortage of
resources like water, fuel and food. Population explosion in less developed and developing countries is straining
the already scarce resources. Intensive agriculture practiced to produce food damages the environment through
use of chemical fertilizer, pesticides and insecticides. Overpopulation is one of the crucial current environmental
problem.

4. Natural Resource Depletion: Natural resource depletion is another crucial current environmental problems.
Fossil fuel consumption results in emission of Greenhouse gases, which is responsible for global warming and
climate change. Globally, people are taking efforts to shift to renewable sources of energy like solar, wind,
biogas and geothermal energy. The cost of installing the infrastructure and maintaining these sources has
plummeted in the recent years.

5. Waste Disposal: The over consumption of resources and creation of plastics are creating a global crisis of
waste disposal. Developed countries are notorious for producing an excessive amount of waste or garbage and
dumping their waste in the oceans and, less developed countries. Nuclear waste disposal has tremendous health
hazards associated with it. Plastic, fast food, packaging and cheap electronic wastes threaten the well being of
humans. Waste disposal is one of urgent current environmental problem.

6. Climate Change: Climate change is yet another environmental problem that has surfaced in last couple of
decades. It occurs due to rise in global warming which occurs due to increase in temperature of atmosphere by
burning of fossil fuels and release of harmful gases by industries. Climate change has various harmful effects
but not limited to melting of polar ice, change in seasons, occurrence of new diseases, frequent occurrence of
floods and change in overall weather scenario.

7. Loss of Biodiversity: Human activity is leading to the extinction of species and habitats and and loss of bio-
diversity. Eco systems, which took millions of years to perfect, are in danger when any species population is
decimating. Balance of natural processes like pollination is crucial to the survival of the eco-system and human
activity threatens the same. Another example is the destruction of coral reefs in the various oceans, which
support the rich marine life.

8. Deforestation: Our forests are natural sinks of carbon dioxide and produce fresh oxygen as well as helps in
regulating temperature and rainfall. At present forests cover 30% of the land but every year tree cover is lost
amounting to the country of Panama due to growing population demand for more food, shelter and cloth.
Deforestation simply means clearing of green cover and make that land available for residential, industrial or
commercial purpose.
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9. Ocean Acidification: It is a direct impact of excessive production of CO2. 25% of CO2 produced by humans.
The ocean acidity has increased by the last 250 years but by 2100, it may shoot up by 150%. The main impact is
on shellfish and plankton in the same way as human osteoporosis.

10. Ozone Layer Depletion: The ozone layer is an invisible layer of protection around the planet that protects
us from the sun’s harmful rays. Depletion of the crucial Ozone layer of the atmosphere is attributed to pollution
caused by Chlorine and Bromide found in Chloro-floro carbons (CFC’s). Once these toxic gases reach the upper
atmosphere, they cause a hole in the ozone layer, the biggest of which is above the Antarctic. The CFC’s are
banned in many industries and consumer products. Ozone layer is valuable because it prevents harmful UV
radiation from reaching the earth. This is one of the most important current environmental problem.

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Q. 3 Define Ecosystem. What are the essential components of an ecosystem? Give suitable examples

Answer:

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their
environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic
components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. The relationship between
the abiotic components and the biotic components of the ecosystem is termed 'holocoenosis'. As ecosystems are
defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and between organisms and their environment, they
can be of any size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces (although some scientists say that the entire
planet is an ecosystem).

Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential abiotic components of an ecosystem. The energy
that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun. It generally enters the system through
photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one
another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system. They also
influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic matter,
decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored
in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes

When it comes to ecosystems, a mountain, a river, and a cloud have more in common than you might think.
Abiotic factors have specific and important roles in nature because they help shape and define ecosystems.

Essential components of an ecosystem:

Ecosystems represent the interconnected nature of living organisms and their world. An ecosystem could be as
small as a drop of pond water or as big as the Amazon rainforest. When you think about what makes an

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ecosystem function, the critical concepts revolve around the organic and inorganic components and their
interactions with each other. The concept of an ecosystem is a jumping-off point for the study of many of the
more complex behavioral and biological interactions that make up an ecological system.

Abiotic Components

The abiotic components of an ecosystem are all of the nonliving elements. They include the water, the air, the
temperature and the rocks and minerals that make up the soil. Abiotic components of an ecosystem might
include how much rain falls on it, whether it is fresh water or salt water, how much sun it gets or how often it
freezes and thaws. The biotic components of the ecosystem both live on and interact with the abiotic
components.

Producers at the Base

Producers are the living organisms in the ecosystem that take in energy from sunlight and use it to transform
carbon dioxide and oxygen into sugars. Plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria are all examples of producers.
Producers form the base of the food web and are generally the largest group in the ecosystem by weight, or
biomass. They also act as an interface with the abiotic components of the ecosystem during nutrient cycles as
they incorporate inorganic carbon and nitrogen from the atmosphere.

Consumers in the Chain

Consumers are living organisms in the ecosystem that get their energy from consuming other organisms.
Conceptually, consumers are further subdivided by what they eat: Herbivores eat producers, carnivores eat other
animals and omnivores eat both. Along with producers and decomposers, consumers are part of what is known
as food chains and webs, where energy and nutrient transfer can be mapped out. Consumers can only harvest
about 10 percent of the energy contained in what they eat, so there tends to be less biomass at each stage as you
move up the food chain.

Decomposers and Nutrient Cycling

Decomposers are the living component of the ecosystem that breaks down waste material and dead organisms.
Examples of decomposers include earthworms, dung beetles and many species of fungi and bacteria. They
perform a vital recycling function, returning nutrients incorporated into dead organisms to the soil where plants
can take them up again. In this process they also harvest the last of the sunlight energy initially absorbed by
producers. Decomposers represent the final step in many of the cyclical ecosystem processes.

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Q. 4 Define green house effect. Briefly discuss the green house gases. How do these contribute to
increase the temperature of the earth?
Answer:
A greenhouse gas (sometimes abbreviated GHG) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation
within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. The primary
greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.
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Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of Earth's surface would be about −18 °C (0 °F), rather than
present average of 15 °C (59 °F). In the Solar System, the atmospheres of Venus, Mars and Titan also contain
gases that cause a greenhouse effect.

How greenhouse gases affect global warming

The gases in the atmosphere that absorb radiation are known as "greenhouse gases" (sometimes abbreviated as
GHG) because they are largely responsible for the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect, in turn, is one of
the leading causes of global warming. The most significant greenhouse gases are water vapor (H2O), carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), according to the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA). "While oxygen (O2) is the second most abundant gas in our atmosphere, O2 does not absorb thermal
infrared radiation," Michael Daley, an associate professor of environmental science at Lasell College, told Live
Science.

While some say that global warming is a natural process and that there have always been greenhouse gasses, the
amount of gasses in the atmosphere has skyrocketed in recent history. The Industrial Revolution had a big part
to play in the amount of atmospheric CO2 being released. Before, CO2 fluctuated between about 180 ppm during
ice ages and 280 ppm during interglacial warm periods. Since the Industrial Revolution, though, the amount of
CO2 has dramatically increased to 100 times faster than the increase when the last ice age ended, according to
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

Fluorinated gases — that is, gases to which the element fluorine was added — including hydrofluorocarbons,
perfluorocarbons and sulfur hexafluoride, are created during industrial processes and are also considered
greenhouse gases. Though they are present in very small concentrations, they trap heat very effectively, making
them high "global-warming potential" (GWP) gases. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), once used as refrigerants and
aerosol propellants until they were phased out by international agreement, are also greenhouse gases. Three
factors affect the degree to which any greenhouse gas will influence global warming:

• Its abundance in the atmosphere

• How long it stays in the atmosphere

• Its global-warming potential

Carbon dioxide has a significant impact on global warming partly because of its abundance in the atmosphere.
According to the EPA, in 2012, U.S. greenhouse gas emissions totaled 6,526 million metric tons of carbon
dioxide equivalents, which equaled 82 percent of all human caused greenhouse gasses. Additionally, CO2 stays
in the atmosphere for thousands of years. However, methane is about 21 times more efficient at absorbing
radiation than CO2, giving it a high GWP rating, even though it stays in the atmosphere only about 10 years,
according to the EPA.
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Q. 5 Write a not on composition and structure of Lithosphere. Explain with the help of a suitable
diagram.

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Answer:
The term "lithosphere" comes from the Greek lithos (rock) and was introduced by Suess (1885). The term was
later used by Barrell and ultimately defined by Isacks as a near surface layer of strength of earth. Even today it
remains difficult to find a more precise definition than this. The lithosphere is the outer solid layer of the earth.
As for the whole globe, the lithosphere can be divided according to its physical properties or according to its
chemical (material) properties. Because there is an overlap between layers distinguished on the basis of different
properties. Now, we differentiate lithosphere and asthenosphere on the basis of physical properties like density,
temperature and seismic velocity, not only on the basis of its strength. The lithosphere is generally associated
with high average densities, cooler temperatures and high average seismic velocities than the asthenosphere.

Most of the lithosphere is solid rock, but the rock gets softer, almost plastic in its lower levels where it overlaps
with the upper mantle. The upper part of the lithosphere is what we call the crust of Earth. The crust is divided
into two distinct types, the ocean crust and the continental crust. The ocean crust is covered by the ocean. The
continental crust is the part we live on. The relatively thin ocean crust ranges from 3 to 4.5 miles (5 to 7 km) in
depth, while the thicker continental crust ranges from 22 to 43.5 miles (35 to 70 km). That makes the continental
crust about seven times thicker than the oceanic crust. The lower part of the lithosphere overlaps part of the
mantle beneath. This overlap zone is called the asthenosphere. The word means "weak". Asthenosphere rock is
very hot and under great pressure from the crust above. The heat and pressure comes from the weight of the
crust pressing down on it. the heat softens the rock and pressure causes it to flow very slowly. The schematic
sketch of the lithosphere and related areas are illustrated below:

Plates

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The rheological stratification suggests that the lithosphere is a true stress guide and that the easiest motion to
realize is horizontal gliding of the lithosphere on top of the asthenosphere. The motions in the asthenosphere are
not identical to the motions of the rigid lithospheric plates and the whole system may be largely thought of as an
exchange of matter primarily between lithosphere and asthenosphere. Certainly, the motions of the
asthenosphere must be largely controlled by the peculiarities of the overlying lithosphere. As only the
lithosphere reacts to stress as a brittle solid, all earthquakes must originate within the lithosphere. The global
seismicity is consequently the expression of relative moveemnts between lithospheric plates. This leads to a
global tectonic model in which the surface of the earth consists of rigid plates in relative displacement, gliding
on top of a mechanically soft layer.

The first global map of lithospheric plates appeared in published form in 1968 and there have since been many
minor changes and revisions in the map. Boundaries have been relocated and new plates identified; differences
have appeared in the naming of plates, as well. For a particular lithospheric plate to be identified and named, its
boundaries should all be active. In other words, there must be good evidence of present or recent relative motion
between the plate and all its contiguous plates. The global system of lithospheric plates consists of six great
plates. These are listed in the table. Several lesser plates are also recognized, ranging from intermediate in size
to comparatively small. Several sub plates are also recognized within the great plates.

Great Plates Lesser Plates

Pacific Nazca
American Cocos
Eurasian Philippine
Persian sub plate Caribbean
African Arabian
Somalian sub plate Caroline
Austral-Indian Bismark
Antartic Scotia

Composition

From the point of view of plate tectonics, oceanic lithosphere is the relatively cold, strong, outer part of the
Earth in the ocean basins. Far from mid-ocean ridges, this layer has a fairly uniform thickness of about 120 km.
To understand how the Earth generates new oceanic lithosphere, it is helpful to know its composition and
structure. Apart from the areas at the near mid ocean ridges, the seabed is covered in very fine mud. Drilling into
this sediment layer shows that it can up to several hundred meters thick and that it is underlain by volcanic rocks
of basaltic composition.

Continental lithosphere is a combination of two layers, in which each layer composed of materials that are rare
in the Earth's upper part. Continental crust contains low temperature distillates which is produced during
successive melting events. The underlying lithosphere is comparatively pure concentrate with high temperature,

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and contains highly refractory minerals. Materials with intermediate composition, which should have been far
more abundant, is missing.

Facts

Some of the important facts related to the lithosphere are mentioned below. Please go through these facts and
understand more about the lithosphere.

• Lithosphere is the rigid, upper layer of Earth. It consists of the crust and top portion of the mantle.

• Top of the mantle is rigid like the crust, but chemically it is different.

• The lithosphere is divided into several parts, known as tectonic plates. The continents are situated on
these plates.

• Lithosphere has less thickness under the middle of the ocean.

• The continent crust has almost 120 km thickness.

Importance

The lithosphere is very much important because it act as a big reservoir of many resources. Almost all materials
which is useful to human are supplied by lithosphere. The lithosphere serves as a source of different minerals.
And it is a major source of fuels like petroleum, coal and natural gases. The combination of lithosphere,
atmosphere and hydrosphere plays an important role in the existance of animals and plants in Earth. It provides
the sufficient nutrients to plants. These plants are the major food source of human and the animals.

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Q. 6 Write notes and draw suitable diagram.

i) Ecological Pyramid

Answer:

The concept of ecological pyramid was developed by Charles Elton; these pyramids are also known as Eltonian
pyramids. The pyramids are a graphical
representation which depicts the number of
organisms, biomass and productivity at each
trophic level. All ecological pyramids begin
at the bottom with the produces and proceed
through different trophic levels.

Ecological pyramids begin with the

producers at the bottom like plants and they
proceed to various trophic levels like
herbivores consume plants, carnivores prey

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on herbivores and so on. The highest level is at the top of the food chain.

It is a graphic representation of the relationship between organisms at various trophic levels in a food chain.
The basis of an ecological pyramid is the biomass, energy, and number. Just as the name suggests ecological
pyramids are in the shape of a pyramid. The concept was first introduced by Charles Elton, the pioneer British
Ecologist.

The bottom of an ecological pyramid is the broadest and is occupied the producers, which form the first trophic
level. Producers are at the lowest level. Just as in a food chain, the producers are consumed by the primary
consumers, in an ecological pyramid; the next level is occupied by the primary consumers. The next level of the
pyramid is occupied by the secondary consumers and the last, by the tertiary consumers.

Types of Ecological Pyramids

Depending on the factors that we use to represent an ecological pyramid, there are three types. They are:

• Pyramid of numbers– Here the factor that is taken into account is the number of organisms in each
trophic level. As we go up the levels of the pyramid, the number of organisms decreases. The producers
form the largest number and hence are at the bottom of the pyramid.

• Pyramid of energy– This is an upright pyramid that represents the flow of energy from the producers to
the final consumers.

• Pyramid of biomass – This pyramid represents the amount of biomass of the organisms present at each
trophic level. Biomass is nothing but the weight of the organisms.

In general, all ecological pyramids are upright, except in certain cases. For example, in a detritus food chain, the
pyramid of numbers is not upright because many organisms feed on one dead plant or animal. The pyramid of
biomass in an ocean is also inverted. But a point of note is that the pyramid of energy is always upright as the
flow of energy is unidirectional.

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ii) Positive Interactions among Organisms

Answer:
Ecological relationships describe the interactions between and among organisms within their environment.
These interactions may have positive, negative or neutral effects on either species' ability to survive and
reproduce, or "fitness." By classifying these effects, ecologists have derived five major types of species
interactions: predation, competition, mutualism, commensalism and amensalism.

Predation: One Wins, One Loses

Predation includes any interaction between two species in which one species benefits by obtaining resources
from and to the detriment of the other. While it's most often associated with the classic predator-prey interaction,
in which one species kills and consumes another, not all predation interactions result in the death of one
organism. In the case of herbivory, a herbivore often consumes only part of the plant. While this action may
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result in injury to the plant, it may also result in seed dispersal. Many ecologists include parasitic interactions in
discussions of predation. In such relationships, the parasite causes harm to the host over time, possibly even
death. As an example, parasitic tapeworms attach themselves to the intestinal lining of dogs, humans and other
mammals, consuming partially digested food and depriving the host of nutrients, thus lowering the host's fitness.

Competition: The Double Negative

Competition exists when multiple organisms vie for the same, limiting resource. Because the use of a limited
resource by one species decreases availability to the other, competition lowers the fitness of both. Competition
can be interspecific, between different species, or intraspecific, between individuals of the same species. In the
1930s, Russian ecologist Georgy Gause proposed that two species competing for the same limiting resource
cannot coexist in the same place at the same time. As a consequence, one species may be driven to extinction, or
evolution reduces the competition.

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