Communication

Systems

Noise

By
Engr. Jawwad Ahmad (Ph.D.)

1
 Today’s Goal
 Noise

 Types of Noise

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 Noise & Types
 Noise is extraneous information that can interfere with or alter
the signal. Deterministic signals
 There are basically three types of noise.
 Shot Noise
Random signals
 Thermal Noise

 White Noise

 Each one of them has their own power spectral density.

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Relation Between Correlation & PSD

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 Shot Noise
 Shot noise is a form of noise that arises because of the discrete
nature of the charges carried by charge carriers, electrons or
holes.
 Shot noise can be modeled by a Poisson process, hence known
as Poisson noise.
 It also occurs in photon counting in optical devices, where
shot noise is associated with the particle nature of light.
 This type of noise is high at high frequency and becomes dc
value at low frequency region.

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Shot Noise

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 Shot Noise

 It can be seen that the rate of generation between two events is

not equal that the random process follow Poisson distribution.

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
Thermal (Johnson) Noise
Thermal noise is observed in any system having thermal
losses and is caused by thermal agitation of charge carriers.
 It is the noise produced by the random motion of charged
particles (usually electrons) in conducting media.
 Thermal noise is also called Johnson-Nyquist noise. (Johnson,
Nyquist: 1928, Schottky: 1918).
 Dependent upon both temperature and the range of frequencies
(frequency bandwidths) being utilized.
 Can be reduced by reducing temperature of electrical
components.

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 Thermal (Johnson) Noise
vn(t) vn(t)
T0

Vn 6s

R V t
f (vn)
2s

Normal distribution
according to the
central limit theorem

 Can describe thermal noise as zero-mean Gaussian random

process.
 A Gaussian process n(t) is a random function whose value n at
any arbitrary time t is statistically characterized by the Gaussian
probability density function

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 Thermal (Johnson) Noise
 Mathematically Gaussian process can be written as

 When a metallic resistance R is at temperature T (K), random

electron motion produces a noise voltage v(t) at the open
terminals.
 Consistent with the central-limit theorem, v(t) has a Gaussian
distribution with zero mean and variance in Volt2 is

 where k (Boltzmann’s Constant) = 1.38 x 10–23 J/K and h

(Planck’s Constant) = 6.62 x 10–34 J sec.
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 Thermal (Johnson) Noise
 For almost all purposes, a good practical accuracy is that the
mean square voltage spectral density of thermal noise is constant,
i.e.,

 where the units are Volts2/Hz and it represents the Thévenin

Equivalent model of a resistance.

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 Thermal (Johnson) Noise
 Consider the RC network as shown, with the resistor at
temperature T. Replacing this thermal resistor with its Thévenin
model.

 where a noise mean square voltage source with Gx(f)=2RkT

(V2/Hz) is applied to a noiseless RCLPF.

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 Thermal (Johnson) Noise
 Since |H(f)|2 = [1 + (f/B)2]–1, where B = 1/(2πRC), the output
spectral density is

 The inverse transform then yields

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 Thermal (Johnson) Noise
 For the average power of y(t) with zero-mean put τ = 0, thus

 It can be seen that the noise power is in inverse relation with

Capacitance of the capacitor.

 So the large value of capacitor will control the noise power.

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 White Noise
 In signal processing, white noise is a random signal having equal
intensity at different frequencies, giving it a constant power
spectral density.

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 White Noise
 The spectral density of white noise in general as

 The autocorrelation function for white noise follows immediately

by Fourier transformation of G( f ), so

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 White Noise
 Power spectral density (PSD) is the same, i.e. flat, for all
frequencies of interest (from dc to 1012 Hz).

 Autocorrelation is a delta function => two samples no matter

however close are uncorrelated.
 N0/2 to indicate two-sided PSD.
 Zero-mean Gaussian completely characterized by
variance(s2).
 Variance of filtered noise is finite = N0/2.

 Similar to “white light” contains equal amounts of all frequencies

in the visible band of EM spectrum.

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 White Noise
 Since R(τ) = 0 for τ ≠ 0, any two different samples of white noise,
no matter how close in time they are taken, are uncorrelated.
 Since the noise samples of white noise are uncorrelated, if the
noise is both white and Gaussian (for example, thermal noise) then
the noise samples are also independent.
 Gaussian + uncorrelated = independent-identical distribution
(IID).

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Thank you

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