Cognitive Radio:

Smart Use of Radio Spectrum

Miguel López-Benítez
Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics
University of Liverpool, United Kingdom
M.Lopez-Benitez@liverpool.ac.uk
www.lopezbenitez.es

Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan, 16 January 2018

Contents

• Introduction
• Cognitive radio
• Cognitive functions
• Applications
• Conclusion

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Contents

• Introduction
• Cognitive radio
• Cognitive functions
• Applications
• Conclusion

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Introduction
• Spectrum management:
– Allocation: Frequency bands  Services
– Assignment: Frequency bands  Operators

• Fixed spectrum management:

– Spectrum bands are allocated/assigned statically
– Exclusive use licence
– In use since early days of radio communications
– Easy avoidance of interference
– Usable spectrum has already been allocated

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The UK Frequency Allocation Table

http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/spectrum/fat.html

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Is spectrum exhausted?

• Spectrum usage is
concentrated on certain
portions
• A significant amount of
spectrum remains unused
• Inefficient spectrum usage!

Source: M. López-Benítez et al., “Spectral occupation measurements and blind standard recognition sensor for cognitive radio networks,”
Proc. 4th Int’l. Conf. Cognitive Radio Oriented Wireless Networks and Comms. (CrownCom 2009), Hannover, Germany, June 22-24, 2009.

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Fixed vs. Dynamic spectrum access
• Fixed spectrum management:
– Easy avoidance of interference 
– Inefficient usage of spectrum! 
– Inability to roll out new radio technologies and services! 

• Solution?  Dynamic Spectrum Access:

Source: M. López-Benítez, “Spectrum usage models for the analysis, design and simulation of cognitive radio networks,”
PhD Thesis, Department of Signal Theory and Communications, Technical University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain, July 2011.

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Opportunistic spectrum access

• Analogy:
– Spectrum = Motorway
– Band = Lane
– Interference = Collision

• Concepts:
– Primary user (w/ licence)  High priority
• Police car, ambulance car, etc.
– Secondary user (w/o licence)  Low priority
• Regular car

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Opportunistic spectrum access

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Opportunistic spectrum access
• Time domain OSA:
Spectrum hole
or white space

P S P S P S

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Opportunistic spectrum access
• Time domain vs. Space domain OSA:

Time domain OSA Space domain OSA

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Opportunistic spectrum access
• Advantages of DSA/OSA:
– Higher spectrum efficiency
– Several systems can coexist in the same spectrum:
• Roll-out of new radio technologies, services, networks…
• Reduced cost of spectrum (i.e., inexpensive services for the end-user)

• Drawbacks:
– Concept is simple in theory, but challenging in practice.
– Need for a more sophisticated, smart technology:

Cognitive radio

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Contents

• Introduction
• Cognitive radio
• Cognitive functions
• Applications
• Conclusion

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Cognitive radio

• J. Mitola: “Radio etiquette is the set of RF bands, air interfaces, protocols, and spatial and
temporal patterns that moderate the use of radio spectrum. Cognitive radio extends the
software radio with radio-domain model-based reasoning about such etiquettes.”

• S. Haykin: “Cognitive radio is an intelligent wireless communication system that is aware of

its surrounding environment (i.e. its outside world), and uses the methodology of
understanding-by-building to learn from the environment and adapt its internal states to
statistical variations in the incoming RF stimuli by making corresponding changes in certain
operating parameters (e.g. transmit power, carrier-frequency and modulation strategy) in
real-time, with two primary objectives in mind: highly reliable communications whenever
and wherever needed and efficient utilization of the radio spectrum.”

• F. K. Jondral: “A CR is an SDR that additionally senses its environment, tracks changes, and
reacts upon its findings. A CR is an autonomous unit in a communications environment that
frequently exchanges information with the networks it is able to access as well as with
other CRs.”

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Cognitive radio

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Cognitive radio
• Main features:

– Cognitive capability: Senses RF environment and learns about it.

• Activity of licensed users
• Temporal and spatial variations of environment
• Identifies portions of unused spectrum
• Selects the best spectrum and transmission parameters

– Reconfigurability: Adapts operating parameters accordingly.

• Frequency of operation
• Modulation
• Transmission power
• Communication protocol

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Cognitive radio as OSA enabler

• Cognitive radio is the key enabling

technology for DSA / OSA!

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Contents

• Introduction
• Cognitive radio
• Cognitive functions
• Applications
• Conclusion

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Cognitive radio functions
• Functions of a CR system:
– Spectrum awareness: Identify free portions of the spectrum and detect the
presence of licensed users when a user operates in a licensed band.
– Spectrum selection: Select the best available spectrum.
– Spectrum sharing: Coordinate access to this channel with other users.
– Spectrum mobility: Vacate the channel when a licensed user is detected and
smoothly move the transmission to another channel with minimal disruption.

Source: M. López-Benítez, “Cognitive radio”, Chapter 13 in Heterogeneous cellular networks: Theory, simulation and deployment, CUP 2013.

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Spectrum awareness

• Spectrum awareness: Identify free portions of the spectrum and detect the
presence of licensed users when a user operates in a licensed band.

• Methods:
– Beacon signals
– Geolocation databases
– Spectrum sensing

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Spectrum awareness (beacon signals)
• Beacon signals:
– Primary transmitters broadcast “beacon” signals:
• Spectrum usage, power, coverage, etc.
– Secondary users tune and decode the signal.

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Spectrum awareness (beacon signals)

• Pros and cons of beacon signals:

–  Perfect information
–  Requires agreement primary-secondary
–  Changes in legacy systems (technical & economical problems)

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Spectrum awareness (databases)
• Databases:
– Regional DB contains relevant info
• Spectrum usage, TX location, frequency, power, coverage, etc.
– Geolocation needed (GPS)

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Spectrum awareness (databases)

• Pros and cons of databases:

–  Perfect / accurate information

–  Relies on external system (technical, admin & legal problems)
–  Need for geolocation in DSA/CR terminals (cost, location
accuracy, etc.)
–  Database updating rate: not suitable for dynamic bands

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Spectrum awareness (spectrum sensing)
• Spectrum sensing:
– Sample primary signal and determine ON/OFF state by means of
signal processing methods:
• Matched filter detection
• Energy detection
• Feature detection (cyclo-stationarity, pilots)
• Covariance based detection

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Spectrum awareness (spectrum sensing)

Primary transmitter

Primary receiver

CR user 2 No interaction between CR

users and primary Tx/Rx

CR users must rely on locally

sensed signals to infer
primary user activity
Licensed band 2

Licensed band 1
CR user 1 Channels found occupied by
CR user (licensed bands 1 and
2) are now avoided during
communication between CRs

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Spectrum awareness (spectrum sensing)

• Pros and cons of spectrum sensing:

–  Does not rely on an external system

–  No changes to primary (legacy) system (simple, inexpensive)
–  Suitable for dynamic spectrum bands
–  Inaccurate information (spectrum sensing errors)

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Spectrum awareness (spectrum sensing)
• Problems of spectrum sensing:

Hidden node problem

(receiver uncertainty)

CR
transmitter
Interference range

Primary CR user
transmitter
range
Primary Base-station
Cannot
detect the
Primary user
transmitter

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Spectrum awareness (spectrum sensing)
• Problems of spectrum sensing:

Hidden node problem

(shadowing/fading)

Interference CR
transmitter
CR user
range
Primary
transmitter
range

Cooperation
Primary transmitter

Primary user

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Spectrum awareness (spectrum sensing)
• Solution to problems of spectrum sensing:
CR user 3 Shadowing
Detects the primary
user correctly BUSY Cannot detect the
primary user due
to the obstacles
Primary
transmitter

Multi-path fading
CR user 1
Weak signals are
received due to the IDLE
multi-path fading
 may not detect
the primary user By exchanging their
sensing information, CR
users can detect the
Primary user primary user under fading
CR user 2 and shadowing
environments
IDLE
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Spectrum awareness (spectrum sensing)
• Non-cooperative sensing:
– CR users detect primary signal independently through local observations.
• Cooperative sensing:
– CR users share their local observations to collectively detect primary signal.

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Spectrum awareness

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Spectrum selection

• Spectrum selection: Select the best available spectrum.

• Classification:
– Spectrum analysis
– Spectrum decision

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Spectrum selection
• Spectrum analysis:
– Characterise spectrum holes based on certain metrics.

• RF metrics: Received power

0
– Frequency
Primary
– Bandwidth user 2
– Interference
4
0
– Emission limits
6
2
• Activity metrics 8
4
– Duty cycle Primary user
– Other statistics CR user CR user
Transmission
range
• Spectrum decision:
– Select the most No PU: SU can transmit with max power
convenient spectrum
PU: SU must reduce power
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Spectrum sharing

• Spectrum sharing: Coordinate access to this channel with other users.

P S1 S S2 P S
S3 P S1 S S3

• Classification methods:
• Architecture: centralised vs. distributed.
• Behaviour: cooperative vs. non-cooperative.
• Scope: intra-network vs. inter-network.

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Spectrum mobility

• Spectrum mobility: Vacate the channel when a licensed user is detected and
smoothly move the transmission to another channel with minimal disruption.

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Spectrum mobility

Occupied by primary users Idle spectrum band

CR user A CR user B

Spectrum
CR user A
handover
CR user B

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Cognitive radio functions

• Functions of a CR system:

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Contents

• Introduction
• Cognitive radio
• Cognitive functions
• Applications
• Conclusion

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Applications: Rural broadband
TV
transmitter • IEEE 802.22:
집

집
집

집
– Broadband access in rural areas.
– Using TV channels (6-7-8 MHz).
집

집 집
집

집
집
– Coverage: 33km (100 km max).
집

CR 집

집 transmitter 집

집 집

집
집

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Applications: Rural broadband

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Applications: Public safety

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Applications: Broadband mobile comms
• Mobile communication systems face a serious problem:
– Capacity has doubled every 5 years
– Traffic level has doubled every year!

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Applications: Broadband mobile comms

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Contents

• Introduction
• Cognitive radio
• Cognitive functions
• Applications
• Conclusion

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Conclusion
• Spectrum problem:
– Spectrum use is not efficient nowadays
• Spectrum bands are allocated…
• …but not fully exploited
– Spectrum demand increases constantly

• Solution: dynamic / opportunistic use of spectrum

– Increases spectrum efficiency.
– Enables roll-out of new services at lower costs.

• Key enabling technology: Cognitive radio

– Senses the radio environment and learns about it
– Reconfigures and adapts dynamically to the operating conditions

• Important technical problems and challenges to be overcome

• Important applications in future wireless communication systems

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The End

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Further reading

M. López-Benítez, “Cognitive radio”,

Chapter 13 in Heterogeneous cellular networks: Theory, simulation and deployment,
Cambridge University Press, 2013

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…for your attention!