C5 Problem Set 3: Thermodynamics, Aerosols & Clouds - Tutor Solutions

C5 Problem Set 3: Thermodynamics, Aerosols & Clouds - Tutor Solutions
Starred questions (*) are harder.
Atmospheric Thermodynamics
1. Saturation by adiabatic cooling
(a) A parcel of moist air is forced to rise adiabatically. Describe qualitatively how its tem-
perature will vary with height.
Initially the parcel expands adiabatically and cools with the dry adiabatic lapse rate Γd . At
the lifting condensation level it reaches saturation and the release of latent heat reduces
the cooling so that the parcel continues ascent with the saturated adiabatic lapse rate.
At higher altitudes, all moisture has condensed and the saturated adiabatic lapse rate
asymptotically approaches the dry adiabatic lapse rate. [2]
Also, by consideration of the first law of thermodynamics and the Clausius-Clapeyron

equation, or otherwise, show that the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (ΓS ) is given by (Eq.
22):
Textbook question, see e.g. Andrews (2010). In short:
Starting from h = u + pv = cv T + Ra T = cp T follows dh = cp dT . At the same time
dh = T ds + vdp, thus
Ra T Ra T
dq = T ds = dh − dp = cp dT − dp = cp dT + qdz
p p
Release of latent heat:
dq = −Ldµ
and therefore
cp dT + gdz + Ldµ = 0
1 deS L eS
Using Clausius-Clapeyron, neglecting liquid volume, eS dT
= Rv T 2
and µS = p
fol-
lows
dµS deS dp LdT g

= − = 2
+ dz
µS eS p Rv T Ra T
leading to
L2 µS
!
gLµS

cp + 2
dT + g + dz = 0
Rv T Ra T
and finally

LµS
dT g 1+ Ra T
ΓS = − = L2 µS

dz cp 1 +
cp R v T 2
[4]
State all assumptions made in the derivation.
Assumed that partial pressure of water is small compared with total air pressure and that
volume of liquid water can be neglected. [1]
(b) Comment on the form of this function.
Note that the factor g/cp equals Γd . As ΓS < Γd (see below), once the condensation level
is reached and water vapour begins to condense the lapse rate is significantly reduced.
Therefore, at the base of the cloud layer, one would expect a discontinuity in the gradient
of the temperature profile as it switches from Γd below to ΓS above (see Tephigram ex-
ercise in Q10). At higher altitudes, all moisture has condensed pseudo-adiabatically and
ΓS asymptotically approaches Γd .
2
Estimate the terms RLµa TS and cpLRµv TS 2 , using typical values of p and T, and derive an estimate
for ΓS .
Taking say T = 273K and p = 900hPa gives µS ≈ 4103 kg kg−1 from Fig. 1. Then
LµS 2
Ra T
≈ 0.13 and cpLRµv TS 2 ≈ 0.73, so that ΓS is about 6.4 K km−1 . [3]
Marks: [Total: 10]
2. Static Stability Explain the concept of stability of a dry air parcel in an environment with a
constant lapse rate Γ.
Textbook question that nonetheless tends to confuse students. Explanation using the illustration
from Andrews (2010) below. [2]
Define the potential temperature Θ.
!κ
p0
Θ=T
p
where p0 typically chosen as 1000 hPa. [1]
From this definition, derive a condition for stability/instability of a dry air parcel in terms of
the stratification of potential temperature (dΘ/dz).
!κ
∂Θ ∂T po ∂p
= − κT pκ0 p−κ−1
∂z ∂z p ∂z
!κ
po R p κ −κ−1
= −Γ +g p p
p cp R 0
!κ !κ
po po
= −Γ + Γd
p p
Θ
= (Γd − Γ)
T
leading to
1 ∂Θ 1
= (Γd − Γ)
Θ ∂z T
Thus, static stability follows for Γ < Γd , i.e. ∂Θ/∂z > 0 and static instability for Γ > Γd , i.e.
∂Θ/∂z < 0. [4]
Now discuss the stability of a moist air parcel given that the local lapse rate Γ is (i) less than
ΓS , (ii) lies between ΓS and Γd or (iii) exceeds Γd .
Textbook question that nonetheless tends to confuse students. Explanation using the illustration
from Andrews (2010):
Figure 1: Illustration the concept of static stability (From Andrews, 2010).
A parcel is unstable when it will be warmer (positively buoyant) than the environment (strati-
fied with Γ in a dry adiabatic (Γd ) or saturated adiabatic (ΓS ) ascent.
It may help to re-iterate that the lapse Γ here refers to the ambient stratification while Γd and
ΓS refer to parcels ascending dry and saturated adiabatically, respectively. [3]
Marks: [Total: 10]
3. Thermodynamic Diagrams Plot the data listed in Table 1 on a Tephigram chart and answer
the following questions.
Thermodynamics diagrams are best understood by practice and students may need some guid-
ance to complete this question.
The following questions are analysed on Tephigram in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4.
(a) What is the pressure at the tropopause?

Estimate from pressure at temperature minimum, approximately -47◦ C. [1]
(b) What parts of the ascent are stable for (i) dry air, (ii) saturated air?
From visual inspection: (i) whole profile stable for dry air as temperature profile is more
vertical than dry adiabats (isentropes), so Γ < Γd everywhere. (ii) stable for saturated
air above the 780 hPa surface as slope of temperature profile becomes more vertical than
Pressure (hP a) Temperature (◦ C) Dew point temperature (◦ C)

1000 13 11
940 9.5 8
900 7 5
780 0 -3
700 -5 -11
600 -11 -17
500 -20 - 28
400 -32 - 42
300 -47
200 -40
Table 1: Measurements made by radiosonde ascent at midnight in June at Liverpool.
saturated adiabats about above the 780 hPa level, i.e. any parcel of air moving up along a
saturated adiabat will be cooler than the actual profile at higher altitudes. [2]
(c) What is the mass mixing ratio of water vapour at 1000 hPa and at 500 hPa?
From Tephigram: µ1000hP a ≈ 8.3 gkg −1 and µ500hP a ≈ 0.75 gkg −1 . [2]
(d) The night air is clear and the surface cools radiatively, resulting in a temperature inver-
sion near the ground. How many degrees of cooling are required in the boundary layer
for fog to begin to form?
The cooling required is the difference between the temperature and dew-point tempera-
ture at the surface (1000 hPa) level: if the air cools by 2 K it will become saturated and
fog forms. [2]
(e) The rising sun disperses the fog and heats the ground, destroying the inversion. After fur-
ther heating a parcel of air rises adiabatically. At what (pressure) level will condensation
occur?
Hint: assume that the mixing associated with heating establishes a dry adiabatic lapse rate
Γd in the lowest levels, starting from the ground and occupying a layer that grows deeper
with time as the surface temperature increases. For simplicity, assume that parcels from
surface maintain µ(Td , p0 ) so that parcel saturates when dry adiabatic ascent intersects
µ(Td , p0 ). (In reality dry mixing of boundary layer would also mix µ over the boundary
layer depth, which can be averaged graphically when boundary layer depth is assumed).
Accept solutions that consider mixing, although CIN, CAPE and LNB are small and hard
to evaluate.
Convective surface layer follows dry adiabat for increasing surface temperature, with the
upper limit initially set by the intersection with ambient temperature profile. When the
surface temperature reaches about 14 C, upper limit intersects the 8.3 g kg−1 mixing ratio
line, defining the Level of Free Convection with subsequent ascent following the saturated
adiabat. [3]
(f) What will be the level of the top of the convective clouds which develop?
Graphically evaluate Level of Neutral Buoyancy as ≈ 630hPa (Fig. 3) . [1]
(g) Define and explain the concepts of Convective Inhibition (CIN) and Convectively Avail-
able Potential Energy (CAPE) and graphically evaluate both for this profile.
Z LN B Z pLN B
CAP E = Bdz = − (T − T0 )d ln p
LF C pLF C
Convectively Available Potential Energy: maximal available

√ potential energy for rising
air parcel. Defines maximal vertical velocity wmax = 2CAP E.
and
Z LF C Z pLF C
CIN = Bdz = − (T − T0 )d ln p
Surf ace pSurf ace
Convective Inhibition: potential energy needed to lift parcel to its Level of Free Convec-
tion to overcome negative buoyancy in lower part of the sounding. [2]
See Fig. 4. This profile is characterised by a very small CIN and is highly convectively
unstable. [2]
Marks: [Total: 15]
3
00
00
01
03
1
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
200
a) Rough estimate of Tropopause

0
-8
90
300
0
-7
80
400
0
-6
70
500
f) Level of Neutral Buoyancy
60
0
(LNB) ≈ 630hPa
-5
c) µ500hPa ≈ 0.75 g kg-1

600
50
0.1
700
-4
800
e) Level of Free Convection
(LFC) ≈ 960hPa
0.2
40
0
900
-3
1000
-20
c) µ1000hPa ≈ 8.30 g kg-1
-10 10 20
d) T-Td≈ 2 K
30
24
28
32
36
20
18
16
14
3
9
10
12
0.5
1.5
2.5
TEPHIGRAM
pressures in millibars
Figure 2: Tephigram analysis for questions a)-f)

temperatures in degrees Celsius
saturated mixing ratios in grams per kilogram © Maarten Ambaum, University of Reading, United Kingdom
3
00
00
01
03
1
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
200
0
-8
90
300
0
-7
80
400
0
-6
70
500
60
0
-5
600
50
0.1
700
-4
f) Convectively Available
Potential Energy (CAPE)
800
0.2
40
0
900
-3
f) Convectively Inhibition
(CIN)
1000
-20 -10 0 10 20 30
24
28
32
36
20
18
16
14
3
9
10
12
0.5
1.5
2.5
TEPHIGRAM
pressures in millibars
Figure 3: Tephigram analysis for questions g)
temperatures in degrees Celsius
saturated mixing ratios in grams per kilogram © Maarten Ambaum, University of Reading, United Kingdom
Cloud Physics
4. Köhler Theory
(a) Starting from the Kelvin Equation and Raoult’s Law derive an expression for the satura-
tion vapour pressure over a solution with curved surface.
Revision / textbook question straight out of the Warm Cloud Microphysics Lecture notes.
Note the slightly standardised notation as compared to the lecture notes: here M refers
to molar mass and m to masses.
Starting from Raoult’s Law:
nH2 O
esol
S = eS (∞) = eS (∞)xH2 O
n + nH 2 O
the water mole fraction xH2 O can for dilute concentrations be approximate as:
! !
n iN0 ms MH2 O B
xH 2 O ≈ 1 − = 1− ≡1−
nH 2 O N0 34 πr3 ρH2 O Ms r3
While the Kelvin equation can be simplified:
!
2σ A
eS (r) = eS (∞) exp ≡ eS (∞)e r
Rv ρT r
leading to the Köhler Equation:
B A

eS (r) = eS (∞) 1 − er
r3
where
3iMH2 O ms
A = Rv ρ2σ
H2 O T
, B = 4πρMs
and σ is the surface tension, ms is the mass of the solute,
Ms the molecular weight of the solute, i the van’t Hoff factor (ionic dissociation). [3]
(b) Show that, ignoring higher order terms, this expression can approximated as
A B

esol
S (r) = eS (∞) 1 + − 3
r r
and define the constants A and B.
Taylor series expansion, ignoring higher order terms. This expression holds for not too
small radii r. Constants defined above. [2]
(c) Draw a sketch of the derived saturation vapour pressure over a curved solution, high-
lighting the contributions of the Kelvin Equation and Raoult’s Law, and briefly explain
their physical relevance for the formation of liquid droplets.
Explanation of Köhler Theory along Köhler curve (below Eq. 62 in Handout). Expect
labels for Kelvin and Raoul contributions. [2]
(d) Derive expressions for the critical radius rc and supersaturation Sc and briefly explain
their relevance for droplet formation.
Differentiate
q q form of Köhler equation and solve for extremum to find rc =
simplified
3B 4A3
A
and Sc = 1 + 27B .
Relevance for droplet formation:
Droplets on the left branch of the saturation vapour curve ( r < rc or S < Sc ) are in
thermodynamical equilibrium and stable to perturbations (increase in radius increases
saturation vapour pressure and shrinks droplet, decrease in radius decreases saturation
vapour pressure and grows droplet).
Droplets on the right branch (r > rc or S > Sc ) are unstable: an increase in their radius
lowers their saturation vapour pressure and enhances growth. These droplets are called
“activated” and will grow spontaneously (but diffusion limited). [3]
Students tend to be confused by the saturation vapour pressure curve and what is super-
and sub-saturated.
Marks: [Total: 10]
5. (*) Extended Köhler Theory
(a) Now re-consider Köhler theory in the light of a slightly soluble species (i.e. a species of
solubility Γ, expressed as mass of the species dissolved per mass of water). Derive an
expression for the saturation vapour pressure over a curved solution of a slightly soluble
species in terms of the concentration of the slightly soluble species in the aqueous phase
cSS and the radius of the undissolved core rSS .
A slightly soluble species (subscript ss) in addition to a soluble species (subscript s) will
affect the water mole fraction in the Raoult term of the Köhler equation:
nH2 O is ns + iss nss

xH2 O = ≈1−
nH2 O + is ns + iss nss nH2 O
[2]
Note that the number of molecules of water in the droplet excludes the volume of the
insoluble core (of radius rss ):
4
3
π(r3 3
− rss )ρH2 O is ns (r3 − rss
3
)
nH2 O = =
mH2 O B
having used the definition of B from Q1. [2]
Expressing the number of dissolved molecules in terms of the solubility Γ (mass of solute
(ss) dissolved in mass of solvent (H2 O)):
MH2 O nH2 O
nss = Γ
Mss
[1]
where nss,H2 O and Mss,H2 O are the number of moles and the molar mass of the slightly
soluble substance and water, respectively.
Combination allows to rewrite the water mole fraction:
B iss nss B
xH 2 O = 1 − − ≡1− 3 − Css
r3 3
− rss nH 2 O 3
r − rss
where Css is the concentration of the slightly soluble substance in the aqueous phase: [2]
iss nss iss MH2 O Γ

Css = =
nH2 O Mss
Similar to Q1, this allows to rewrite a modified Köhler equation, considering a slightly
soluble species:
!
A B
esol+ss
S = eS (∞) 1 + − 3 3
− Css
r r − rss
3
Note the term rss , representing the volume occupied by the non-dissolved core. [2]
(b) Discuss the limiting case of a completely insoluble core.
For the case of a completely insoluble core Css = 0 and rss represents the volume occu-
pied by the insoluble core. [1]
Students should appreciate that the addition of a slightly soluble substance reduces the
saturation vapour pressue through the addition of ions in the solution as well as the
presence of the non-dissolved core. The actual shape of the modified Köhler curves is
more complicated but qualitatively characterised by reduced critical supersaturations
and increased critical radii (due to the increase in initial size owing to the non-dissolved
core.)
Marks: [Total: 10]
6. Droplet Growth by Condensation

(a) Starting from Fick’s Law of diffusion:
Φ = −D∇n
and applying appropriate boundary conditions, show that the condensational growth rate
of a spherical ice crystal of mass M growing in a cloud of water droplets at temperature
T can be expressed as
dM
= 4rπD(ρv∞ − ρvr )
dt
Revision questions following the Warm Cloud Microphysics Handout. [2]
Derive an analogue expression for the thermal diffusion away from the crystal surface
and relate it in steady state to the growth rate of the crystal.
Similar derivation starting from the Thermal Diffusion Equation leads to
dQ
= 4rπK(Tr − T∞ )
dt
[2]
Note the change in sign, reflecting the fact that heat is diffused away from the droplet
surface. In steady state d/dt = 0 so that:
ρv∞ − ρvr K
=
Tr − T∞ LD
[2]
(b) Use this equation and that (e/T − ei /Ti ) = 6.7 × 10−2 Pa K−1 at for typical atmospheric
temperatures of −10◦ C, estimate the (i) temperature difference between the surface of
the crystal and the environment and (ii) the time taken for the crystal to grow from 1µm
to 100µm radius.
First, use the ideal gas law to express the growth rate as:
dM 4rπD e ei
= ( − )
dt Rv T Ti
[1]
Integration leads to:
(i) 0.39 K (ii) 23 min [3]
Marks: [Total: 10]
7. Effect of Condensational Growth on Droplet Distributions The condensational growth rate

for droplets can be approximated as
dr (S − 1) − Ar + B
r3
r =
dt (Fk + Fd )
where r is the droplet radius, S supersaturation, A, B are the coefficients in the Köhler equa-
tion and Fk ,Fd represent terms related to thermal and vapour diffusion, respectively.
Stating suitable assumptions, prove that cloud droplet spectra narrow under condensational
growth.
There exist numerous ways to do this. Perhaps the easiest is to compare the relative size of two
droplets starting at slightly different initial conditions:
First, note that the Kelvin and Raoult terms become negligible beyond the initial growth phase
and can be neglected:
dr (S − 1)
r =
dt (Fk + Fd )
[3]
Assuming fixed supersaturation (S − 1) and defining γ = (S − 1)/(Fk + Fd ) this can be easily

integrated to:
r2 (t) = r02 + 2γt

[3]
Comparing the evolution of droplets starting at radii r1 (0) andr2 (0)
r12 (0) − r22 (0)

r1 (t) − r2 (t) =
r1 (t) + r2 (t)
i.e. the difference in droplet size is decreasing with time. [4]
It should be pointed out that supersaturation is in fact not constant during droplet formation
(and depends strongly on the Fk and Fd term, which can generally not be integrated analyti-
cally).
Thus, droplets that do not have sufficient time to grow beyond their critical radius passing the
relatively thin layer of high supersaturations at cloud base can deactivate and stay on the stable
left side of the Köhler curve.
Marks: [Total: 10]
8. Condensational Growth and Cloud Radiative Properties A cloud droplet is activated and
assumed to grow through condensational growth only, with the approximated growth rate (c.f.
previous question):
dr
r = C(S − 1)
dt
where r is the droplet radius, S − 1 supersaturation and C is a constant.
Show that the height above cloud base h(t) of a droplet growing through condensation can be
expressed as
2gρw (S − 1)C 2
h(t) = wt − t
9µ
where ρw is the density of liquid water and the dynamic viscosity of air µ is constant. You may
assume the updraft velocity w and supersaturation remain constant during droplet growth.
Starting from
dr
r = C(S − 1)
dt
neglecting droplet size at point of activation, can be integrated to:
r2 = 2C(S − 1)t
Using
dh 2ρw gr2 (t) 4ρw gC(S − 1)
=w−u=w− =w− t
dt 9µ 9µ
Z
4ρw gC(S − 1) 2ρw gC(S − 1)t2
h = wt − tdt = wt − ≡ wt − At2
9µ 9µ
[6]
Calculate the radius of a droplet under condensational growth 200 m above cloud base, assum-
ing a constant updraft velocity w = 2 m s−1 , and supersaturation (S − 1) = 0.005. Calculate
the optical path at a wavelength of 0.55 µm for a 100 m horizontal path through the cloud, 200
m above cloud base. At this height the droplet concentration is 200 cm−3 . You may assume
that the cloud drops have no absorption at 0.55 µm and that the only gaseous absorber within
the cloud is water vapour whose density is ρwv = 10 g m−3 .
Starting from
At2 − wt + h = 0
with
2 × 103 kgm−3 × 9.81ms−2 × 10−10 m2 s−1 × 0.005

A= −5 −1 −1
= 6.06 × 10−5 ms−2 .
9 × 1.8 × 10 kgm s
gives (taking negative root for ascent)
√ √
+w − w2 − 4Ah 2ms−1 − 4m2 s−2 − 4 × 6.06 × 10−5 ms−2 × 200m
t= = = 100s
2A 2 × 6.06 × 10−5 ms−2
This time now allows to calculate radius 200 m above cloud base:
q √
r= 2C(S − 1)t = 2 × 10−10 m2 s−1 × 0.005 × 100s = 10−5 m = 10µm
which is not a bad estimate (but overestimating growth due to assumption of constant S). [5]
In the large particle limit Qext → 2 so for drops much larger than the wavelength volume
extinction coefficient is
β ext = N πr2 Qext

= 200 × 106 × π × 10−10 × 2
= 0.1257
[2]
For vapour the volume absorption coefficient is
β abs = ρk abs
= 10 × 10−3 × 0.03 = 3 × 10−4 m−1
[2]
So optical path is
χ = (β ext + β abs ) × 100
= (0.1257 + 0.0003) × 100
= 12.60
[2]
Considering that total water (vapour+liquid) is constant in a non-precipitating, non-entraining,

non-freezing ascending parcel, what could a further measurement for the optical path for a 100
m horizontal path higher in the cloud show?
The increase in optical path is proportional to r2 so would a measurement higher in the cloud
would show an increase in the optical path due to condensational growth. [2]
Note that the contribution from vapour absorption is small. [1]
Would break down if collision-coalescence processes become important or drops froze.
Marks: [Total: 20]
9. Cloud Droplet Numbers Observations show that air typically contains thousands condensa-
tion nuclei per cubic centimetre.
Explain why clouds contain not more than a few hundred droplets per cubic centimetre. Refer
to the underlying physics and equations.
This questions summarises the key concepts and equations of warm cloud microphysics (not
all equations required for full marks):
• Condensation nuclei (CN ) refer to all aerosols (particles suspended in air) above a cer-
tain measurement size cut-off (typically around 3nm) and have to be distinguished from
cloud condensation nuclei (CCN ), which are all aerosols that activate above a certain
supersaturation (e.g. CCN0.5% ). [1]
• Starting from the Köhler equation in its simplified form
A B

eS (r) = eS (∞) 1 + − 3
r r
explain the influence of the Kelvin and Raoult terms on the saturation vapour pressure. [1]
• Population splitting: CN with sizes above the critical radius (for a given composition)
activate and grow to cloud droplet, however, most of CN remain in stable equilibrium
and do not activate (i.e. do not grow spontaneously). (For realistic conditions the aerosol
composition is not constant for all sizes, which causes suitable smaller aerosol to activate
at lower supersaturations than larger insoluble aerosol). [1]
• Key to the understanding is the supersaturation balance equation, here in its simplified
form:
dS dz dW
=α −γ
dt dt dt
showing that the updraft driven source of supersaturation α dz
dt
is at the same time depleted
dW
by the condensation on the activated droplet spectrum −γ dt . For a growing droplet
spectrum the condensational sink term increases (droplet surface area), causing a distinct
maximum of supersaturation above cloud base, limiting activation of smaller CN and
therefore limiting droplet numbers [1]
• For deeper and precipitating clouds, the onset of collision / coalescence processes can
further reduce the droplet number, as described by the stochastic collection equation:
∞
dNk 1 k−1
X X
= Ki,k−i Ni Nk−i − Nk Kik Ni
dt 2 i=1 i=1
[1]
Marks: [Total: 5]
[Total for Problem Sheet: 100]

10. * Optional: Budget of Convectively Available Potential Energy
(a) Show that CAP E above a pressure level pz can be expressed as

Z pz
CAP E = (vp − v0 )dp
pLN B
where vp , v0 are the specific volumes of the parcel and the environment, respectively.
Starting from the expression for CAP E introduced in the lecture
Z zLN B Z zLN B
vp − v0
CAP E = Bdz = g dz
z z v0
it is straightforward to show, assuming that the environment is in hydrostatic balance:
Z pz
CAP E = (vp − v0 )dp
pLN B
[2]
(b) Making (and stating) suitable assumptions, show that the evolution of CAP E can be
simplified to:
Z pz !
∂ ∂vp ∂v0
CAP E = − dp
∂t pLN B ∂t ∂t
Differentiation of above expression gives
Z pz !
∂ ∂vp ∂v0
CAP E = − dp
∂pz
+ (vp − v0 )|pz
∂t
∂pLN B
− (vp − v0 )|pLN B
∂t
the two last terms involve the parcel buoyancy (vp − v0 ) evaluated at the source level pz
and the level of neutral buoyancy pLN B . At the source level the parcel is sourced from
the environmental air, thus the boyancy is, as by definition at level of neutral buoyancy,
zero so that the last two terms vanish. [2]
(c) Using the following Maxwell’s relations for moist thermodynamics
! !
∂T ∂vd
=
∂p s,µt
∂s p,µt
! !
∂vd ∂T
= −cl ln T
∂µt p,s
∂p s,µt
show that fluctuations in the specific volume of the saturated parcel (dvp )p , omitting con-
tribution effects of water on the density and heat capacity of condensed water, can be
approximated as
!
∂T
(dvp )p ≈ ds
∂p s
The derivation of the Maxwell relations for moist thermodynamics is off-syllabus (see
Emanuel, 1994). Fluctuations in vp at constant p in response to fluctations in entropy and
total water:
! " #
vd 1 vd
(dvp )p = d = (dvd )p − (dµt )p
1 + µt 1 + µt 1 + µt
 ! ! 
1  ∂vd ∂vd vd
= (ds)p + (dµt )p − (dµt )p 
1 + µt ∂s p,µt
∂µt p,s
1 + µt
 !  !  
1 ∂T
 ∂T vd  
= ds − cl ln T + dµt
1 + µt  ∂p s,µt
∂p s,µt
1 + µt 
The terms multiplying dµt represent the effect of total water on the density and the heat
capacity of the condensed water, which are typically smaller than the entropy changes.
To simplify the analysis they are omitted here so that:
!
∂T
(dvd )p ≈ ds
∂p s
as desired. [3]
(d) For the ambient atmosphere, assumed unsaturated, one can derive a similar expression
!
∂T
(dv0 )p ≈ dsd
∂p s
Substitution into
Z pz !
∂ ∂vp ∂v0
CAP E = − dp
directly gives the desired expression:
 ! ! 
Z pz
∂ ∂T ∂s ∂T ∂sd 
CAP E =  − dp
∂t pLN B ∂p s
∂t ∂p sd
∂t
[2]
(e) Integrate the first term on the right side explicitly and show that the lapse rate included
in the second term can be expressed as...
Integration of the first term gives:
Z pz !
∂T ∂s ∂sz
= (Tz − TzLN B )
pLN B ∂p s
∂t ∂t
and
!
∂T v
=
∂p sd
cp
follows from the derivation of the dry adiabatic lapse rate and the hydrostatic equation. [2]
(f) The time dependence of the dry entropy moving can be expressed as
∂sd cp ∂Θ
=
∂t Θ ∂t
The rate of change of the potential temperature is a combination of diabatic heating/cooling
(Q̇/T ) as well as horizontal and vertical advection so that:
!
∂sd cp ∂Θ Q̇ cp ∂Θ
= = − u · ∇Θ + ω
∂t Θ ∂t T Θ ∂p
Substituting all terms and using the hydrostatic approximation for the change of variables
of integration, the rate of change of CAP E becomes:
!
∂CAP E ∂sz Z LN B g Q̇ g
≈ (Tz − TLN B ) − − u · ∇Θ − N02 w dz
∂t ∂t z cp T Θ
[2]
(g) Explain the physical relevance of the terms in this equation.
This equation states that CAP E is increased by increasing the entropy of the sub-cloud
air (∂sz /∂t) multiplied by the temperature difference between the source level z and the
level of neutral buoyancy zLN B and by processes that reduce temperature of the atmo-
sphere above the parcel (radiation, horizontal+vertical advection). Contrary, convective
mixing (N02 < 0) acts to consume CAP E. [2]
Marks: [Total: 15]

C5 Problem Set 3: Thermodynamics, Aerosols &amp; Clouds - Tutor Solutions

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C5 Problem Set 3: Thermodynamics, Aerosols & Clouds - Tutor Solutions

Starred questions (*) are harder.

Also, by consideration of the first law of thermodynamics and the Clausius-Clapeyron

dµS deS dp LdT g

Figure 1: Illustration the concept of static stability (From Andrews, 2010).

(a) What is the pressure at the tropopause?

Pressure (hP a) Temperature (◦ C) Dew point temperature (◦ C)

Convectively Available Potential Energy: maximal available

a) Rough estimate of Tropopause

c) µ500hPa ≈ 0.75 g kg-1

Figure 2: Tephigram analysis for questions a)-f)

5. (*) Extended Köhler Theory

nH2 O is ns + iss nss

Combination allows to rewrite the water mole fraction:

iss nss iss MH2 O Γ

6. Droplet Growth by Condensation

7. Effect of Condensational Growth on Droplet Distributions The condensational growth rate

Assuming fixed supersaturation (S − 1) and defining γ = (S − 1)/(Fk + Fd ) this can be easily

r2 (t) = r02 + 2γt

Comparing the evolution of droplets starting at radii r1 (0) andr2 (0)

r12 (0) − r22 (0)

2 × 103 kgm−3 × 9.81ms−2 × 10−10 m2 s−1 × 0.005

β ext = N πr2 Qext

Considering that total water (vapour+liquid) is constant in a non-precipitating, non-entraining,

[Total for Problem Sheet: 100]

10. * Optional: Budget of Convectively Available Potential Energy

(a) Show that CAP E above a pressure level pz can be expressed as

Differentiation of above expression gives

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C5 Problem Set 3: Thermodynamics, Aerosols & Clouds - Tutor Solutions

C5 Problem Set 3: Thermodynamics, Aerosols & Clouds - Tutor Solutions