Copyright @ 1987 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston,

Texas. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of

America. This book, or parts thereof, niay not be
reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

Library of Congress Car,loging-in-HPublic;Ption Data

Moss, Dennis R .
Pressure \ ~ s s e tlesigri
l manual.
iiicliides index.
1. €’ressure vessels-Design arid construction.
I:. Title,
TS283.kl66 1987 681 ’ .1604l 87-360

First Printing, October 1987

Second Printing, July 1989
Preface, vii

_________
...._.__._
~ ....._ __ CHAPTER
.__ .-
. . ~.
1

STRESSES IN PRESSURIF: VESSELS, 1

Design Philosopliy, 1
Stress Analysis, 1
SeresslFailure Theories, 2
Failures ir1 Pressiire Vessels, 5
Loadings, 6
Stress, 8
Special Problems, 11
References, 16
CHAPTER 2
GENERAL DESIGN, 317
1’rocedi.m 2- 1: General Vessel Foi-mulas, 17
Procedurc 2-2: Stresses in Heads Due to Internal Pressure, f Y
Proceclure 2-3: Design of Intermediate Heads, 20
Procedure 2-4: Design of Conical ‘Yrntisition, 22
Procedure 2-5: 1 . k s i p of Flanges. 25
Procedure 2-6: Design of Spherically Dislied Covers, 40
I’rocedure 2-7: Design of‘Bliiid Flanges wiih Oyenirigs, 4.1
Procedure 2-8: Bolt r h y u e Required for Sealing Flanges, 42
Procedure 2-9: h s i g n of Flat Heads, 44,
Procedure 2- 10: Moynent of Inertia o í Stiffening Rings, 50
l’roceciiire 2-1 1: Reinforcement for Studding Outlets, 51
Procedure 2-1 2: Design of Internal Support Reds, 52
Procedure 2-13: Nozzle Reinforcemeiit, 57
Procedure 2-14.: Design of Large Opcnings in Flat Heads, 61
References, 63
CmAPTER 3

DESIGN OF VESSEL SUPPORTS, 64

Procedure 3-1: Wind ilesign for Vessels, 64
I)rocedure 3-2 : Seismic Lksigii. for Vessc:ls, 67
I’roceclure 3-3 : Seisniic Design-Vessel on Unbraceci Legs, 7 1
Procedure 3-4: Seismic Design -Vessel on Braced Legs, 7 7
Procedure 3-5:Seisrnik Design--Vessel on Rings, 130
L u g Supports, 85
Procedure 3-6: Sei:;niic Design-Vessel on Lugs # I , 86
Procedure 3-7: Seismic Design---Vessel on I.,ugs #2, 9 í
Proceclure 3-8: Scisiriic Design- Vessel ori Skirt, 96
Procediire 3-9: T.ksigii of Horizontal Vessel on Saclclles, 105
Procedure 3-10: Design of Saddle Supports for Large Vessels. 11.3
Procedure 3-1 1 : Design of Base Plates, 119
Procedurc %12: Design of Lug Supports, 120
Procediire 3-13: 'Design of Rasc: Dei.ails for Vértical Vesscls # I , 124
Procedure 3-14: Design of Rase Details for Vertical Vessels #2, 132
References, 134
CHAPTER 4

Procedure 4- 1 : T.lesigii of Large Openirigs in Cylindrical Shell, 136

Procedure 4-2: Design of Cone Cyliiider Intersections, 139
Procediire 4-3: Stresses at Circimifcrc:ntial King Stiffeners, 147
Procedure 4-4: Tower Deflection, 150
Procedure 4-5: Design o f Ring Girders, 153
Refereiices, 158
CHAPTER 5

Procedure 5-1: Stresses in Circular Rings, 160

Procedure 5-2: Design of Partial King Stiffeners, 168
Procedure 5-3: Local Stresses i n Cyliridrical Shells, 1 7 1
Procediire 5-4: Attachment Parameters, 174.
Procedure 5-5: Stresses in Cylindrical Shells from h t e r n a l I.,ocal Loads, 1 75
Procedure 5-6:Stresses in Spherical Shells from External Local I.loads, 189
Kefererices, 196
CHAPTER 6

Procedure 6-1: Design of Davits, 197

Procedure 6-2: Design of Circular Platforms, 201
Procedure 6-3: Shear Loads in Bolted Coiiricctioiis, 208
Procediire 6-4: Design o í Hii-is arid Elevated Tmks, 200
Kefcxnces, 2 18

APPENDIXES, 219
Appendix A: Guide to ASME Section VTTI, Division 1, 219
Appendix T3: Design Data Sheet for Vessels, 220
Appendix C: .Joint Efficiencies (ASME Code), 22 1
Appendix 1):Properties of Heads, 222
Appendix E: Volumes and Surface Areas of Vesscl Sections, 224.
Appendix F: Maximum Length of Unst
Appendix G: Usefiil Fornidas for Vessels, 226
Appendix 14: Material Selection Guide, 228
Appendjx I: Surnrnary of Reyuirenients for 100% X-Ray arid PMJHT, 229
Appendix J: Coniparison of 1.5 S and .9 F, for Carboii Steel, 230
References, 230

Iridex, 231

Vi
 Desig~iersof pressure vessels and rcktted equipment frequently have design iiifor-
rriation scattered among nurnerous hooks, periodicals, journals and old notes.
Then, when faced with a particular problem, they spmd hours rese;ir(:hirig its solu-
tion only to discover the execution may have been rather siniple. This text cari elimi-
nate those hours of research by providing a step-by-step approach to the problems
most fr-equeritly encountered in the design of pressure vessels.
This text niakes rio claim to originality other than that of forniat. The maíerial is
organized iri the most concise and functiorielly riseful manrier. Whenever possible,
credit has been giveii to the original sources.
Although every effort has been made to obtain the most accurate data and soh-
tioris, it is the nature of eiigineeriiig that certaiii simplifying assumptions be made.
Solutions acl-iicved should be viewed in this light, and where j1idgnieni.s are re-
quired, they should be niade with diie consideration.
Many experienced designers will have already performed many of the calciila-
tions out.lined in this text, hut will find the approach slightly different. All proce-
&res have been developed and proven, using actual design problenis. T h e proce-
dures are easily rcp;ita'tde to ensure consistericy of execution. 'They also cari be
inodif'ied to incorporate changes in codes, staridards, contracts, or Icical reyuire-
rrients. Everything required for the sohtjoii of an individual problem is contained in
the procedure.
This text may be used directly to solve problems, as a guideline, as a logical ap-
proach to problems, or ;is ;i check to alternative d e s i p rriethods. If niore detailed
solutions are required, the approach shown can he amplified whcre required.
The user of this text should be advised that any code formulas or references
should always be checked against the latest editions of codes, i.e., ASME Section
VIII, Division 1, Uniform Building Code, and ANSI A 58.1 . These codes are con-
tinually updated and revised to iii(;orporate the latest available data.
I ani grateful to all those who have coiitribiited information and advice to inaktke
this book possible, and invite any suggestions readers may rrialte coricerniiig corr(x-
tioris or additions.

Lkerinis R. Moss
Mission Viejo, California
 In general, pressure vessels designed ir1 accordance
with the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, are de-
sigricd by rules and do not require a detailed evaluation
of all stresses. It is recognized that high localized ;irid
secoridary bending stresses may exist but are allowed for
by use of a higher safety factor and design rules for dc-
tails. It is requircd, however, that all loadings (the forces
applied to a vessel or its structural attachments) must be
corisidcred. (See Reference 1, Para. UG-22.)
While the Code gives formulas for thickness arid
stress of basic components, it is up tn the designer to se-
lect appropriatc analytical procedures for determining
tress due to other loadings. 7'he designer must also se-
lect the most probable combination of simultaneous
loads for an econoniical and saíe design.
'The Codc establishes allowable stresscs by stating in
Para. UG-23(c) that thc maximum general primary
rncrnbraiie stress niust be less than allowable stresses
outlined in rnaterial sections. Further, it states that the
niaxirnuni primary inenibrane stress P/us primary bcnd-
iiig stress rnay not exceed I .5times the allowable stress
01 íhc material sections. In other sections, specifically
Paragraphs 1 -?(e) and 2-8,higher allowable stresses are
permitted if appropriate analysis is made. These higher
allowable stresses clearly indicate that differcnt strcss
levels for different sti-esc categorics are acceptable.
Stress analysis is the determination of the relationship
between external forces applied to a vessel and the corre-
sponding stress. The emphasis ofthis book is not how to
cio stress analysis in particular, but rather how to ana-
lyze vessels and their corngonerit part.s in an effort to ar-
rive at a n economical and safe design-the difference
being that we analyze stresses where necessary to deter-
mine thickness of material and sizes of niernbc-:rs. We are
1
It is general practice when doing niore detailed stress
analysis to apply higher allowable stresses. In effect, the
detailed evaluation of stresses permits siibstituting
knowledge of localized stresses and the use of higher al-
lowables in place of the larger factor of safety used by the
Code. This higher safety factor really reflected lack of
knowledge about actual stresses.
A calculated value of stress means little until it is asso-
ciated with its location and distribution in the vessel and
with tlie type of loading that produced it. Different types
of stress have different degrees of significance.
The designer must familiarize hiinself with the vari-
ous types of stress and loadings in order to accurately
apply the results of analysis. The designer must also
consider some adequate stress or failure theory in order
to coxibiiie stresses and set a l l o ~ a b l estress lirnits. It is
against this failure mode that he must compare and in-
ess values, and define how the stresses in a
component react and contribute to the strength of that
part.
The following sections will provide the fundamental
knowledge for applying the results of analysis. 7'h.c. top-
ics covered in Chapter 1 forni the basis by which the rest
of the book is to be used. A section on special probleins
and considerations is included to alert the designer to
rriore complex problems that exist.
not so concerned with building matheinatical inodels as
with providing it step-by-step approach to the design of
RSME Code vessels. It is not necessary to find every
stress but rather to know the governinp strcsses and how
3
they relate to the vessel or its respective parts, attach-
ments, and supports.
The starting place for stress analysis is t o determine
all the design conditions for a given problem a i d then
2 Pressure Vessel Desigii Manual
determine all the related external forces. We must then
relate these external forces to tlie vessel parts which
must resist thein to find the mrrespondintg stresses. By
isolating the causes (loadings), the effects (stress) can be
inore accurately deterrninc-:d.
The designer must ;tl:jo he keenly aware of the types
of loads and how they relate to the vessel as a whole. Are
the effects loiig or short term? Do they apply t o a local-
ized portion of‘ the vessel or are they uniform tlirough-
out ?
HOWthese stresses are interpi d and combiried,
what significance they have to the overall safety of the
vessel, and what allowable stresses are applied will. be
determined by three things:
I . The sircngthíkiilure thcory utilized.
2. ‘I’he types and categories of loadings.
3 . The hazard the stress reprcsents to the vcssel
Pressure vessels cornniotily have the forixi of spheres,
cylinders, cories, ellipsoids, tori, or composites of these.
When the thickness is small in coniparison with other
diinensinns (RJt > lo), vessels are referred to as rnern-
braries arid the associated stresses resulting from the
contained pressure are called membrane stresses. 1hese ? >
rnerriljr;tne stresses are average tension or compression
stresses. They are assunied to be uniform across the ves-
sel all and act tangentially to its surface. The inern-
brüne or wall is assumed to offer no resistance to bend-
i rig. When the wal.1 offers resistance to bending, bending
stresses occur in addition to riiernbrane stresses.
Zri a vessel of c:orriplicated shape cub-jected to internal
pressure, the simple menibrane-stress concepts do not:
siiffice t:o give an adequate idea of the true stress situa-
tion. ‘I’he types of heads closing the vessel, effects of siip-
ports, variation in thickness arid cross section, nozzles,
external üttachrnents, and overall bending due to
weight, wind, and seismic all cause varying stress distri-
butjoris in the vessel. Deviations from a true membrane
shape set up bending in the vessel wall and cause the di-
rect loading to vary fioin point to point. The direct load-
As stated previously, stresses are rrieaniriglcxs until
coni pared to some stress/failure theory. The significance
of a given stress must be related to its location in tlie ves-
ing is diverted from the more flexible to the more rigid
portions of tlie vessel. This effect is c:allecl “stress redis-
tribu tion.”
In any pressure vessel subjecled to internal or exter-
nal pressure, stresses are set. up in the shell wall. The
state of stress is triaxial and the three prixicipül stresses
are:
u, = lo~igituclitial/riicridionalst rcss
circumferential/latitudirial stress
or = radial stress
In addition, there rnay be bcnding and shear stresses.
The radial stress is a direct stress, which is a result ofthe
pressure acting directly on the wall, and causes a coni-
pressive stress equal to the pressurz. In thin-wallcd vcs-
scls this stress is so srnall compared to tlie other “princi-
pal” stresses that it is generally ignored. Thus we
assume for purposes of analysis that the state of stress is
biaxial. This greatly simplifies the mcthocl of combining
strcsses in coniparison to trimial stress states. For thick-
walled vessels (RJt < lo), thc radial stress cannot be
ignored and formulas are quite different from those used
in finding “rnernbrane stresses” in thin shells.
Since ASME Codc, Section VIIJ, Division 1, is basi-
cally for design by rules, a higher factor of safety is used
to allow for the “unknown” stresses ir1 thc vessel. This
highcr safety factor, which allows for these unknown
stresses, can impose a penalty on dcsign but requires
niuch less arialysis. l’he design techniques outlined in
this text are a compromise betwcen finding all strcsses
arid utilizing miiiirnum code formulas. This additional
knowledge of stresses warrants the use of higher allowa-
ble stresscs in some cases, while meeting the require-
ments that all loadings be consitiered.
In concIusion, “membrane stress analysis” is not
completely accurate but allows ccrt aiii simplifying as-
sumptions to be madc while maintaining a fair degree of
accuracy. The main simplifying assumptions are that the
stress is biaxial and that tlie stresses are uniform íi~ross
the shell wall. For thin-walled vessels these assumptions
have proven themselves to be reliable. No vessel meets
the criteria of being a trur membrane, but we can use
this tool within a reasonable degree of accuracy.
scl and i1.s bearing on the ultimate failure of that v e s d .
Historically various “theories” have been derived to
coriibinc and nicasure stresses against thc potential h i l -

(ire inode. A number of stress theories, also called
“yield criteria,” are available for describing the effects of
combined stresses. For purposes of this text as these fail-
ure theories apply to pressure vessels, o d y two theories
\vill. be discussed. ‘They are the “maxiinurn stress ihe-
<>ry”arid the “niuxiinuin shear stress theory.”
This theory is the oldest, most widely used and siin-
plest to apply. Both ASME Code, Section VIII, Divisi0.n
1, and Section T use the rnaxirnuni stress theory as a ba-
sis for cicsiign. This theory simply asserts that the break-
down of niaterial depends only o n the numerical inagni-
tude of the inaxiunum principal or norinal stress.
Stresses in the other directions are disregarded. Only the
maxjrrium principal stress rnust be determined to apply
this criterion. ‘This theory is used for biaxial states of
stress assiiined in a thin-walled pressure vessel. As will
be shown later it is imcoi-iservative in some instances
and requires a higher saiety fictor for its u s e . While the
inasimnni stress theory does accurately predict failtire
iri brittle materials, it is riot always accurate for ductile
materials. Jr)uctile materials often fail along lines 4.5’ to
I *’
-I .o
__I
Figure 1-4 Graph of maximum stress theory. Quadrant
Quadrani IV: Compression.
I: Biaxial tension; Quadrant 11: Tension; Quadrant Ill: Biaxial compression;
Stresses in Pressure Vessels 3
the applied force by shearing, long before the tensile or
cornpressive stresses are masinium .
This theory can be illustrated graphically for the iour
states of biaxial stress shown in Figure i -1.
i t can be seen that uniaxial tension or compression
lies on the two axes. Inside the box (outer boimdariesj is
the elastic range of the material. Yielding is predicted
for stress coinbinations by the outer line.
IMaximum Shear stress Theory
This theory asserts that the breakdown of material de-
pends only on the maximum shear stress attained in an
element. Ii assumes that yielding starts in plaiies of
niaxiinurn shear stress. According to this theory, yield-
ing will start at a point when the rnaxiiniirn shear stress
at that point reaches om: half of the the uniaxial yield
sírerigth, Fy. ’Thus for a biaxial state of stress where
o1>az, the maximum h e a r stress will be ( o - -~ onj/2.
Yielding will occur when
Safety factor boundary
imposed by ACME Code
‘- Failure surface (yield surface) boundary
4 Pressure Vessel Design Maniiai
Figure 1-2. Graph of ?-naximum shear stress theory.
Both ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 2 arid ASME
Code, Section HI, utilize the ~~)axiiriiiri-i shear stress cri-
terion. This theory closely approxiniates experimental
results and is also easy to us(:. T h i s theory also applies to
triaxial states of stress. In a íriaxial stress state, this the-
ory predicts that yielding will occur whenever one half
the algebraic difference between the maxirnuni arid
rnininium stress is equal to one half the yield strcss.
W h e r e o1> 0%> u 3 , the rriaxiinum shear stress is
( o , - u:+)/2.
Yielding will begin when
This theory is illustrated graphically for the four states
of biaxial stress in Figure 1-2.
A coniparison of Figure 1-1 and Figure 1-2 will
cpickly illiistrate the major difkxnces between the two
theories. Figure 1-2 predicts yielding at earlier points in
Quac1rant.s IT and IV. For exarnple, consider point B of
Figure 1-2. It shows o2 = ( )ol; therefore the shear
stress is equal to cr2 - ( -- a,)/2, which equals 0 2 -t- 0,/2
or one lialf the stress which would cauce yieltling as pre-
dicted by the rnaximiim stress theory!
,--Failure surface (yield surface) boundary
~ - - - 1 -I___
CaBm-aaparisoraof the Two Theories,
Both theories are in agreement for uniaxial stress or
when one of the principal stresses is large in coniparison
to the others. The discrepancy between the theories is
greatest when both principal stresses are riiirrierically
eclual.
For simple analysis ripon which the thickness forniu-
las for ASME Code, Section I or Section VI11, Division
1, are based, it makes little difference whether the maxi-
iniiin stress theory or rnaxirnum shear stress theory is
used. For example, according to the maximiim stress
theory, the controlling stress governing the thickness of a
cylinder is oM7circumferential strc since it is the larg-
est of the three principal stresses. According to the rnaxi-
niuin shear stress theory, the coritrolliiig stress would be
one half the algcbraic difference between the rn,axiiriiirn
and rninirnuni stress:
0 The maximum stress is the circumferential stress, o,
0
, = PR/t
@ l’he rniniinum stress is the radial stress, O,
o,. = -1’
 Stresses in Pressure Vessels 5

Therefore, the maximum shear stress is: @ hfaximum stress theory

0 Maximum shear stress theory

ASME Code, Section VJJí, Division 2, and Section U = PR/t +P = 300(30)/.5 + 300 = 18,300 psi
111 use the terni “stress intensity,” which is defined as
twice the mwiniuni shcar stress. Since the shear stress is Two points are obvious from the foregoing:
compared to one half the yield stress only, “stress intcn-
sity” is used for comparison to allowable stresses or ulti- 1. For thin-walled pressure vessels, both theories yield
mate stresses. To define it another way, yielding begins approximately the same results.
whcn the “stress intcnsiiy” exceeds the yield strength of 2. For thin-walled pressure vessels the radial stress is so
the material. small in cornparisori to the other principal stress<.!;
In the preceding example, the “stress intensity” that it can bc ignorcd and a state of biaxial stress is
would be equal to o, - a,. And assumcd to exist.

For thick-walled vessels (R,/t < io), the radial stress

For a cylinder where P = 300 psi, R = 30 in. and
t =.5 in., the two theories would compare as follows:
becomes significant in defining the ultimate failure of
the vessel. The maximum strcss theory is unconserva-
tive for designing these vessels. For this reason, this text
has limited its application to thin-walled vessels where a
biaxial state of strcss is assumed to exist.

Vessel failures can be grouped into four major catego- upsct conditions. Some types of service which re-
ries, which describe why a vessel failure occurs. Failures quire special attention both for selection of material,
can also be grouped into types of failures, which de- design details, and fabrication methods are a s fol-
scribe h o the
~ failure occurs. Each failiirc has a why and lows:
how to its history. It may have failed throu,gh corrosion a. Lethal
fatigue because the wrong matcrial was sclectcd! The de- b. Fatigue (cyclic)
signer rnust be as familiar with categories and types of c. Brittle (low temperature)
failure as with categories and types of stress and load- d . 1Jigh tempcrature
ings. Ultimately they are all related. e. High shock or vibration
f. Vessel contents
@Hydrogen
@ Ammonia

categories of Fdkarei; Q Comprcssed air

@ Caustic

1. Moterid-Improper selection of material; defects in @ Chlorides

material,
2. Design-Incorrect design data; inaccurate or incor-
rect design methods; inadequate shop testing.
3 . Fabrication--I’oor quality control; improper or insuf-
ficient fabrication procedures including welding;
heat treatment or forming methods.
4. Service-Change of service condition by the user; in-
experienced operations or maintenance personnel;
.-
Types of Faillures
1. Elastic deformation-Elastic instability or elastic b i d < -
ling, vessel geometry, and stiffness as well as proper-
ties of materials are protection against buckling.
6 Pressure Vessel Design Manual
2. Brittle fracture-Can occur at low or intermediate
temperatures. Brittle fractures have occurred in ves-
sels made of low carbon steel in the 40°-500F range
during hydrotest where mitior flaws exist,
3. Excessive plastic d-formation-The primary and sec-
ondary stress limits as outlined in ASME Section
VIII, Division 2, are intended to prevent excessive
plastic deformation and incremental collapse.
4. Stress rupture-Creep deformation as a result of fa-
tigue or cyclic loading, Le., progressive fracture.
Creep is a time-dependent phenomenon, whereas fa-
tigue is a cycle-dependent phenomenon.
5. Plastic instabili~-Incremental collapse; incremental
collapse is cyclic strain accumulation or cumulative
cyclic deformation. Cumulative damage leads to in-
stability of vessel by plastic deformation,
6. Hifh strain-Low cycle fatigue is strain-governed and
occurs mainly in lower-strengthíhigh-ductile materi-
als.
7. Stress corrosion-It is well known that chlorides cause
stress corrosion cracking in stainless steels, likewise
caustic service can cause stress corrosion cracking in
LOADINGS
Loadings or forces are the “causes” of stresses in pres-
sure vessels. These forces and moments must be isolated
both to determine where they apply to the vessel and when
they apply to a vessel. Categories of loadings define
where these forces are applied. Loadings may be applied
over a large portion (general area) of the vessel or over a
local area of the vessel. Remember both pzeneral and local
loads can produce membrane and bending stresses.
These stresses are additive and define the overall state of
stress in the vessel or component. Stresses from local
loads must be added to stresses from general loadings.
These combined stresses are then compared to an allow-
able stress.
Consider a pressurized, vertical vessel bending due to
wind, which has an inward radial force applied locally.
The effects of the pressure loading are longitudinal and
circumferential tension. The effects of the wind loading
are longitudinal tension on the windward side and longi-
tudinal compression on the leeward side. The effect of
the local inward radial load is some local membrane
stresses and local bending stresses. The local stresses
would be both circumferential and longitudinal, tension
on the inside surface of the vessel, and compressive on
the outside. Of course the steel at any given point only
sees a certain level of stress or the combined effect. It is
the designer’s job to combine the stresses from the vari-
carbon steels. Material selection is critical in these
services.
8. Corrosionfatipue-Occurs when corrosive and fatigue
effects occur simultaneously. Corrosion can reduce
fatigue life by pitting the surface and propagating
cracks. Material selection and fatigue properties are
the major considerations.
In dealing with these various modes of failure, the de-
signer must have at his disposal a picture of the state of
stress in the various parts. It is against these failure
modes that the designer must compare and interpret
stress values. But setting allowable stresses is not
enough! For elastic instability one must consider geome-
try, stiffness, and the properties of the material. Mate-
rial selection is a major consideration when related to
the type of service. Design details and fabrication meth-
ods are as important as “allowable stress’’ in design of
vessels for cyclic service. The designer and all those per-
sons who ultimately affect the design must have a clear
picture of the conditions under which the vessel will op-
erate.
ous loadings to arrive at the worst probable combination
of stresses, combine them using some failure theory, and
compare the results to an acceptable stress level to ob-
tain an economical and safe design.
This hypothetical problem serves to illustrate how
categories and types of loadings are related to the
stresses they produce. The stresses applied more or less
continuously and uniformly across an entire section of the
vessel are primary stresses.
The stresses due to pressure and wind are primary
membrane stresses. These stresses should be limited to
the Code allowable. These stresses would cause the
bursting or collapse of the vessel if allowed to reach an
unacceptably high level.
On the other hand, the stresses from the inward radial
load could be either a primary local stress or secondary
stress. It is a primary local stress if it is produced from
an unrelenting load or a secondary stress if produced by
a relenting load. Either stress may cause local deforma-
tion but will not in and of itself cause the vessel to fail. If
it is a primary stress, the stress will be redistributed; if it
is a secondary stress, the load will relax once slight de-
formation occurs.
Also be aware that this is only true for ductile materi-
als. In brittle materials, there would be no difference be-
tween primary and secondary stresses. If the material
 Stresses in Pressure Vessels 7

cannot yield to reduce the load, then the definition of Loadings can be outlined as follows:
secondary stress does not apply! Fortunately current
pressure vessel codes require the use of ductile materi- A. Categories of loadings
als.
This should make it obvious that the type and cate- 1. General loads-Applied more or less continu-
gory of loading will determine the type and category of ously across a vessel section.
stress. This will be expanded upon later, but basically
each combination of stresses (stress categories) will have a. Pressure loads-Internal or external pres-
different allowables, Le.: sure (design, operating, hydrotest, and hy-
drostatic head of liquid).
b. Moment loads-Due to wind, seismic,
Primary stress: P, < SE erection, transportation.
c. Compressive/tensile loads-Due to dead
Primary Membrane Local (PL):
weight, installed equipment, ladders, plat-
PL = P, + PL < 1.5 SE
forms, piping, and vessel contents.
P L = P, + Q,, < 1.5 SE
d. Thermal loads-Hot box design of skirt-
head attachment.
Primary membrane + secondary (Q):
P,, + Q < 3 SE
2. Local loads-Due to reactions from supports,
internals, attached piping, attached equip-
But what if the loading was of relatively short duration? ment, i.e., platforms, mixers, etc.
This describes the “type” of loading. Whether a loading
is steady, more or less continuous, or nonsteady, varia- a. Radial load-Inward or outward.
hie, or temporary will also have an effect on what level b. Shear load-Longitudinal or circumferen-
of stress will be acceptable. If in our hypothetical prob- tial.
lem the loading had been pressure + seismic + local c. Torsional load.
load, we would have a different case. Due to the rela- d. Tangential load.
tively short duration of seismic loading, a higher “tem- e. Moment load-Longitudinal or circumfer-
porary” allowable stress would be acceptable. The ves- ential.
sel doesn’t have to operate in an earthquake ail the time. f. Thermal loads.
On the other hand, it also shouldn’t fall down in the
event of an earthquake! Structural designs allow a one- B. Types of loadings
third increase in allowable stress for seismic loadings for
this reason. 1. Steady loads-Long-term duration, continuous.
For steady loads, the vessel must support these loads
more or less continuously during its useful life. As a re- a. Internal/external pressure.
sult, the stresses produced from these loads must be b. Dead weight.
maintained to an acceptable level. c. Vessel contents.
For nonsteady loads, the vessel may experience some or d. Loadings due to attached piping and equip-
all of these loadings at various times but not all at once ment.
and not more or less continuously. Therefore a tempo- e. Loadings to and from vessel supports.
rarily higher stress is acceptable. f. Thermal loads.
For p-eneral loads that apply more or less uniformly g. Wind loads.
across an entire section, the corresponding stresses must
be lower, since the entire vessel must support that load- 2. Nonsteady loads-Short-term duration; varia-
ing. ble.
For local loads, the corresponding stresses are confined
to a small portion of the vessel and normally fall off rap- a. Shop and field hydrotests
idly in distance from the applied load. As discussed pre- b. Earthquake.
viously, pressurizing a vessel causes bending in certain c. Erection.
components. But it doesn’t cause the entire vessel to d. Transportation.
bend. The results are not as significant (except in cyclic e. Upset, emergency
service) as those caused by general loadings. Therefore f. Thermal loads.
a slightly higher allowable stress would be in order. g. Start up, shut down.
8 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

STRESS

them and on the hazard they represent to the structure.

ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1 vs. Unrelenting loads produce primary stresses. Rclenting-
Division 2 loads (sclf limiting) produce secondary stresses. General
loadings produce primary membrane and bending
ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1 does not ex- stresses. Local loads produce local membrane and bend-
plicitly consider the effects of combined stress. Neither ing stresses. Primary stresses must he kept lower than
does it give detailcd methods on how stresses are com- secondary stresses. Primary plus secondary stresses are
bined. ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 2, on the allowed to be higher and so on. Before considering the
other hand, provides specific guidelines for stresses, how combination of stresses (categories), we must first define
thcy are combined, and allowable stresses for categories the various &pes and classes of stress.
of combined stresses. Division 2 is design by analysis
whereas Division 1 is designed by rules. Although stress Types of Stress
analysis as utilized by Division 2 is beyond the scope of
this text, the use of stress categories, definitions of stress, There are many names to describe types of stress.
and allowable stresses is applicable. Enough in fact to provide a confusing-picture even to the
Division 2 stress analysis considers all stresses in a tri- experienced designer. As these stresses apply to pressure
axial state combined in accordance with the maximum vessels, we group all types of stress into three major
shear stress theory Division 1 and the procedures out- classes of stress, and subdivision of each of the groups is
lined in this text consider a biaxial state of stress com- arranged according to their effect on thc vessel. The fol-
bined in accordance with the maximum stress theory lowing list of stresses describes types of stress without re-
Just as you would not design a nuclear reactor to the gard to their effect on the vessel or component. They de-
rules of Division 1, you would not design an air receiver fine a direction of stress or relate to the application of the
by the techniques of Division 2. Each has its place and load.
applications. The following discussion on categories of
stress and allowables will utilize information from Divi- 1. Tensile 10. Thermal
sion 2, which can be applied in general to all vessels. 2. Compressive 11. Tangential
3. Shear 12. Load induccd
4. Bending 13. Strain induced
5. Bearing 14. Circumferential
Types, Classes, and Categories of Stress 6. Axial 15. Longitudinal
7. Discontinuity 16. Radial
The shell thickness as computed by Code formulas for 8. Membrane 17. Normal
internal or external pressure alone is often not sufficient 9. Principal
to withstand the combined effects of all other loadings.
Detailed calculations consider the effects of each loading Classes of Stress
scparately and then must be combined to give the total
state of stress in that part. The stresses that are present The foregoing list provides examples of types of
in pressure vessels are separated into various classes in stress. It is, however, too general to provide a basis with
accordance with the &pes of loads that produced them, which to combine stresses or apply allowable stresses.
and the hazard they represent to the vessel. Each class of For this purpose, new groupings called classes of stress
stress must be maintained at an acceptable level and the must be used. Classes of stress group stresses according
combined total stress must be kept at another acceptable to the type of loading which produced them and the haz-
level. The combined stresses due to a combination of ard they represent to the vessel.
loads acting simultaneously are called stress categories.
Please note that this terminology differs from that given 1 . Primary stress
in Division 2, but is clearer for the purposes intended a. General:
here. Primary general membrane stress, P,
Classes of stress, categories of stress, and allowable Primary general bending stress, Pb
stresses are based on the type of loading that produced b. Primary local stress, P,,

2, Secondary stress
a. Secondary membrane stress, Qm
b. Secondary bending stress, Q
3 . Peak stress, F
Definitions and examples of these stresses are as follows:
Primary general stress. These stresses act over a full
cross-section of the vessel. They are produced by me-
chanical loads (load induced) and are the most hazard-
ous of all types of stress. The basic characteristic of a pri-
mary stress is that it is not self limiting. Primary stresses
are generally due to internal or external pressure or pro-
duced by sustained external forces and moments. Ther-
mal stresses are never classified as primary stresses.
Primary general stresses are divided into membrane
and bending stresses. The need for dividing primary
general stress into membrane and bending is that the
calculated value of a primary bending stress may be
allowcd to go higher than that of a primary membrane
strcss. Primary stresses that exceed the yield strength of
the material can cause failure or gross distortion. Typi-
cal calculations of primary stress are:
PR F MC TC
, and -
t’A’ I J
Primary p e r a l membrane stress, P,. This stress occurs
across the entire cross section of thc vessel. It is remote
from discontinuities such as head-shell intersections,
cone-cylinder intersections, nozzles, and supports. Ex-
amples are:
a. Circumferential and longitudinal stress due to
pressure.
b. Compressive and tensile axial stresses due to
wind.
c. Longitudinal stress due to the bending of the hori-
zontal vessel over the saddles.
d . Mcmbrane stress in the center of the flat head.
e. Membrane stress in thc nozzle wall within the area
of reinforcement due to pressure or external loads.
f. Axial compression due to weight.
Primary general bending stress, Pb. Primary bending
strcsses are due to sustained loads and are capable of
causing collapse of the vessel. There are relatively few
areas where primary bending occurs:
a. Bending stress in the center o f a flat head or crown
of a dished head.
b. Bending stress in a shallow conical head.
c . Bending stress in the ligaments of closely spaced
openings.
Stresses in Pressure Vessels 9
Local Primary Membrane Stress, PL.Local pri-
mary membrane stresses are not technically a classifica-
tion of stress but a stress category, since it is a combina-
tion of two stresses. The combination it represents is
primary membrane stress, P,, plus secondary mem-
brane stress produced from sustained loads. These have
been grouped together in order to limit the allowable
stress for this particular combination to a level lower
than allowed for other primary and secondary stress ap-
plications. It was felt that local stress from sustained (un-
relenting) loads presented a great enough hazard for the
combination to be “classified” as a primary stress.
A local primary stress is produced either by design
pressure alone or by other mechanical loads. Local pri-
mary stresses have some self-limiting characteristics like
secondary stresses. Since they are localized, once the
yield strength of the material is reached, the load is re-
distributed to stiffer portions of the vessel. However,
since any deformation associated with yielding would be
unacceptable, an allowable stress lower than secondary
stresses is assigned. The basic difference between a pri-
mary local stress and a secondary stress is that a pri-
mary local stress is produced by a load that is unrelent-
ing; the stress is just redistributed. In a secondary stress,
yielding relaxes the load and is truly self limiting. The
ability of primary local stresses to redistribute thcm-
selves after thc yield strength is attained locally provides
a safety-valve effect. Thus, the higher allowable stress
applies only to a local area.
Primary local mcmbrane stresses are a combination
of membrane stresses only. Thus only the “membrane”
stresses from a local load are combined with primary
general membrane stresses, not the bending stresses.
The bending stresses associated with a local loading are
secondary stresses. Therefore, the membrane stresses
from a WRC-107-type analysis must be broken out sep-
arately and combined with primary general stresses.
The same is true for discontinuity membrane stresses at
head-shell junctures, cone-cylinder junctures, and noz-
zle-shell juncturcs. T h e bending stresses would be sec-
ondary stresses.
Therefore, PL = P,, + Qm where Qm is a local stress
from a sustained or unrelenting load. Examples of pri-
mary local membrane stresses are:
a. P, + membrane stresses at local discontinuities:
1. Head-shell juncture
2. Conc-cylinder juncture
3. Nozzle-shell juncture
4. Shell-flange juncture
5. Head-skirt juncture
6. Shell-stiffening ring juncture
10 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

b . P,, + membrane stresses from local sustained
loads:
1 . Support lugs
2. Nozzle loads
3 . Ream supports
4. Major attachments
Secondary stress. The basic characteristic of a sec-
ondary stress is that it is self limiting. As defined earlier,
this mcans that local yielding and minor distortions can
satisfy the conditions which caused the stress to occur.
Application of a secondary stress cannot cause struc-
Note: Forb and c it is ncccssary to subtract out the aver-
age stress which is the primary stress. Only tlic varying
part of the stress distribution is a secondary stress.
Peak stresss, F Peak stresses are the additional stresses
due to stress intensification in highly localized areas.
They apply to both sustained loads and self-limiting
loads. There are no significant distortions associated
with pcak stresses. Peak stresses are additive to primary
and secondary stresses present at the point of ihe stress
concentration. Peak stresses arc only significant in fa-
tigue conditions or brittle materials. Peak stresses are
sources of fatigue cracks and apply to membrane, bend-
1
i

tural failure due to the restraints offered by the body to ing, and shear stresses. Examples are: I
which the part is attached. Secondary mean stresses are
developed at the junctions of major components of a a. Strcss at the corncr of a discontinuity.
pressure vessel. Secondary mean stresses are also pro- b. Thermal stresses in a wall caused by a sudden
duced by sustained loads other than internal or external change in the surface tempcrature.
prcssurc. Radial loads on nozzles produce secondary
mean stresses in the shell at the junction of the nozzle.
Secondary stresses are strain-induccd strcsscs.
c. Thermal stresses in cladding or weld overlay.
d. Stress due to notch effect (stress concentration). 1
!
Discontinuity strcsses are only considered as second- Categories of Stress !
ary stresses if their extent along the length of the shell is
limited. Division 2 imposes the restriction that the
a. lated,
Once the various stresses of a component are calcu- i
length over which the stress is secondary is they must be combined and this final rcsult com-
Bc-
pared to an allowable stress (see Table 1-1). The com-
a bined classes of stress due to a combination of loads
yond this distance, the stresses are considered as primary
mean stresses. In a cylindrical vessel, the length I
represents the length over which the shell behaves as a
ring.
A further restriction on sccondary stresses is that they Table 1-1

a.
may not be closer to another gross structural discontinu- Allowable Stresses for Stress Classifications and
ity than a distance of 2.5 This restriction is to Categories
eliminate the additive effects of edge moments and Stress Classification i
forces. or Category Allowable Stress

Secondary stresses are divided into two additional General primary membrane, P, SE
groups, membrane and bending. Examples of cach are General primary bending, Pb 1.5 S E < .9 Fy
as follows: Local primary membrane, PL i
Secondary membrane stress, a,,, (pL= P, + Oms)
Secondary membrane, 0 ,
1.5 SE < .9 F,
1.5 SE < .9 Fv
Secondary bending, Qb 3 SE < 2 F,< ÚTS
a. Axial stress at the juncture of a flange and the hub
of the flange.
Peak, F 2 s,
P, + P, + Om' + Qb 3 SE < 2 F v < UTS
b. Thermal stresses. 1.5 SE < .9F,

I
PL + Pb
c . Membrane stress in the knuckle area of the head. PL + Pb + O', + Qb 3 SE < 2 F,< UTS
d. Membrane stress due to local relenting loads. PL + P, + Om*+ Ob + F 2 s,
Secondary bendzng stre.rs, a,, ites:

a, = membrane stresses from sustained loads I

nozzles, lugs, etc. (relenting loadings only). s = allowable SIWSS ASME ME Code, section ViII,
Division 1 . at design tem-
b. The nonuniform portion of the stress distribution peratute
Fy = minimum specified yield strength at design lempsrature
in a thick-walled vessel due to internal pressure. u.T,s.= minimum Specified tensile
c. The stress variation of the radial stress duc to in- Sa = allowable stress for any given number of Cycles from design fatigue

I
terna1 pressure in thick-walled vessels. curves.

d. Discontinuity StreSSCS at stiffening or support Beawarethalatcertainlemperatureslarcerlain 1.5SE isgrealerlhan

rings. .9 Fy See "Appendix J: Comparison o1 1.5 S and .9 F, lor Carbon Steels." i
i

acting at the same tirric are stress categories. Each
category has assigned limits of stress based on the haz-
ard it represents to the vessel. The following is derived
basically from ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 2,
simplified for application to Division 1 vessels and al-
lowable stresses. It should be used as a guideline only
because Division 1 recognizes only two categories of
stress-primary membrane strcss and primary bending
stress. Since the calculations of most secondary (thermal
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
This text provides detailed methods to cover those ar-
eas most frequently encountcred in pressure vessel de-
sign. The topics chosen for this section, while of the ut-
most interest to the designer, represent problems of a
specialized nature. As such, they are presented here for
information purposes, and detailed solutions are not
provided. T h e solutions to these special problems are
complicated and normally beyond thc expertise or avail-
able timc of the average designer.
The designer should be familiar with these topics in
order to recognize when special consideration is war-
ranted. If more detailed information is desired, there is
a great deal of reference material available, and special
references have been included for this purpose. When-
ever solutions to problems in any of these areas are re-
quired, the design or analysis should be referred to ex-
perts in the field who have proven experience in their
solution.
Thick-Walled Pressure Vessels
As discussed previously, the equations used for design
of thin-walled vessels arc inadequate for design or pre-
diction of failure of thick-walled vessels where R,J
t < 10. There are many typcs of vessels in the thick-wall
vesscl category as outlined in the following, but for pur-
poses of discussion here only the monobloc type will he
discussed. Design of thick-wall vessels or cylinders is be-
yond the scope of this text, but it is hoped that through
the following discussion some insight will be gained.
In a thick-wailed vessel subjected to internal pressure,
both Circumferential and radial stresses are maximum
on the inside surface. However, failure of the shell does
not begin at the bore but in fibers along the outside sur-
face of the shell. Although the fibers on the inside sur-
face do reach yield first they are incapable of failing be-
cause they arc restricted by the outer portions of the
shell. Above the elastic-breakdown pressure the region
Stresses in Pressure Vessels 11
and discontinuities) and peak stresses are not included
in this text, these categories can be considered for refer-
ence only. In addition, Division 2 utilizes a factor K
multiplied by the allowable stress for increase due to
short term loads due to seismic or upset conditions. It
also sets allowable limits of combined stress for fatigue
loading where secondary and peak stresses are major
considerations. Table 1-1 sets allowable stresses for both
stress classifications and stress categories.
of plastic flow or “overstrain” moves radially outward
and causes the circumferential stress to reduce at the in-
ner layers and to increase at the outer layers. Thus the
maximum hoop stress is reachcd first at the outside of
the cylinder and eventual failure begins there.
The major methods for manufacture of thick-walled
pressure vessels are as follows:
1 . Monobloc-Solid vessel wall.
2. Multilayer-Begins with a core about %in. thick
and successive layers are applied. Each layer is
vented (except the core) and welded individually
with no overlapping welds.
3. Multiwall-Begins with a core about 1112 in. to 2-
in. thick. Outer’ layers about the same thickness
are successively “shrunk fit” over the core. This
crcates compressive stress in the core, which is re-
laxed during- pressurization. The process of com-
pressing layers is called autofrettage from the
French word meaning “self hooping.”
4. Multilayer autofrettage-Begins with a core about ‘h
in. thick. Bands or forged rings are slipped outside
and then the core is expanded hydraulically. The
core is stressed into plastic range but below ulti-
mate strength. The outer rings are maintained at a
margin below yield strength. The elastic deforma-
tion residual in the outer bands induce comprcs-
sive stress in the core, which is relaxed during
pressurization.
5. Wire wrapped uessals-Begin with inner core of
thickness less than required for pressure. Core is
wrapped with steel cables in tension until the de-
sired autofrettage is achieved.
6. Coil wrapped uemls-Begin with a core that is sub-
sequently wrapped or coiled with a thin steel sheet
until the desired thickness is obtained. Only two
longitudinal welds are used, one attaching the
sheet to the core and thc final closure weld. Vessels
5 to 6 ft in diameter for pressures up to 5,000 psi
have been made in this manner.
12 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Other techniques and variations of the foregoing have stress is considered uniform since the difference between
been used but these represent the major methods. Obvi- the inner and outer surface is slight. A visual compari-
ously these vessels are made for very high pressures and son is offered in Figure 1-3:
are very expensive.
For materials such as mild steel, which fail in shear
rather than direct tension, the maximum shear theory of
failure should be used. For internal pressure only, the
maximum shear stress occurs on the inner surface of the
cylinder. At this surface both tensile and compressive
stresses are maximum. In a cylinder, the maximum ten-
silc stress is the circumferential strcss, u+. The maxi-
mum compressive stress is the radial stress, ur. These
stresses would be computed as follows:

Therefore the maximum shear stress, 7 is [9]:

ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, has developed

alternate equations for thick-walled monobloc vessels.
The cquations for thickness of cylindrical shells and
spherical shells are as follows:

Cylindrical shells (Para. 1-2 (a) (1)) where t > .5 Rjor

P > ,385 SE: Figure 1-3. Comparison of stress distribution between thin-
wall (A) and thick-wall (6)vessels.
z=-SE + P
SE - P
Vibration of Tall Towers
R, (& - I)
t=
Z Design methods in this text for wind design of tall ver-
tical vessels and deflections are based on a system of
Spherical shells (Para. 1-3) where t > ,356 Ri or equivalent static forces. Thesc procedures are not ade-
P > ,665SE: quate for vessels subject to wind-induced vibration. This
phenomenon, peculiar to tall, slender, vertical vesscls
2(SE + P) and stacks is caused by vortex shedding and has resulted
Y= in severe oscillations, excessive deflections, structural
2SE - P
damage, and even failure.
When the natural period of vibration of a stack or col-
umn coincides with the frequency of vortex shedding,
the amplitude of vibration is greatly magnified. The fre-
quency of vortex shedding is related to wind velocity
The stress distribution in the vessel wall of a thick and vessel diameter. The wind velocity at which the fre-
walled vessel varies across the section. This is also true quency of vortex shedding matches the natural period of
for thin-walled vessels, but for purposes of analysis the vibration is called the “critical wind velocity.”

Wind-induced oscillations occur at steady, moderate
wind velocities of 20-25 miles per hour. These oscilla-
tions commence as the frequency of shedding ap-
proachcs the natural frequency of the column and are
perpendicular to the prevailing wind. Larger wind ve-
locities contain high-velocity random gusts that reduce
the tendency for vortex shedding in a regular periodic
manner.
A convenient method of relating the phenomenon of
wind exLitation to vessels is to equate it to fluid flow
around a cylinder. At low flow rates, the flow around a
cylinder would be laminar. As the stream velocity in-
creases two symmetrical eddies are formed on either side
of the cylinder. At higher velocities vortices split off from
the main stream rcsulting in an imbalance in forces ex-
erted from the split stream. The discharging vortex im-
parts a fluctuating force that can cause movement in the
vessel perpendicular to the direction of the stream.
External attachments such as piping, ladders, and
platforms and internal attachments such as trays and
lining guard against resonance at critical wind vcloci-
ties. The internal strain in the vessel shell and absorp-
tion of energy by the supporting soil are major damping
factors.
After a vessel has been designed statically, it is neces-
sary to dctermine if the vessel nccds to be investigated
regarding its possible behavior under vibration condi-
tions. Normally vessels with HID ratios less than 15 or
periods of vibration less than .4 seconds need not be in-
vestigated. The following specific criteria should bc used
to determine whether a vessel is susceptible to wind in-
duced oscillations and therefore would require a dy-
namic analysis.
Two methods for determining. if a vessel should bc de-
signed dynamically are as follows:
1. Freese Method-Developed by C. E. Freese [4].
This method takes into account weight distribu-
tion WD/t, period of vibration, T, and HID ratios.
Those vessels which fall above the critical line
should be designed dynamically. Those vessels
which fall below the critical line are considered
safe from a vibration standpoint. See Figure 3-9.
HID ratios for multi-diameter vessels may be esti-
mated as follows:
where D, = diameter of vessel at bottom of col-
umn.
Stresses in Pressure Vessels 13
Quantities H,D, are calculated from the top
down.
2. Zorrillu Method-Developed by E. P. Zorrilla [5].
This method provides criteria for establishing the
stability of long columns utilizing overall weight,
W, overall length, L, and the average internal di-
ameter of the top half of the column, D,.
If WILD,'< 20, a vibration analysis must be
performed.
If 20 <WILD: 5 25, vibration analysis should
be performed.
If W/LD,2>25, vibration analysis need not be
performed.
Zorrilla further subdivided his investigation into
categories of vessels that are stable or unstable
based on the additional variables of dampins fac-
tor, Df, and the logarithmic decrement, 6. The log-
arithmic decrement is the log of the ratio of succes-
sive amplitudes of a damped, freely vibrating
structure and is a measure of the structural ability
of the tower to dissipate energy during vibration.
If damping was not present, 6 would be O.
The logarithmic decrement for welded vessels is
as follows:
No lining: 6 = .O3
Gunitc lined: 6 = .O5
Full of water: 6 = .O7
The damping factor can be expressed in terms of
the average weight w, or the total weight W.
Df = w6/D,2 or W61LD:
If D, 5 .75, the structure is unstable.
If . 7 5 < D , 5 .95, the structure is probably sta-
ble.
If Df > .95,the structure is stable.
Vessels which should or must have a vibration
analysis and are not stable as determined by the
foregoing relationships must be designed dynami-
cally.
Dynamic Analysis
Once it has been determined that a vessel must be de-
signed dynamically for vibration, either the vessel must
be designed to withstand the effects of wind-induced os-
cillations or the vessel must be redesigned so wind-in-
duced oscillations do not occur.
14 Pressure Vessel Design Manual
One method of designing vessels to withstand the ef-
fects of vibration was proposed by Freese. This method
is the Seismic Analogy Method and consists of designing
the vessel as a cantilever beam of uniform properties
over its entire length. Shell thickness is taken as the min-
imum thickness. The Seismic Analogy Method uses a
seismic coefficient of .2. For multidiameter vessels, an
equivalent HID ratio is estimated as shown previously.
Shell thicknesses of vessels designed by this method
must be calculated at various points to determine at
which elevations thickness must be increased. It is not
necessary to carry the seismic analogy method into the
design of the anchor bolts and base plate. However, the
additional weights caused by this procedure will usually
increase the anchoring details.
Methods of redesigning vessels so wind-induced oscil-
lations do not occur include:
1. Arrange the orientation of ladders, platforms, and
piping around the vessel to break up vortices.
2. Add radial blade spoilers in helix fashion to break
up vortices.
3 . Reduce size of vessel below dynamic criteria.
4. Application of linings to dampen vibrations.
5. Cross bracing or guy wires to adjacent equipment
or grade to control vibration.
For further reference or specific details on application of
the methods outlined herein see References 4; 5; 6,
Chapter 4; 8, 9, 10. Due to the complexity and serious
consequences of wind vibration, serious problems
should be referred to experts in this field.
Thermal Stresses
Whenever the expansion or contraction that would
occur normally as a result of hcating or cooling an object
is prevented, thermal stresses are developed. The stress
is always caused by some form of mechanical rcstraint.
Thermal stresses are “secondary stresses” because
they are selflimiting. That is, yielding or deformation of
the part relaxes the strcss (except thermal stress ratchet-
ins). Thermal stresses will not cause failure by rupture
in ductile materials except by fatigue over repeated ap-
plications. They can, however, cause failure due to ex-
cessive deformations.
Mechanical restraints are either internal or external.
External restraint occurs when an object or component
is supported or contained in a manner that restricts ther-
mal movement. An example of external restraint occurs
when piping expands into a vessel nozzle creating a ra-
dial load on the vessel shell. Internal restraint occurs
when the temperature through an object is not uniform
Stresscs from a “thermal gradient” are due to internal
restraint. Stress is caused by a thermal gradient when-
ever the temperature distribution or variation within a
member creates a differential expansion such that the
natural growth of one fiber is influenced by the different
growth requirements of adjacent fibers. The result is
distortion or warpage.
A transient thermal gradient occurs during heat-up
and cool-down cycles where the thermal gradient is
changing with time.
Thermal gradients can be logarithmic or linear across
a vessel wall. Given a steady heat input inside or outside
a tube the heat distribution will be logarithmic if there is
a tcmperature difference between the insidc and outside
of the tube. This effect is significant for thick-wall ves-
sels. A linear temperature distribution occurs if the wall
is thin. Stress calculations are much simpler for linear
distribution.
Thermal stress ratcheting is progressive incremental
inelastic deformation or strain that occurs in a compo-
nent that is subjected to variations of mechanical and
thermal stress. Cyclic strain accumulation ultimately
can lead to incremental collapse. Thermal stress ratchet-
ing is the result of a sustained load and a cyclically ap-
plied temperature distribution.
T h e fundamental difference between mechanical
stresses and thermal stresses lies in the nature of the
loading. Thermal stresses as previously statcd are a re-
sult of restraint or temperature distribution. The fibers
at high temperature are compressed and those at lower
temperatures are stretched. The stress pattern must only
satisfy the requirements for equilibrium of the internal
forces. The result being that yielding will relax the ther-
mal stress. If a part is loaded mechanically beyond its
yield strength, the part will continue to yield until it
breaks, unless the deflection is limited by strain harden-
ing or stress redistribution. T h e external load remains
constant, thus the internal stresses cannot relax.
The basic equations for thermal stress are simple but
become increasingly complex when subjected to varia-
bles such as thermal gradients, transient thermal gradi-
ents, logarithmic gradients, and partial restraint. The
basic equations follow. If the temperature of a unit cube
is changed from T, to T2and the growth of the cube is
fully restrained:
where TI = initial temperature, “F
T, = new temperature, O F
01 = mean coefficient of thermal expansion in./
in.l°F
E = modulus of clasticity, psi
v = Poisson’s ratio = .3 for steel
A T = mean temperature difference, “F

Case 1: If the bar is restricted only in one direction hut
free to expand in the other direction, the resulting
uniaxial stress, u, would be
U = - Ea(T2 ~ TI)
0 If T2> T,, u is compressive (expansion).
0 If TI > T2,u is tensile (contraction).
Case 2: If restraint is in both directions, x and y, then:
UX = UY = - aEAT/I - v
Case 3: If restraint is in all three directions, x, y, and
z, then
ux = uy = u% = aEATI1 - 2v
~
Case 4: If a thermal linear gradient is across wall of a
thin shell (see Figure 1-4), then:
U, = U+ = +aEAT/2(1 - V )
Figure 1-4. Thermal linear gradient across shell wall
This is a bending stress and not a membrane stress. The
hot side is in tension, the cold side in compression. Note
that this is independent of vessel diameter or thickness.
The strcss is due to internal restraint.
Discontinuity Stresses
Vessel sections of different thickness, material, diame-
ter, and change in directions would all have different
displacements if allowed to expand freely However,
since they are connected in a continuous structure, they
must deflect and rotate together. The stresses in the re-
spective parts at or near the juncture are called disconti-
nuity stresses. Discontinuity stresses are necessary to
satisfy compatibility of deformation in the region. They
Stresses in Pressure Vessels 15
are local in extent but can be of very high magnitude.
Discontinuity stresses are “secondary stresses” and are
self limiting. That is, once the structure has yielded, the
stresses are reduced. In average application they will not
lead to failure. Discontinuity stresses do become an im-
portant factor in fatigue design where cyclic loading is a
consideration. Design of the juncture of the two parts is
a major consideration in reducing discontinuity stresses.
In order to find the state of stress in a pressure vessel,
it is necessary to find both the membrane stresses and
the discontinuity stresses. From superposition of these
two states of stress, the total stresses are obtained. Gen-
erally when combined, a higher allowable stress is per-
mitted. Due to the complexity of determining disconti-
nuity stress, solutions will not be covered in detail here.
The designer should be aware that for designs of high
pressure ( > 1,500 psi), brittle material or cyclic loading,
discontinuity stresses may he a major consideration.
Since discontinuity stresses are self limiting, allowable
stresses can be very high. One example specifically ad-
dressed by the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, is
discontinuity stresses at cone-cylinder intersections
where the included angle is greater than 60’. Para. 1 -
5(e) recommends limiting combined stresses (mem-
brane + discontinuity) in the longitudinal direction to
4SE 4nd in the circumferential direction to 1.5SE.
ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 2, limits the
combined stress, primary membrane and discontinuity
stresses to 3S, where S, is the lesser of V 3 Fy or ‘/3
U.T.S., whichever is lower.
There are two major methods for determining discon-
tinuity stresses:
1. Displacement Method-Conditions of equilibrium
are expressed in terms of displacement.
2. Force Method-Conditions of compatibility of dis-
placements are expressed in terms of forces.
See References 2, Article 4-7; 6, Chapter 8; and 7 ,
Chapter 4 for detailed information regarding calculation
of discontinuity stresses.
Fatigue Analysis
ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, does not spe-
cifically provide for design of vessels in cyclic service.
Although considered beyond the scope of this text as
well, the designer must be awarc of conditions that
would require a fatigue analysis to be made.
When a vessel is subject to repeated loading that
could cause failure by the development of a progressive
fracture, the vessel is in cyclic service. ASME Code,
16 Pressure Vessel Design Manual
Section VIII, Division 2, has established specific criteria
for determining when a vessel must be designed for fa-
tigue.
It is recognized that Code formulas for design of de-
tails, such as heads, can rcsult in yielding in localized
regions. Thus localized stresses exceeding the yield
point may be encountered even though low allowable
stresses have been used in the design. These vessels,
while safe for relatively static conditions of loading,
would develop “progressive fracture” after a large num-
ber of repeated loadings due to these high localized and
secondary bending stresses. It should be noted that ves-
sels in cyclic service require special consideration in
both design and fabrication.
Fatigue failure can also be a result of thermal varia-
tions as well as other loadings. Fatigue failure has ac-
curred in boiler drums due to temperature variations in
the shell at the feed water inlet. In cases such as this,
design details are of extreme importance.
Behavior of metal under fatigue conditions varies sig-
nificantly from normal stress-strain relationships. Dam-
REFERENCES
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section
VIII, Division 1, 1983 Edition, American Society
of Mechanical Engineers.
2. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section
VIII, Division 2, 1983 Edition, American Society
of Mechanical Engineers.
3 . Popov, E. P., Mechanics of Materials, Prentice Hall,
Inc., 1952.
4. Freese, C. E., “Vibration of Vertical Pressure Ves-
sels,” Journal of Ensineering for Industp, February
1959.
5. Zorrilla, E. P., “Determination of Aerodynamic
Behavior of Cantilevered Stacks and Towers of Cir-
cular Cross Sections,” ASME Technical Paper #71-
PET-36, American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers, 1971.
6. Bednar, H. H., Pressure Vessel Des& Handbook, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1981.
7. Harvey, J . F., Theory and Design o f Modern Pressure
&eels, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1974.
8. Mahajan, K. K., “Analyze Tower Vibration
Quicker,” Hydrocarbon Processing, May 1977.
9. DeGhetto, K., and Long, W., “Check Towers for
Dynamic Stability,” Hydrocarbon Processing, February
1966.
age accumulates during each cycle of loading and devel-
ops at localized regions of high stress until subsequent
repetitions finally cause visible cracks to grow, join, and
spread. Design details play a major role in eliminating
regions of stress raisers and discontinuities. It is not un-
common to have the design strength cut in half by poor
design details. Progressive fractures develop from these
discontinuities even though the stress is well below the
static elastic strength of the material.
In fatigue service the localized stresses at abrupt
changes in section, such as at a head junction or nozzle
opening, misalignment, defects in construction, and
thermal gradients are the significant stresses.
The determination of the need for a fatigue evalua-
tion is in itself a complex job best left to those experi-
enced in this type of analysis. For specific requirements
for determining if a fatigue analysis is required see
ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 2, Para. AD-160.
For additional information regarding designing pres-
sure vessels for fatigue see Reference 7, Chapter 5.
10. Staley, C . M., and Graven, G. G., “The Static and
Dynamic Wind Design of Steel Stacks,” ASME
Technical Paper #72-PET-30, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, 1972.
11, Hicks, E. J. (Ed.), Pressure Y2sels-A Workbook f u r
Engineers, Pressure Vessel Workshop, Energy-
Sources Technology Conference and Exhibition,
Houston, American Society of Petroleum Engi-
neers, January 19-21, 1981.
12. Pressure Vessel and Piping Design, Collectcd Papers
1927- 1959, American Society of Mcchanical Engi-
neers, 1960.
13. Brownell, L. E., and Young, E. H., Process Equip-
ment Desi,n, John Wiley and Sons, 1959.
14. Roark, R . J., and Young, W. C., Formulasfor Stress
and Strain, 5th Edition, McGraw Hill Book Co.,
1975.
15. Burgreen, D., De@ Methodsfor Power Plant Struc-
tures, C.F. Press, 1975.
16. Criteria of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code for Design by Analysis in Sections I11 and
VIII, Division 2, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers.
2
General Design
PROCEDURE 2-1
GENERAL VESSEL FORMULAS [ 1, 21

Notation
P = internal pressure, psi
Di, Do = inside/nutside diameter, in.
S = allowable or calculated stress, psi
E = j o i n t efficiency
L = crown radius, in.
Ri, R, = inside/outside radius, in.
K, M = coefficients (See Note 3 )
ux = longitudinal stress, psi
u+ = circumferential stress, psi
R, = mean radius of shell, in.
t = thickness or thickness required of shell, head,
or cone. in.

Notes
1. Formulas are valid for:
a. Pressures < 3,000 psi. OX
b. Cylindrical shells where t 5 .5Ri or P 5 ,385
SE. For thicker shells see Reference 1, Para. 1-2. Figure 2-1. General configuration and dimensional data for
c. Spherical shells and hemispherical heads where vessel shells and heads.
t 5 ,356 Ri or P 5 .665 SE. For thicker shells see

I'):(+
Reference 1, Para. 1-3.
3 . Formulas for factors:
2. All ellipsoidal and torispherical heads having a mini-
mum specified tensile strength greater than 80,000 K = ,167 [2
psi shall be designed using- S = 20,000 psi at ambient

+@)
temperature and reduced by the ratio of the allowa-
ble stresses at design temperature and ambient tem- M = .25 (3
perature where required.

17
 m

Table 2-1
General Vessel Formulas <
I”

Stress Thickness, t
I.D.
Pressure, P
O.D. I.D.
Stress, S
O.D.
v:
VI
E
Part Formula I.D. O.D.

-
Shell
3
P(R, - .4t) P(R, - 1.4t)
Longitudinal PR, PR, PRO 2SEt __
ZSEt
[ I , Section UG-27(~)(2)1 0, =
2SE + .4P +
2SE 1.4P
~

Ri - .4t R, - 1.4t 2Et 2Et 5

3
c
PR, SEt SEt P(R, + .6t) P(R, - .4t) E
Circumferential PR, PR,
__
[l, =T SE - .6P SE + .4P R, + .6t R, - .4t Et
~ ~

Section UG-27(c)(l); Et
Section 1-l(a)(l)]

Heads
~

2SEt 2SEt P(R, + .a) P(R, - .Et)

= o* = -
Hemi-sphere PR, PR, PRO
[ I , Section I-l(a)(Z);
mx
2t 2SE - .2P +
2SE .6P R, + .a R, - .8t 2Et 2Et
~ ~

Section UG-27(d)l

Ellipsoidal See PROCEDURE PD,K PD,K 2SEt KD, -2SEt

2t(K - . l ) See PROCEDURE 2-2
- + 2P(K - . l ) KDi + .2t
~ ~

[ I , Section 1-4(c)1 2-2 2SE .2P 2SE

2:l S.E. PDI PDo __

2SEt - 2SEt
[ I , Section UG-32dI 2SE - .2P +
ZSE 1.8P D, + .2t D, - 1.8t

100%-6% Torispherical __
.885PL, __
.885PL, SEt SEt
[ I , Section UG-32(e)] SE - .1P SE + .8P .885L, + . I t .885L, - .8t
PL,M PL,M 2SEt 2SEt
Torispherical __
L/, < 16.66 2SE - .2P 2SE + P(M - 2) L,M + 2 t L M - t(M - 2)
[ l , Section 1-4(d)l

-
Cone

Longitudinal
PR, PDi PD, 4SEtcos s 4SEtcos ir P(D, - .8tcosa) P(D, - 2.8tcosS)
o, =
Ztcoscc
~

4cosa(SE+.4P) 4 c o s a ( S E + 1.4P) D,-.8tcosa D, - 2.8tcosa 4Etcoscc 4Etcos a

PR, PD, 2SEtcosa 2SEtcosa P(D, + 1.2tcosa) P(D,- .8tcos~)

Circumferential
[ I , Section 1-4(e); o, = __
2tcosa Z c o s a ( S E - .6P)
PD,
2 c o s a ( S E + .4P) D,+1.2tcosa D, - 8 t c o s a 2Etcos cc 2Etcos a
Section UG-32(g)l
 General Design 19

PROCEDURE 2-2
STRESSES IN HEADS DUE TO INTERNAL PRESSURE [ 2 , 3 ]

Notation
L = crown radius, in.
r = knuckle radius, in.
h = depth of head, in.
Ri = latitudinal radius of curvature, in.
R,, = meridional radius of curvature, in.
u, = latitudinal stress, psi
u, = meridional stress, psi
P = internal pressure, psi
I
Figure 2-2. Direction of Stresses in a vessel head.
Formulas
Lengths of R,. and R,,, for ellipsoidal heads:

At equator:

&, = R

At center of head:

R*
R,,,=R -
',-h
At any point X:

RL = d
m
L D

Figure 2-3.Dimensional data for a vessel head

2. Head types fall into one of three general categ-ories:

Notes
1. Latitudinal (hoop) stresses in the knuckle become
compressive when thc R/h ratio exceeds 1.42. These
heads will fail by either elastic or plastic buckling, de-
pending- on the R/t ratio.
hemispherical, torisphcrical, and ellipsoidal. Hemi-
spherical heads are analyzed as sphcres and were
covered in the previous section. Torispherical (also
known as flanged and dished heads) and ellipsoidal
head formulas for stress are outlined in the following-
form.
20 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

PL PL
J,x = 5
In Crown
PL
cx = r7+ = ex

In Knuckle
PL PL L
vx =
t
At Tangent Line
PR PR
mx = 2t =-
I

_PRL
'-2t
~

AI Center Of Head
PR2
nx=- m+ = ex
21h
AI Tangent Llne
PR
mx =

PROCEDURE 2-3
DESIGN OF INTERMEDIATE HEADS [l, 31
n

Notation

A =factor A for external pressure

A, =shear area, in.'
B = allowable compressive stress, psi
F = load on weld(s), l b h .
7 = shear stress, psi
E =joint efficiency
E, = modulus of elasticity at temperature, psi
S = code allowable stress, psi
HD = hydrostatic end force, lb
Pi = maximum differential pressure on concave side of
head, psi Figure 2-4. Dimensional data for an intermediate head
P, = maximum differential pressure on convex side of Table 2-2
head, psi Soherical Radius FactDr. K
K = spherical radius factor (see Table 2-2)
L = inside radius of hemi-head, in. 1 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
2h
= .9D for 2:1 S.E. heads, in.
= KD for ellipsoidal heads, in. K .5 .57 .65 .73 .81 .9 .99 1.08 1.18 1.27 1.36
= crown radius of F & D heads, in.
 General Design 21

Seal or
fillet weld optional

but need not

A, = t, + lesser of t2 or t3 A, = t2

Casc 1 Case 2

Butter to
prevent lamellar
tearing in C.S. Reinforcing
plate

E = .7

E= 55

D
sin ü = Design the weld attaching
2L + t
~

the head as in Case 3 and

the welds attaching the
A, = lesser of t2 or t3 reinforcing plate to share full
load
E = .7 (butt weld)

Case 3 Case 3 Alternate

Figure 2-5. Methods of attachment of intermediate heads.

Required Head Thickness, t, External pressure, P,. Assume corroded head thickness,

Internal pressure, Pj. Select appropriate head formula

based on head geometry. For dished only heads as in .125th
Factor A =
Figure 2 - 5 , Case 3 : L
~

5PiL Factor B can be taken from applicable material

t, =
charts in Appendix 5 of Reference 1.
~

6s
22 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Alternatively (or if Factor A lies to the left of the mate- where P = 1.5 x greater of Pi or P,. (See Reference 1,
rial/temperature line): Figure UW-13.1.)

Shear l o a h on weldr, I;

H D
F=
T D sin8

The required head thickness shall be the greater of that

required for external pressure or that required for an in- Note: sin8 applies to Figure 2-5, Case 3 head attach-
ternal pressure equal to 1.67 x P,. See Reference 1, ments only!
Para. UG-33(a).
Shear stress, T.

Shear Stress
I
I F
Hydrostatic endforce, HD. '=A,
PxD2
ElD=-
4 I Allowable shear stress, SE.

PROCEDURE 2-4
DESIGN OF CONICAL TRANSITIONS [1, 31

Notation d
U

P = internal pressure, psi

S = allowable stress, psi
E = j o i n t efficiency
P,, P2 = equivalent internal pressure, psi
f,, f2 = longitudinal unit loads, Ib/in.
a,, a2 = circumferential membrane stress, psi
or = half apex angle, deg
m = code correction factor for thickness of large
knuckle
P, = external pressure, psi
M I , M2 = longitudinal bending moment at elevation,
in-lb
W,, W2 = dead weight at elevation, Ib

Dimensional Formulas

tanor = 2
I
2X - J4X2 + [(D - d) - 4(R + r)](D - d)
4(R + r) - (D - d) 1 Figure 2-6. Dimensional data for a conical transition.
 General Design 23

D1 = D - 2(R - R cosa) Circumferential stress, DI

D2 = d + 2(r - r cosff)

I;:[
Compression:

D'=D-ZR
( A)
I-- -2ftana
a 1 = ---
pL1
t p'Llt
-

DI
L, =-
2cosff 8 Circumferential stress at DI without loads, ai.

D2 Compression:
L2 =
2cosff

is &)
~

m = .25 +
a,=-
pL1
t ( A:)
1--

Thickness required knuckle, t,k [ i , section 1-4(d)].

With loads:

Large End (Figure 2-7) PI LI m

trk =
2SE - .2P1
D, Without loads:

P LI m
txk =
2SE - .2P

Thickness required cone, t,c [ l , section UG-32(g)]

With loads:
I
T.L. \ t,, =
PI DI
2cosa(SE - .6Pl)
I -t
Without loads:

P DI
t, =
Figure 2-7. Dimensional data for the large end of a conical 2cosa(SE - .6P)
transition.

Maximum lonfitudinal loads, fi.

( + ) tension; ( - ) compression
Small End (Figure 2-8)
fl =-*-
?rDl
-W, 4Ml
rD: Maximum lon&dinal lona!s, fz

Determine equivalent pressure, Pi ( + ) tension; ( - ) compression

-W2 4M2
4 fl
P,=P+- f2 = f-
rD2 rD$
~

DI
24 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Additional Formulas (Figure 2-9)

Figure 2-8. Dimensional data for the small end of a conical

transition.
DL

Determine equiualent pressure, P2.

Figure 2-9. Dimensional data for cones due to external pres-
jure.
P , = P + -4 f2

D2

8 Thickness required of cone at any diameter D ' , t»,

Circumferential stress at D2,

I.[
PD'
Compression: tD. =
2coscr(SE - .6P)
PL2 P2L2 L2
u, = -+ - Thickness required for external pressure [ 1, section UG-
t t
33íf)l.
Circumferential stress at D2 without loads, u2. te = tCOS 01

Compression: DI, = D2 + 2t,

D, = Dl + 2t,
L = X - sina(R + t) - sina(r - t)

Thickness required cone, at D,,t,< [ i , section UG-32(g)].

L,=- I + -
2 "(
With loads: L,
-=
DL
I,, =
Pz Dz
2cosa(SE - .6P2) -DL
_ -
te
Without loads:
Using these values, use Figure UGO-28.0 from Ref-
p D2 erence 1 to determine Factor A.
t,, =
2cosa(SE - .6P)
Allowable external pressure, P,

Thickness required knuckle. There is no requirement for

thickness of the reverse knuckle at the small cnd of the
cone. For convcnience of fabrication it should be made
the same thickness as the cone. where E = modulus of elasticity at design temperature
 General Design 25

Notes the ASME code [ l ] . This paragraph requires a dis-

1. Allowable stresses. The maximum stress is the com-
pressive stress at the tangency of the large knuckle
and the cone. Failure would occur in local yielding
rather than buckling therefore the allowable stress
should be the same as required for cylinders. Thus
the allowable circumferential compressive stress
should be the lesser of 2SE or F,. Using a lower al-
lowable stress would require the knuckle radius to be
made very large-well above code requirements.
See Reference 3.
2. Toriconical sections are mandatory if angle o( exceeds
continuity analysis of the cone-shell juncture.
3. No reinforcing rings or added reinforcement is re-
quired at the intersections of cones and cylinders,
providing a knuckle radius meeting ASME Code re-
quirements is used. The minimum knuckle radius
for the large end is the lesser of 3t or .12(R + t). The
knuckle radius of the small end (flare) has no mini-
mum. (See [Reference 1, Figure UG-361).
4. Toriconical transitions are advisable to avoid the
high discontinuity stresses at the junctures for the fol-
lowing conditions:
a. High pressure-greater than 300 psig.
b. High temperature-greater than 450 or 5 0 0 T
c . Low temperature-less than 20'F. ~

30" unless the design complies with Para. 1-5(e) of d . Cyclic service (fatigue).

PROCEDURE 2-5
DESIGN OF FLANGES [1, 41

Notation HG = gasket load, operating, lb

HP = total joint-contact surface compression
load, lb
A = flange O.D., in. HT = pressure force on flange face, Ib
A,, = cross-sectional area of bolts, in.' h = hub length, in.
A,, = total required cross-sectional area of bolts, h, = hub factor
in.2 MI, = moment due to Ho, in.-lb
a = nominal bolt diameter, in. MU = moment due to HG,in.-lb
B = flange I.D., in. (see Note 6) M, = total moment on flange, operating, in.-lb
B1 = flange I.D., in. (see Note 6) Mi = total moment on flange, seating
b = effective gasket width, in. M.r = moment due to HT, in.-lb
bo = gasket seating width, in. m = gasket factor (see Table 2-3)
C = bolt circle diameter, in. m, = unit load, operating, Ib
d = hub shape factor mE:= unit load, gasket seating, lb
dl = bolt hole diameter, in. N = width of gasket, in. (see Table 2-4)
E, hm hc, w = width of raised face or gasket contact
hT, R = radial distances, in. width, in. (see Table 2-4)
e = hub shape factor n = number of bolts
F = hub shape factor for integral-type flanges Y = Poisson's ratio, .3 for steel
F , ~= hub shape factor for loose-type flanges P = design pressure, psi
f = hub stress correction factor for integral Sa = allowable stress, bolt, at ambient
flanges temperature, psi
G = diameter at gasket load reaction, in. Sb = allowable stress, bolt, at design
g, = thickness of hub at small end, in. temperature, psi
gl = thickness of hub at back of flange, in. Sfa = allowable stress, flange, at ambient
H = hydrostatic end force, Ib temperature, psi
HD = hydrostatic end force on area inside of Sf, = allowable stress, flange, at design
flange, Ib temperature, psi
26 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

SI,= longitudinal hub stress, psi

SR = radial stress in flange, psi
Sr = tangential stress in flange, psi
T, U,
Y, Z = K-factors (see Table 2-5)
T,, U,, (1 - v2)(K2 - 1) U
Y, = K-factors for reverse flanges T=
(1 - v) + (1 + v)K'
t = flange thickness, in.
t, =
V =
pipe wall thickness, in.
hub shape factor for integral flanges
z=-K' + 1
K2 - 1
VL = hub shape factor for loose flanges
W = flange design bolt load, Ib Y = (1 - u') u
W,, = required bolt load, operating, Ib
1 + 4.6052
W,, = rcquired bolt load, gasket seating, Ib I-v
~

\
y = gasket design seating stress, psi U=
1.0472(K2 - I)(K - 1)(1 + u )
BI = loose flanges = B + g,
Formulas = integral flanges, f < I = B + gi
= integral flanges, f 2 I = B + go
U h, gU
d = loose flanges = __
C - dia. Hn VL
hD =
2
U h, SU
= integral flanges = ___
h,r = C - dia. HT V
2
= reverse flanges =
U, h, gU
C-G V
hc =
2
~

FL
e = loosc flanges =-
h,
h, =
F
?r = integral flanges =-
HD=- ha
4 B' P
G = (if b, 5 .25 in,) mean diameter of gasket face
= (if b, > .25 in.) O.D. of gasket contact face - 2b
H.r = H - HI,
HG = operating = W,, - H Stress Formula Factors
Gasket seating = W
a = t e + I
Hp = w,,, - H /3 = 1.333 t e + 1
7r
H=-
4 G2 P

0 1 0 1
y =- or - for reverse flanges
T Tr
x=y+a
3(K + i)(l - v)

For factors, F, U, F I ~and

, UL, see Table 2-7.1 of the
~ ASME Code [i].
 General Design 27

TYPE 1: WELD NECK FLANGE DESIGN (INTEGRAL)

iesign pressure, P Allowable Stresses

)&gn femperature Flange Bolting
'lange material
~~

Design temp., Sr0 Design temp., Sb I

lolting material Atm. temp.. S n Atm. temp., S,
:onosion allowance I I

3 TABLES 2-3 AND 2-4 4 LOAD AND BOLT CALCULATIONS

1 Wm2= bnGy A
, = greater of
Hp = 2bnGmP WS
I,, or WmllSb
H = GZrP14
~

Ab
pppp ,, = Hp + H
W W = .5[A, + A&
n

Seating

.., I I IMO I

c
iG=W IhG=.5(C-G)
K AND HUE FACTORS A " "

(=AIS I I hlh, I
(F

t
I IV I

I I le = Flh. I I
h=
Idgo I d =-
U h,gO2
= v%G v

r=te+1
i = 413 te + 1
, = arr
i = t31d
,=?+a t=
n, = MdE
ne = Mile
I
~

Rolts
I
A

Allowable Stress operating Allowable Stress Seating

I.5 SS Longitudinal hub, 1.5 SI. Longitudinal hub,
SH = lmdhg? SH = fmolhgr2
Si, Radial flange, Sf, Radial flange,
Sn = pmdhtz S, = pm&P
Tangential flange, Si. Tangential flange,
Si,
ST = m,Y1i2 - 2% S, = meY1t* ZSn -
S', Greater of S(SH + Sn) Sra Greater of .5(SH + Sd
or .5(SH + STI or .YS"+ ST)
Design pressure, P Allowable Stresses
Design temperature Flange I Baiting
Flange material Design temp., SI, I IDesign temp., Sh I
Bolting materia Atm. temp., Si, IAtm. temp., S,
c:or,osinn allnwlnre I I I
I? GASKET AND FACING DETAILS
Gasket I I Facing I
3 TABLES 2-3 AND 2-4 14 LOAD AND BOLT CALCULATIONS
N Wm2= bnGy A, = greater Of
b Hp = 2bnGmP W$,S, or W,,lSb
G H = G2sP14 Ab
Y W
,, = Hp + H W = .5(A, + Ads.
m

5 MOMENl iLCULATIONS
Load Y LWC rm - Moment
Ope
Ho = rB2P14 I Iho = R + Sg,
HG=W,r -H /hG = .5(C - G)
HT=H-HD I Ihi = .5(R
i
+ 9, + hd

Se.
HG= W I IhG = .5(C - G)
6 K AND HUB FACTORS
K=NB I Ihlh, I
T IFL
z I IVL I
V I

gdgo I d =-
U h.gO2 9, =
ha== V

-E=
a=te+1
iR = 413 te +1
y = err
o. = 131d
C=
.. I I
h=y+8 I
m, = MdB I I
mG = MAIB I
If bolt spacing exceeds 28 + t, multiply
m, and m, in above equation by:

4 Dolts HG
Figure 2-1 1. Dimensional data and forces for a slip-o
flange (loose).

IR STRESS iLCULATIONS
Allowable SBess operating Allowable Stress Seating
1.5 Si, Longitudinal hub, 1.5 Sr Longitudinal hub,
SH = m d m z SH = m&g?
Si, Radial flange, Sf, Radial flange,
Sn = Sn = BrnGAt2
Si, Tangential flange, SI, Tangential flange,
ST = m,YltZ - ZSn ST = mGYltz- ZSn

Si, Greater of .5(SH+ Sn) Si, + SR)

Greater of . ~ ( S H
or S(SH+ S,) or .5(SH + Sr)
 General Design 29

TYPE 3: RING FLANGE DESIGN

m I I I I I

5 MOMENT CALCULATIONS
Load Y L ~ Y E rm - Moment
---
One ng
Ho = rü2P14 I Iho = .5(C B) - Mo = Hoho
HG = W, - H Ih<j=.5(C-G) MG = HGhe
HT = H - Ho I Ihr = S(ho + hG) MT = Hihr
M,
I I I
--.
<s

He = W I I hG = S(C - G)
fi
" SHAPE CONSTANTS

K=NB I [Y I
Ifbolt spacing exceeds Za.+ t muliiply
M, and M; in above equation by:
\iT
Bolt spacing

7 FLANGE THICKNESS REOUIRED

t = greater of
operating
I seating 4 Bolts
Figure 2-12. Dimensional data and forces for a rin,
flange.

2 5 go

I 8
'L- . i c min
Figure 2-13. Various attachments of ring flanges. (Ail other dimensions and loadings per Figure 2-11.)

NOTES

C = less91 of t. or

Adapted from Taylor Forge International, Inc.. by permission.

30 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

TYPE 4: REVERSE FLANGE DESIGN

._
K AND HUB FACTORS
K = NE' hlh,
T F
z v
Y 1
U e = Flh,

i!?v
g&O
d= hago2
h , = a

".
Yn = aRY

~ L =
R ~ +
3(K + i)í1
rY
-4
1 h=

L
T~ = Man^ 4 % l Bt=
7 STRESS FORMULA FACTORS
t 6 = t3/d
a=te+1 h=y+8 Figure 2-14. Dimensional data and forces for a revers(
B = 413 te + 1 m. = MdB' flange.
y = alTR me = MAlB'

Allowable Stress operating Allowable Stress

1.5 si, Longitudinal hub, 1.5 Se Longitudinal hub,
SH = lm&gi2 SH = frnGlhg,2
Sr0 Radial flange, S,' Radial flange,
SR = Bmht2 SR = Bm&tz
4, Tangential flange, Si. Tangential flange,
ST = rn,YRl12 - Z S n ST = moYnltz - 2%
(0.6710 + 1)lB (0.671e i1)IB
Sf, Greater of .5(SH + Sn) .S Greater o1 3% + SR)
or S(SH + ST) or 5 ( S , + ST)

I
Sf, Tangential flange Sf, Tangential flange
ST~ATE')
%(ATE') = !%
2 2 12
12 2k2(1 +:te)]

Y-
Y - (k*- l)h
(kz- I)h
 General Design 31

TYPE 5 : SLIP-ON FLANGE, FLAT FACE, FULL GASKET

iesign pressure, P AlIOwable stresses

iesign temperature Flange Bolting
lange material Oesign temp., Sin I Oesign temp., Sb I
loiting material Atm. temp., SI, Atm. temp., S,
:or,asion alloWanC0 I I

3 TABLES 2.3 AND 2-4 4 LOAD AND BOLT CALCULATIONS

i = C - 2ho Wm2= bnGy + HOY A, = greater of
, = (C B)/4- Hp = 2bnGmP W,"$S. or Wm&
H i = (ho/h&)Hp Ab
1 H = G2nP/4 W = S(A, + A&
,, = H + Hp + Hb
W HOY = (he/hb)bnGy

lo = *B2P/4 Iho = R + g, Mo = Hoho I

Ir = H - Ho Ih, = .5(R + g, t ho) MT = HThr
I M, I
Lever Arms
,G = (C - B)(2B + C) hó = (A - C)í2A + C)
6(B + C) 6(C + A)
Reverse Moment
ic=W-H hG = hchó Mc = Hch6
he + h&

r A= 7
It bolt spacing exceeds 2a + t. multiply
m, in above equation by:

8 STRESS CALCULATIONS
Allowable Stress operating
1.5 Cro Longitudinal hub,
SH = mdhg?
Sf, Radial flange,
SR = pmdht2
si, Tangential flan 0,
sT= moY/t2 - %SR
-G =
S'O Greater of S(SH + Sn)
or .5(SH + ST)
Si, Radial stress at

I I
bolt circle
Figure 2-15. Dimensional data and forces for a slipoi
- ndt)
= t2(& 6MG flange, flat face, full gasket.
I I I
japted tram Taylor Forge International, Inc., by permission.
32 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

I
Table 2-3
Gasket Materials and Contact Facings'
Gasket Factors (m) for Operating Conditions and Minimum Design Seating Stress (y)

Mi".
Design
Gasket Sealing Skelcher
Factor Stress and
Gaskei Material m Y Note5
ielf-eneryiling types: o mg5.
mefailic. elastomer or other
gasket types considered as
Sell%seai,ng O O
.laslamers wiihouf labric 0 , a
high percentage of asbestos
fiber:
Below 75A Share OwOmeter 0.50 0 0
75A or highei Shore
D",O,lWlW 1 .o0 200
isbesfor wiih a suitable binder
lox the operating conditions
,h thick
' h e thick
V12 thick
2.00
2.75
3.50
;:%
6,500
0
ilastomers with c o l t ~ nlabric
insertion 1.25 400 0
2.25 2,200
&&
2.50 2,900

2.75 3.700 0
0
~

I .75 1,100

Spiral-wound metal, asbestos Carbon 2.50 10,000

tilled Stainless or Manel 3.00 10,000

:ariuyaled melal. arbeilos Sol, aiuminum 2.50 2.900

inserted or Corrugated metal, Salt copper or brass 2.75 3.700
jacketed asbestor filled Iron O, sol( Steel
Monel or 4V-6% chrome
Slainleis Steels
3 00
3.25
3 50
4,500
5,500
5,500
e
sot, alumjnum 2.75 3.700
Soft coppei or brass 3.00 4,500
h r u g a l e d metal Iron O' son Steel 3.25 5.500
M O W or 4*&6% Chrome 3 50 6.500
Slainlesr steels
:la! metal jacketed asbeslos Soli aluminum
filled soft copper Or bms9
¡'O" O, B d t Iteel
Monel or
4V-GW chrome
Slainless Ifeels
sol, aluminum
Sol! copper or brans
Orooved metal Iron O' salt steel

NOTES:

1. This table gives a list of many commonly used gasket materials and contact facings with suggested design values of rn and
y that have generally proved satisfactory in actual service when using effective gasket seating width b given in Table 2-4.
The design values and Other details given in this table are suggested only and are not mandatory.

2. The surface of a gasket having a lap Should not be against the nubbin.
Reprinted by permission from ASME Code Section VI11 Div. 1, Table 2-51,
 33

-
Effective Gasket Width
Facing Sketch Basic Gasket Seating Width, bo
(Exaggerated) Column I Column I1
(1a)
mm
-L/LLLLLyLy.
LTss3

*
(lb)' v w z k - 7 -
2
N N
-
2
Lmm tcm
i77&%22
(IC)
w_cN

(Id)' "":(y!
2 y:r+ ma,)
WSN

(2)
L
7 mm A W j -
w+N
~ __
w+3N
Ved in. Nubbin ,' 2 4 8

(3)
Ve4 in. Nubbin <r+
.-f-
L A Z
N
2
N
-
4
3N
-
8

(4)' 7
3N 7N

=-%a-
srgp -
8
-
16

(5)' VYYCLCrYY
N
- 3N
-
4 8

(6) W
-
8

Effective Gasket Seating Width, b

b=6
2,when b, > 114 in.
2
- Location of Gasket Load Reaction

Note: The gasket

O.D. Contact factors listed only
apply to flanged
joints in which the
gasket is contained
entirely within the
inner edges of the
bolt holes

I
 Table 2-5
-- - Table of Coefficients
--- ---
K T 2 Y U K __
- T 2 Y U ~ ~ ~ __
K __
T z
__ ~
Y ~
U ~
K z
T -
__ Y U
1,001 1.91 1000.50 1911.16 2100.18 1.046 1.90 22.05 42.75 46.99 1.o91 1.88 11.52 22.22 24.41 1.136 1.86 7.88 15.26 16.77
1.002 1.91 500.50 956.16 1050.72 1.047 1.90 21.79 41.87 46.03 1.o92 1.88 11.40 21.99 24.16 1.137 1.86 7.83 15.15 16.65
1.003 1.91 333.83 637.85 700.93 1.048 1.90 2i.35 41.02 45.09 1.O93 1.88 11.28 21.76 23.91 1.138 1.86 7.78 15.05 16.54
1.004 1.91 250.50 478.71 526.05 1.049 1.90 20.92 40.21 44.21 1.094 1.88 11.16 21.54 23.67 1.139 1.86 7.73 14.95 76.43
1.005 1.91 200.50 383.22 421.12 1.050 1.89 20.51 39.43 43.34 1.095 1.88 11.O5 21.32 23.44 1.140 1.86 7.68 14.86 16.35
1.006 1.91 167.17 319.56 351.16 1.051 1.89 20.12 38.68 42.51 1.096 1.88 10.94 21.1 1 23.20 1.141 1.86 7.62 14.76 16.22
1.007 1.91 143.36 274.09 301.20 1.O52 1.89 19.74 37.96 41.73 1.O97 1.88 10.83 20.91 22.97 1.142 1.86 7.57 14.66 16.11
1.008 1.91 125.50 239.95 263.75 1.O53 1.89 19.38 37.27 40.96 1.098 1.88 10.73 20.71 22.75 1.143 1.86 7.53 14.57 16.01
1.009 1.91 111.61 213.40 234.42 1.054 1.89 19.03 36.60 40.23 1.o99 1.88 10.62 20.51 22.39 1.144 1.86 7.48 14.48 15.91
1.010 1.91 100.50 192.19 211.19 1.055 1.89 18.69 35.96 39.64 1.100 1.88 10.52 20.31 22.18 1.145 1.86 7.43 14.39 15.83
1.011 1.91 91.41 174.83 192.13 1.056 1.89 18.38 35.34 38.84 1.101 1.88 10.43 20.15 22.12 1.146 1.86 7.38 14.29 15.71
1.012 1.91 83.84 160.38 176.25 1.057 1.89 18.06 34.74 38.19 1.102 1.88 10.33 19.94 21.92 1.147 1.86 7.34 14.20 15.61
1.013 1.91 77.43 148.06 162.81 1.O58 1.89 17.76 34.17 37.56 1.103 1.88 10.23 19.76 21.72 1.148 1.86 7.29 14.12 15.51
1.014 1.91 71.93 137.69 151.30 1.059 1.89 17.47 33.62 36.95 1.104 1.88 10.14 19.58 215 2 1.149 1.86 7.25 14.03 15.42
1.015 1.91 67.17 128.61 141.33 1.060 1.89 17.18 33.04 36.34 1.105 1.88 10.05 19.38 21.30 1.150 1.86 7.20 13.95 15.34
1.016 1.90 63.00 120.56 132.49 1.061 1.89 16.91 32.55 35.78 1.106 1.88 9.96 19.33 21.14 1.151 1.86 7.16 13.86 15.23
1.017 1.90 59.33 111.98 124.81 1.O62 1.89 16.64 32.04 35.21 1.107 1.87 9.87 19.07 20.96 1.152 1.86 7.11 13.77 15.14
1.018 1.90 56.06 107.36 118.00 1.063 1.89 16.40 31.55 34.68 1.108 1.87 9.78 18.90 20.77 1.153 1.86 7.07 13.69 15.05
1.019 1.90 53.14 101.72 111.78 1.064 1.89 16.15 31.O8 34.17 1.109 1.87 9.70 18.74 20.59 1.154 1.86 7.03 13.61 14.96
1.020 1.90 50.51 96.73 106.30 1.065 1.89 15.90 30.61 33.65 1.110 1.87 9.62 18.55 20.38 1.155 1.86 6.99 13.54 14.87
1.021 1.90 48.12 92.21 101.33 1.066 1.89 15.67 30.17 33.17 1.111 1.87 9.54 18.42 20.25 1.156 1.86 6.95 13.45 14.78
1.022 1.90 45.96 88.04 96.75 1.067 1.89 15.45 29.74 32.69 1.112 1.87 9.46 18.27 20.08 1.157 1.86 6.91 13.37 14.70
1.023 1.90 43.98 84.30 92.64 1.068 1.e9 15.22 29.32 32.22 1.113 1.87 9.38 18.13 19.91 1.158 1.86 6.87 13.30 14.61
1.024 1.90 42.17 60.81 88.81 1.069 1.89 15.02 28.91 31.79 1.114 1.87 9.30 17.97 19.75 1.159 1.86 6.83 13.22 14.53
1.025 1.90 40.51 T1.61 85.29 1.070 1.89 14.80 28.51 31.34 1.115 1.87 9.22 17.81 19.55 1.160 1.86 6.79 13.15 14.45
1.026 1.90 38.97 74.70 82.09 1.071 1.89 14.61 28.13 30.92 1.116 13 7 9.15 17.68 19.43 1.161 1.85 6.75 13.07 14.36
1.027 1.90 37.54 71.97 79.08 1.072 1.89 14.41 27.76 30.51 1.117 1.87 9.07 17.54 19.27 1.162 1.85 6.71 13.00 14.28
1.028 1.90 36.22 69.43 76.30 1.073 1.89 14.22 27.39 30.11 1.118 1.87 9.00 17.40 19.12 1.163 1.85 6.67 12.92 14.20
1.029 1.90 34.99 67.11 73.75 1.074 1.88 14.04 27.04 29.72 1.119 1.87 8.94 17.27 18.98 1.164 1.85 6.64 12.85 14.12
1.030 1.90 33.84 64.91 71.33 1.075 1.88 13.85 26.69 29.34 1.120 1.87 8.86 17.13 18.80 1.165 1.85 6.60 12.78 14.04
1.031 1.90 32.76 62.85 69.06 1.076 1.88 13.68 26.36 28.98 1.121 1.87 8.79 17.00 18.68 1.166 1.85 6.56 12.71 13.97
1.032 1.90 31.76 60.92 66.94 1.077 1.88 13.56 26.03 28.69 1.122 1.87 8.72 16.87 18.54 1.167 1.85 6.53 12.64 13.89
1.033 1.90 30.81 59.11 64.95 1.078 1.88 13.35 25.72 28.27 1.123 1.87 8.66 16.74 18.40 1.168 1.85 6.49 12.58 13.82
1.034 1.90 29.92 57.41 63.08 1.079 1.88 13.18 25.40 27.92 1.124 1.87 8.59 16.62 16.26 1.169 1.85 6.46
, 12.51 13.74
1.035 1.90 29.08 55.80 61.32 1.080 1.88 13.02 25.10 27.59 1.125 1.87 8.53 16.49 18.11 1.170 1.85 6.42 12.43 13.66
1.036 1.90 28.29 54.29 59.66 1,081 1.88 12.87 24.81 27.27 1.126 1.87 8.47 16.37 17.99- .1.171 1.85 6.39 12.38 13.60
1.037 1.90 27.54 52.85 58.08 1.082 1.88 12.72 24.52 26.95 1.127 1.87 8.40 16.25 17.86 1.172 1.85 6.35 12.31 13.53
1.038 1.90 26.83 51.50 56.59 1.083 1.88 12.57 24.24 26.65 1.128 1.87 8.34 16.14 17.73 1.173 1.85 6.32 12.25 13.46
1.039 1.90 26.15 50.21 55.17 1.084 1.88 12.43 24.00 26.34 1.129 1.87 8.28 16.02 17.60 1.174 1.85 6.29 12.18 13.39
1.040 1.90 25.51 48.97 53.82 1.085 1.88 12.29 23.69 26.05 1.130 1.87 8.22 15.91 17.48 1.175 1.85 6.25 12.10 13.30
1.041 1.90 24.90 47.81 53.10 1.O86 1.88 12.15 23.44 25.77 1.131 1.87 8.16 15.79 17.35 1.176 1.85 6.22 12.06 13.25
1.042 1.90 24.32 46.71 51.33 1.087 1.88 12.02 23.18 25.48 1.132 1.87 8.11 15.68 17.24 1.177 1.85 6.19 12.00 13.18
1.043 1.90 23.77 45.64 50.15 1.088 1.88 11.89 22.93 25.20 1.133 1.86 8.05 15.57 17.11 1.178 1.85 6.16 11.93 13.11
1.044 1.90 23.23 44.64 49.05 1,089 1.88 11.76 22.68 24.93 1.134 1.86 7.99 15.46 16.99 1.179 1.85 6.13 11.87 13.05
1.045 1.90 22.74 43.69 48.02 1.090 1.88 11.63 22.44 24.66 1.135 1.86 7.94 15.36 16.90 1.160 1.85 6.10 11.79 12.96
-
ieprinted by permissian o1 Taylor Forge Internati
-
I,
--
1°C.
-
 Table 2-5
- --
Table of Coefficients (continued)
__-
-
K -
T -
2 Y
__ -
U K
__ __
T z
1.81 4.16
Y
8.05
-
U K __
__
8.85
T
1.434
z
1.74
~

2.89
Y
5.56
U
6.10
K
1.75
T
1.60
Z
1.97
Y
__
3.64
U
__
4.00
1.182 1.85 6.04 11.70 12.86 1.278
1.184 1.85 5.98 11.58 12.73 1.281 1.81 4.12 7.98 8.77 1.438 1.74 2.87 5.52 6.05 1.76 1.60 1.95 3.61 3.96
1.186 1.85 5.92 11.47 12.61 1.284 1.80 4.08 7.91 8.69 1.442 1.74 2.85 5.48 6.01 1.77 1.60 1.94 3.57 3.93
1.188 1.85 5.86 11.36 12.49 1.287 1.80 4.05 7.84 8.61 1.446 1.74 2.83 5.44 5.97 1.78 1.59 1.92 3.54 3.89
1.190 1.84 5.81 112 6 12.37 1.290 1.80 4.01 7.77 8.53 1.450 1.73 2.81 5.40 5.93 1.79 1.59 1.91 3.51 3.85
1.192 13 4 5.75 11.15 12.25 1.293 1.eo 3.98 7.70 8.46 1.454 1.73 2.80 5.36 5.89 1.80 1.58 1.89 3.47 3.82
1.194 1.84 5.70 11.O5 12.14 1.296 1.80 3.94 7.63 8.39 1.458 1.73 2.78 5.32 5.85 1.81 1.58 1.88 3.44 3.78
1.196 1.84 5.65 10.95 12.03 1.299 1.80 3.91 7.57 8.31 1.462 1.73 2.76 5.28 5.80 1.82 1.58 1.86 3.41 3.75
1.198 1.84 5.60 10.85 11.92 1.302 1.80 3.88 7.50 8.24 1.466 1.73 2.74 5.24 5.76 1.83 1.57 1.85 3.38 3.72
1.200 1.84 5.55 1O. 75 11.81 1.305 1.80 3.84 7.44 8.18 1.470 1.72 2.72 5.20 5.71 1.84 1.57 1.84 3.35 3.69
1.202 1.84 5.50 10.65 11.71 1.308 1.79 3.81 7.38 8.11 1.475 1.72 2.70 5.16 5.66 1.85 1.56 1.83 3.33 3.65
1.204 1.84 5.45 10.56 11.61 1.311 1.79 3.78 7.32 8.05 1.480 1.72 2.68 5.12 5.61 1.86 1.56 1.81 3.30 3.62
1.206 1.84 5.40 10.47 11.51 1.314 1.79 3.75 7.26 7.98 1.485 1.72 2.66 5.08 5.57 1.87 1.56 1.80 3.27 3.59
1.208 1.84 5.35 10.38 11.41 1.317 1.79 3.72 7.20 7.92 1.490 1.72 2.64 5.04 5.53 1.88 1.55 1.79 3.24 3.56
1.210 1.84 5.31 10.30 11.32 1.320 1.79 3.69 7.14 7.85 1.495 1.71 2.62 5.00 5.49 1.89 1.55 1.78 3.22 3.54
1.212 1.83 5.27 10.21 11.22 1.323 1.79 3.67 7.09 7.79 1.500 1.71 2.80 4.96 5.45 1.90 1.54 1.77 3.19 3.51
1.214 1.83 5.22 10.12 11.12 1.326 1.79 3.64 7.03 7.73 1.505 1.71 2.58 4.92 5.41 1.91 1.54 1.75 3.17 3.48
1.216 1.83 5.18 10.04 11.O3 1.329 1.78 3.61 6.98 7.67 1.510 1.71 2.56 4.88 5.37 1.92 1.54 1.74 3.14 3.45
1.218 1.83 5.14 9.96 10.94 1.332 1.78 3.58 6.92 7.61 1.515 1.71 2.54 4.84 5.33 1.93 1.53 1.73 3.12 3.43
1.220 1.83 5.10 9.89 10.87 1.335 1.78 3.56 6.87 7.55 1.520 1.70 2.53 4.80 5.29 1.94 1.53 1.72 3.09 3.40
1.222 1.83 5.05 9.80 10.77 1.338 1.78 3.53 6.82 7.50 1.525 1.70 2.51 4.77 5.25 1.95 1.53 1.71 3.07 3.38
1.224 1.83 5.01 9.72 10.68 1.341 1.78 3.51 6.77 7.44 1.530 1.70 2.49 4.74 5.21 1.96 1.52 1.70 3.05 3.35
1.226 1.83 4.98 9.65 10.60 1.344 1.78 3.48 6.72 7.39 1.535 1.70 2.47 4.70 5.17 1.97 1.52 1.69 3.03 3.33
1.228 1.83 4.94 9.57 10.52 1.347 1.78 3.46 6.68 7.33 1.540 1.69 2.46 4.66 5.13 1.98 1.51 1.68 3.01 3.30
1.230 1.83 4.90 9.50 10.44 1.350 1.78 3.43 6.63 7.28 1.545 1.89 2.44 4.63 5.09 1.99 1.51 1.68 2.98 3.28
1.232 1.83 4.86 9.43 10.36 1.354 1.77 3.40 6.57 7.21 1.55 1.69 2.43 4.60 5.05 2.00 1.51 1.67 2.96 3.26
1.234 1.83 4.83 9.36 10.28 1.358 1.77 3.37 6.50 7.14 1.56 1.69 2.40 4.54 4.99 2.01 1.50 1.66 2.94 3.23
1.236 1.82 4.79 9.29 10.20 1.362 1.77 3.34 6.44 7.08 1.57 1.68 2.37 4.48 4.92 2.02 1.50 1.65 2.92 3.21
1.238 1.82 4.76 9.22 10.13 1.366 1.77 3.31 6.38 7.01 1.58 1.68 2.34 4.42 4.86 2.04 1.49 1.63 2.88 3.17
1.240 1.82 4.72 9.15 10.05 1.370 1.77 3.28 6.32 6.95 1.59 1.67 2.31 4.36 4.79 2.06 1.48 1.62 2.85 3.13
1.242 1.82 4.69 9.08 9.98 1.374 1.77 3.25 6.27 6.89 1.60 1.67 2.28 4.31 4.73 2.08 1.48 1.60 2.81 3.09
1.244 1.82 4.65 9.02 9.91 1.378 1.76 3.22 6.21 6.82 1.61 1.66 2.26 4.25 4.67 2.10 1.47 1.59 2.78 3.05
1.246 1.82 4.62 8.95 9.84 1.382 1.76 3.20 6.16 6.77 1.62 1.65 2.23 4.20 4.61 2.12 1.46 1.57 2.74 3.01
1.248 1.82 4.59 8.89 9.77 1.386 1.76 3.17 6.11 6.72 1.63 1.65 2.21 4.15 4.56 2.14 1.46 1.56 2.71 2.97
1.250 1.82 4.56 8.83 9.70 1.390 1.76 3.15 6.06 6.66 1.64 1.65 2.18 4.10 4.50 2.16 1.45 1.55 2.67 2.94
1.252 1.82 4.52 8.77 9.64 1.394 1.76 3.12 6.01 6.60 1.65 1.65 2.16 4.05 4.45 2.18 1.44 1.53 2.64 2.90
1.254 1.82 4.49 8.71 9.57 1.398 1.75 3.10 5.96 6.55 1.66 1.64 2.14 4.01 4.40 2.20 1.44 1.52 2.61 2.87
1.256 1.82 4.46 8.65 9.51 1.402 1.75 3.07 5.92 6.49 1.67 1.64 2.12 3.96 4.35 2.22 1.43 1.51 2.58 2.84
1.258 1.81 4.43 8.59 9.44 1.406 1.75 3.05 5.87 6.44 1.68 1.63 2.10 3.92 4.30 2.24 1.42 1.50 2.56 2.81
1.260 1.81 4.40 8.53 9.38 1.410 1.75 3.02 5.82 6.39 1.69 1.63 2.08 3.87 4.26 2.26 1.41 1.49 2.53 2.78
1.263 1.81 4.36 8.45 9.28 1.414 1.75 3.00 5.77 6.34 1.70 1.63 2.06 3.83 4.21 2.28 1.41 1.48 2.50 2.75
1.266 1.81 4.32 8.37 9.19 1.418 1.75 2.98 5.72 6.29 1.71 1.62 2.04 3.79 4.17 2.30 1.40 1.47 2.48 2.72
1.269 1.81 4.28 8.29 9.11 1.422 1.75 2.96 5.68 6.25 1.72 1.62 2.02 3.75 4.12 2.32 1.40 1.46 2.45 2.69
1.272 1.81 4.24 8.21 9.02 1.426 1.74 2.94 5.64 6.20 1.73 1.61 2.00 3.72 4.08 2.34 1.39 1.45 2.43 2.67
1.275 1.81 4.20 8.13 8.93 1.430 1.74 2.91 5.60 6.15 1.74 1.61 1.99 3.68 4.04 2.36 1.38 1.44 2.40 2.64
 Table 2-5
Table of Coefficients (continued)
K T Z V U K T z v u
2.38 1.38 1.43 2.38 2.61 2.83 1.25 1.28 1.98 2.17 3.46 1.11 1.18 1.64 1.80 4.15 ,989 1.12 1.40 1.54
2.40
2.42
2.44
1.37
1.36
1.36
1.42
1.41
1.40
2.36
2.33
2.31
2.59
2.56
2.54
2.86
2.89
2.92
1.24
1.23
1.22
1.28
1.27
1.27
1.96
1.94
1.92
2.15
2.13
2.11
1 3.50
3.54
3.58
1.10
1.09
1.08
1.18
1.17
1.17
1.62
1.61
1.59
1.78
1.76
1.75
4.20
4.25
4.30
,982
,975
,968
1.12
1.12
1.11
1.39
1.38
1.36
1.53
1.51
1.50
2.46 1.35 1.40 2.29 2.52 3.62 1.07 1.16 1.57 1.73 4.35 .962 1.11 1.35 1.48
2.95 1.22 1.26 1.90 2.09 1.34 1.47
3.66 1.07 1.16 1.56 1.71 4.40 .955 1.11
2.48 1.35 1.39 2.27 2.50 2.98 1.21 1.25 1.88 2.07
3.70 1.06 1.16 1.55 1.70 4.45 ,948 1.11 1.33 1.46
2.50 1.34 1.38 2.25 2.47 3.02 1.20 1.25 1.86 2.04
3.74 1.05 1.15 1.53 1.68 4.50 ,941 1.10 1.31 1.44
2.53 1.33 1.37 2.22 2.44 3.06 1.19 1.24 1.83 2.01
1.05 1.15 1.52 1.67 4.55 ,934 1.10 1.30 1.43
2.56 1.32 1.36 2.19 2.41 3.78
3.10 1.18 1.23 1.81 1.99 4.60 ,928 1.10 1.29 1.42
2.59 1.31 1.35 2.17 2.38 3.14 1.17 1.23 1.79 1.97 3.82 1.04 1.15 1.50 1.65 4.65 ,921 1.10 1.28 1.41
2.62 1.30 1.34 2.14 2.35 3.18 1.16 1.22 1.77 1.94 3.86 1.03 1.14 1.49 1.64 4.70 ,914 1.09 1.27 1.39
2.65 1.30 1.33 2.12 2.32 3.22 1.16 1.21 1.75 1.92 3.90 1.03 1.14 1.48 1.62 4.75 ,908 1.09 1.26 1.38
2.68 1.29 1.32 2.09 2.30 3.26 1.15 1.21 1.73 1.90 3.94 1.02 1.14 1.46 1.61 4.80 ,900 1.09 1.25 1.37
2.71 1.28 1.31 2.07 2.27 3.30 1.14 1.20 1.71 1.88 3.98 1.01 1.13 1.45 1.60 4.85 ,893 1.09 1.24 1.36
2.74 j.27 1.31 2.04 2.25 3.34 1.13 1.20 1.69 1.86 4.00 1.009 1.13 1.45 1.59 4.90 ,887 1.09 1.23 1.35
2.77 1.26 1.30 2.02 2.22 3.38 1.12 1.19 1.67 1.84 4.05 1.002 1.13 1.43 1.57 4.95 ,880 1.08 1.22 1.34
2.80 1.26 1.29 2.00 2.20 3.42 1.lí 1.19 1.66 1.82 4.10 .996 1.13 1.42 1.56 5.00 ,873 1.08 1.21 1.33
 General Design 37

Figure 2-16. Values of V (integral flange factors). (Reprinted by permission from the ASME Code, Section VIII, Div. 1 , Figure 2-7.3.)

1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

91 1 9 0

Figure 2-17. Values of F (integral flange factors). (Reprinted by permission from ASME Code, Section VIII, Div. 1 , Figure 2-72)
38 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Figure 2-18. Values o f f (hub stress correction factor). (Reprinted by permission from the ASME Code, Section VIII, Div. 1, Figure
2-7.6.)

20

15

10

8
7
6
5
4

3
u*
2

1.5

1 .O
0.8
0.7
0.6
05
04
1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 o., 4.0 5.0
9 , )PO 9,190

Figure 2-19. Values of VL (loose hub flange factors). (Re- Figure 2-20. Values of FL (loose hub flange factors). (Re-
printed by permission from ASME Code, Section VIII, Div. 1, printed by permission from ASME Code, section VIII, Div. 1,
Figure 2-7.5.) Figure 2-7.4.)

Notes
1. The procedures as outiincd hcrcin have been taken
entirely from Taylor Forge Bulletin No. 502, 7th
Edition, entitled “Modern Flange Design.” The
forms and tables have been duplicated here for the
user’s convenience. The design forms are fast and
accurate and are accepted throughout the industry.
For additional information regarding flange design,
please consult this excellent bulletin.
2. Whenever possible, utilize standard flanges. The
ASME code accepts the standard pressure-tempera-
ture ratings of ANSI B16.5. Other standards which
may be utilized if the design is checked are API-
605, ANSI B16.1, and MSS-SP44.
3. Flange calculations are done either as “integral” or
“loosc.” A third classification, “optional,” refers to
flanges which do not fail into either of the foregoing
categorics and thus can be designed as either inte-
gral or loose. Definitions and examples of these cat-
egorics are:
integral-Hub and flange are one continuous
structure either by manufacture or by full pene-
tration welding. Some examples are:
a. Welding neck flanges.
b. Long weld neck flanges.
c. Ring flanges attached with full penetration
welds.
Use design form “Type 1: Weld Neck Flange De-
sign (Integral),” or “Type 3: Ring Flange De-
sign.”
Loos<-Neither flange nor pipe have any attach-
ment or are non-integral. It is assumed for pur-
poses of analysis, that the hubs (if used) act inde-
pendently of the pipe. Examples are:
a. Slip-on flanges
b. Socket weld flanges
c. Lap joint flanges
d. Screwed flanges
e. Ring flanges attached without full penetration
welds
Use design form “Type 2: Slip-On Flange Design
(Loose),” or “Type 3: Ring Flange Design.”
General Design 39
4. Hubs have no minimum limit for h and g,, but val-
ues of go < 1.5t,l and h < go are not recommended.
For slip-on flanges as a first trial, use g, = 2 times
pipe wall thickness.
5. The values ofT, 2 , Y, and U in Table 2-5 have been
computed based on Poisson’s ratio of 0.3.
6. B is the I.D. of the flange and not the pipe I.D. For
small-diameter flanges when B is less than 20gi, it
is optional for the designer to substitute B, for B in
Code formula for longitudinal hub stress, SEI.(See
[ l , Para. 2-3 of Section VIII, Div 11.)
7. In general, bolts should always be used in multiples
of 4. For large-diameter flanges, use many smaller
bolts on a tight bolt circle to reduce the flange thick-
ness. Larger bolts require a large bolt circle, which
greatly increases flange thickness.
8. If the bolt holes are slotted to allow for swing-away
bolting, substitute the diameter of the circle tangent
to the inner edges of the slots for dimension A and
follow the appropriate design procedures.
9. Square and oval flanges with circular bores should
be treated as “inscribed” circular flanges. Use a
bolt circle passing through the center of the outer-
most bolt holes. The same applies for noncircular
openings; however, the bolt spacing becomes more
critical. The spacing factor can be less than re-
quired for circular flanges since the metal available
in the corners tends to spread the bolt load and even
out the moment.
10. Design flanges to withstand both pressure and ex-
ternal loads, use “equivalent” pressure P, as fol-
lows:
16M 4F + p
P,=- +-
7rG3 7rG2
where M = bending moment, in.-ib
F = radial load, Ib
40 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

PROCEDURE 2-6
DESIGN OF SPHERICALLY DISHED COVERS

Design pressure, P Allowable Stresses

Design temperature Flange I Balling
Flange material Design temp., Sf, I IDesign temp., Sb I
Bolting material Amb. temp., SI. lAmb. temp., S,

3 TABLES 2-3AND 2-4 4 LOAD AND BOLT CALCULATIONS

N Wm2= bnGy A, = greater of
b Hp = 2brGmP W,dS, or W,C
lb
G H = G277P/4 Ab
Y Wmr = Hp + H W = S(A, + A&
rn

Ho = s S W 4 ho = .5(C - B) Mo = HohD
Hc = Hp hG = .5(C - GI MG = Heho
H i = H - Ho hr = S(ho + hG) MT = HThi
H. = HolIan 8, h, M, = H,h,
p Calculation
B M, = Mo + MG+ M i + M,
8, = arc sin - Nofe: M, is ( + ] if $ of head is below the Center
2L + t of gravity: ( - 1 if above.

7
1
seating
HG = W I he I M i =Who I
Head TI ness Required

,=- 5PL
6S

Flange 1 kness Required

J=,BM M A+B

where M = M,
or M i whichever
is greater

I cover.
Figure 2-21. Dimensional data and forces for a spherically dished
 General Design 41

PROCEDURE 2-7
DESIGN OF BLIND FLANGES WITH OPENINGS [1,4]

I1 DESIGN CONDITIONS
Design pressure, P Allowable Stresses
Design temperature Flange Bolting
Flange material Design temp.. Si, I Design I m p . , Sb I
Bolting material Atm. temp., SI, Atm. temp., S,
coriosion allowance I I

3 TABLES 2-3 AND 2-4 4 LOAD AND BOLT CALCULATIONS

N Wm2 = bnGy A, = greater of
b Hp = 2bnGmP Wm21S, or W d S b
G (see below) H = GZrP14 Ab
Y Wmi = Hp + H W = .5(A, + AdS,
m hG = .5(C - G)

AI = 2t,h
I,"= __PR.
SE - .6P Ah = area of welds
A, = .5dl, A, = g(O.0. pad - O.D. nozzle)
A, = 2(t - t d 2 w - d) EA = A, through As
A, = 2h(t, - t,J EA>A,

Notes
1. Kcinforcement is only required for operating condi-
tions not bolt up.
2. Options in lieu of calculating reinforcement:
Option 1 -No additional reinforcement is required
i f flange thickness is greater than 1.414 to.
I Option 2-If opening exceeds one half the nominal
flange diameter, the flange
I . may be computed as
an optional-type rcducing flange.
Option 3-No additional reinforcement is required
if to is calculated substituting .6 for .3 in the
equation for t, (doubling of c value).
I 3. For terms and Tables 2-3 and 2-4, see Procedure 2-5.
42 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

PROCEDURE 2-8
BOLT TORQUE REQUIRED FOR SEALING
FLANGES [lo-131

PT = test pressure, psi

Notation F = restoring force of gasket (decreasing compres-
sion force) from initial bolting strain, lb
A,, cross-sectional area of bolts, in.'
= Fho= initial tightening force, lb
A, actual joint-contact area of Sasket, in.'
= fh = effective length of bolt, mid nut to mid nut, in.
b= effective gasket seating width, in. W = total tightening force, lb
d= root diameter of threads, in. W,,,, = H + H, = required bolt load, operating, lb
d,,= pitch diameter of threads, in.
Wm2= required bolt load, gasket seating, lb
G = diameter at location of gasket load reaction, in. y = gasket unit seating load, psi
M = external bending moment, in.-lb H = total hydrostatic end force, lb
m = gasket factor H, = total joint-contact surface compression load, Ib
N = gasket width, in. T = initial tightening torque required, ft-lb
n = number of bolts t, = thickness of gasket, in.
Eh = modulus of elasticity of bolting material at tem- t, = thickness of nut, in.
perature, psi K = total friction factor between bolthut and nut/
E, = modulus of elasticity of gasket material at tem- flange face
perature, psi
I
U~
~~~~~~

w = width of ring joint gasket, in

P = internal pressure, psi
P, = equivalent pressure including external loads,
psi
P, = radial load, lb Note: See Procedure 2-5for values of G, N, m, b, and y.

W 7
I

Tongue and groove

u
Ring joint

Figure 2-23. Flange and joint details.

Table 2-6
Bolting Dimensional Data

Note: % and 718 in. bolts are UNC series threads. All others ate 8 series threads. All dimensions are from ANSI B 18.2.
 General Design 43

Table 2-7
Modulus of Elasticitv. Eh, lo6 mi

I Material
Carbon steel
70' 2000 300' 400'
Temperature, O
500'
F

600' 700' 8000 9000

A-307-6 27.9 27.7 27.4 27.0 26.4 25.7 24.8 23.4 18.5
Low alloy
A-193.67, 616, B7M 29.9 29.5 29.0 28.6 28.0 27.4 26.6 25.7 24.5
Straight chrome
A-193-66, 66X 29.2 28.7 28.3 27.7 27.0 26.0 24.8 23.1 22.1
Stainless
A-193-68 series 28.3 27.7 27.1 26.6 26.1 25.4 24.8 24.1 23.4
Note: Values per ASME Code, Section VIlI, OW. 2, Table AMG-2.

Modulus of Elasticity of Gasket Material, I Spiral wound: 5,690 psi

Es
Friction Factor. K
0 King joint and flat metal: Select values from ASME
Code, Section VIII, Div. 2, Tables AMG-2, 2.1, 2.2, Lubricated: 0.1
2.3, and 2.4. Nonlubricated: 0.2

AF = change in joint load

due to the gasket relaxing

4
AL
-,
- d
. 4
Elongation
* Compression

Figure 2-24. Typical joint diagram

Flange size Type I

~..
Design pressure, P face Quantity n

Test pressure, Pi
V."., I". "
_ _ _ N or w ~~
~ dm
Moment, M Y Eb
rn nd2n
~

Radial load, Pr Ab=-

-~ Eg 4
Friction tactoi, K tg
Design temperature
b Ib = x + 1"
G
44 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Calculations Notes
Equiuulent pressure, P, psi.
1. Bolted joints in high-pressure systems require an ini-
16M 4P, + p
p, = +- tial preload to prevent the joint from leaking. The
7rG3 ?rG2 loads which tend to open the joint are:
~

a. Internal pressure.
Hydrostatic end force, H, lb b. Thermal bending moment.
c. Dead load bending moment.
H = -nG2P,
4 2. Either stud tensioners or torque wrenches are used
for prestressing bolts to the required stress for gasket
Sotaljoint-contact-surfacecompression load, Hp, lb. seating. Stud tensioners are by far the most accurate.
Stud tension achieved by torquing the nut is affected
Hp = 2b?rGmP, by many variables and may vary from 10% to 100%
of calculated values. The following are the major
M i n i m u m required bolt loadfor gasket seating, Wn2,16. variables affecting tension achieved by torquing:
Wm2 = Tb G y a. Class of fit of nut and stud.
b. Burrs.
Actualjoint area contactfor gasket, A,c, in.’ c. Lubrication.
AS=2?rbG d. Grit, chips, and dirt in threads of bolts or nuts.
e. Nicks.
Decreasing compressionforce in gasket, AE lb. f. The relative condition of the seating surface on
the flange against which the nut is rotated.
3 . Adequate lubrication should be used. Nonlubricated
bolting has an efficiency of about 50% of a well-ln-
bricated bolt. For standard applications, a heavy
graphitc and oil mixture works well. For high tcm-
Initial required tightening force (tension), Fbo, lb perature service (500’F to 1000°F), a high tempera-
ture thread compound may be used.
Fbo = H, + AF 4. The stiffness of the bolt is only 1/3 i o V 5 that of the
joint. Thus, for an equal change in deformation, the
7Otal tighteningforce required to sealjoint, lb change of the load in the bolt must be only ‘hto 1/5 of
W = greater of Fboor Wm2 the change in the load of the joint.
5. Joints almost always relax after they have first been
Required torque, ft-lb. tightened. Relaxation of 10% to 20% of the initial
preload is not uncommon. Thus an additional pre-
T = K W d,, load of quantity F is required ta compensate for this
12 n “relaxing” of the joint.

PROCEDURE 2-9
DESIGN OF FLAT HEADS 11, 2,5, 6, 71

Notation
I E =joint efficiency (Cat. A seam only)
1 = length
- of straight flange measured from tan-
gent line, in.
C = attachment factor P = internal pressure, psi
D = long span of noncircular hcads, in. r = inside corner radius of head, in.
d = diameter of circular heads or short span of S = code allowable stress, tension, psi
noncircular heads, in. t = minimum required thickness of head, in
 General Design 45

t f = thickness of flange of forged head, in. 3d( 1 u)

a3 =
~

th = thickness of head, in.

t, = minimum required thickness of seamless
32 til
shell, in.
a, =
t,thickness of shell, in.
=
t,= thickness of weld joint, in.
= minimum distance from outside of head to
tp
a5 =
edge of weld prep, in.
Z = factor, dependent on d/D ratio
Qu = shear force per unit Icngth, Ib/in. a6 =
No = axiaI tensile force per unit length, Ib/in.
M, = radial bending moment, in.-lb/in.

I-
v = Poisson's ratio, .3 for steel
a1.2,3 - Influence coefficients
b1.2.3 for head

b4.1.ú
] - Influence coefficients
for shell

Formulas
Circular heads.

Cases
Noncircular heads
Case 1 (Figure 2-25)

2.4 d
where 2 = 3.4 - ; < 2.5
D
~

Figure 2-25. Case 1: Flanged head [ I , Section UG-34 (a)]

1. C = .17 for forged circular or noncircular heads.

2 . r 2 3 th
3 . C = . 1 for circular hcads if

al = (-)3(1 - v) ~

t,,

a2 = 2(1 - u)
46 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

or 1. C = .3
2. r 2 3 t h
3. Design threads with 4:1 safety factor against failure
by shear, tension, or compression due to hydrostatic
end force.
for length 2 and taper is 4: 1 minimum 4. Seal welding optional.
5 . Threads must be as strong as standard pipe threads.
Case 2 (Figure 2-26)
Case 5 (Figure 2-29)

Figure 2-26. Case 2: Forged head [ I , Section UG-34 (b-l)].

1. C = .17
Figure 2-29. Case 5 : Lap welded head [ I , Section UG-34 (c)].
2. t f 2 2 t,
3. r>3tf
1. Circular heads: C = .13 if
4. For forged circular or noncircular heads.

Case 3 (Figure 2-27)

2. Noncircular heads and circular heads regardless of

e:c = .z.
3. r > 3 tl,

Case 6 (Figure 2-30)

th

Figure 2-27. Case 3: Integrally forged head [l,

Figure UG-34
(b-2)I.

1. C = .33 m hut greater than . 2

2. r>,.375 in. i f t 8 < 1 . 5 i n .
3. r 2 .25 t, if t, is greater than 1.5 in. but need not be
greater than .75 in. th

Case 4 (Figure 2-28)

Figure 2-30. Case 6: Integrally forged head [ I , Section UG-34
@)l.

1. C = .13
2. d 5 24 in.
3. .O5 < t,,/d < .25
4. th 2 t,
5 . r ? .25 t,,
th u 6. Head integral with shell by upsetting, forging, or
spinning.
Figure 2-28. Case 4: Screwed flat head [ I , Section UG-34 (c)]. 7. Circular heads only.
 General Design 47

Case 7 (Figure 2-31)

.7t, min
typical

Projection optional J

Figure 2-31. Case 7: Welded flat heads [ l , Section UG-34 (e) Backing
(01. strip may
be used

1. Circular heads: C = .33 m but 2 .2. If m < 1, then

shell cannot be tapered within 2 Jdis
from inside of
head.
2. Noncircular heads: C = .33
3. Liquid penetrant (L.P.) or magnetic particle test
(M.T.) end of shell and O.D. of head if t, or th is
greater than Vz in. thick (before and after welding).

%y$th
Case 8 (Figure 2-32) Type 3
Figure 2-33. Case 9: Welded flat heads [ I , Section UG-34(h),
UW-13(e) (f) (COI.

3. t, 2 1.25 t,
d Bevel optional 4. L.P./M.T. end of shell and O.D. of head if t, or ti, is
greater than Vz in. thick (before and after welding).

5. Type I : a, + a2 > 21,

Figure 2-32. Case 8: Welded flat heads (Full penetrationwelds
required) [ I , Section UG-34 (g)].
.5 a2 < a, < 2a2
Type 2: a > 2 t,
1. Circular heads: C = .33 m but 2 .2. l j p e 3: a + b > 2 t,
t," > 2t, and > 1.25 t, but 5 ti, b = O is permissible
If m < 1, then shell cannot be tapered within 2 Jd;T
from inside of head.
2. Noncircular heads: C = .33 Case 10 (Figure 2-34)
3 . See Note 3 in Case 7 .
1. For Figure 2-34A: C = .33 and t, 2 1.25 t,
2. For Figure 2-34B: C = .33 m but 2 .2
Case 9 (Figure 2-33) 3. tp > t, or .25 in.
4. ,t 2 t,
1. Circular heads only 5. a + b > 2 t ,
2. C = .33 6. a 2 t .
48 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

I. c = .3
l . All possible means of failure (by shear, tension, com-
pression, or radial deformation, including flaring,
Backing resulting from pressure and differential thermal ex-
strip pansion) are resisted by factor of safety of 4: 1.
optional th
3. Seal welding may be used.
1. Circular heads only.

Case 12 (Figure 2-36)

a
a

Figure 2-36. Case 12: Crimped head [ I , Section UG-34 (r)].

1. c = .33
Figure 2-34. Case IO: Welded flat heads [ I , Section UG-34 (h) 2. Circular plates only.
(i)l. 3. d = 18-in. maximum.
4. 01 = 30° minimum, 45O maximum

7 . L.P./M.T. end of shell and O.D. of head if t, or th is Case 13 (Figure 2-37)

greater than '/z in. thick (before and after welding).

Case 11 (Figure 2-35)

Retaining
ring
.at, min
th

3/4 t min
typical

Figure 2-37. Case 13: Crimped heads [l,

Section UG-34 ($1.

1. c = .33
2. Circular plates only
3. d =18-in. maximum.
4. ci = 30" minimum, 45O maximum.
5. t,/d > P/S > .O5
6. Maximum allowable working pressure < S/5d
Figure 2-35. Case 11: Heads attached by mechanical lock de- 7. Crimping must be donc at the proper forging tern-
vices [I,Section UG-34(m) (n) (o)], perature.
 General Design 49

-
Axial s t r m in shell at junction, u, [5, Equation 6.1221.
Stresses in Flat Heads

Maximum stress occurs at the junction, is axial in di-

rection, and may be in either the head or the shell.
When tli/t, 5 1, the maximum stress is in the head at the
junction. When th/t, > 1, thc maximum strcss is in the Axial stress in head atjunction, uh [5, Equation 6.1321.
shell at thc junction. The bending moment M, is a re-
sult of internal forces No and Qo,

Internal Force, Qo

I I
Primary bendingstress in head, uI,. Note: Primary bending
(a+ - aJb3 - (a3 - a6)(b4 - b,) stress is maximum at the center of the head.
Q = Pd,
(ah - 4 ( b j - b d - (a5 - a,)(b+ - b1)
Pi, = (*)
Bending Moment, M, 8

(a3 - - b2) - (a5 - a2)bJ ( - ) Inside head, compression

M,

pv
= Pdk
(a4 - al)(bs - b2) - (a5 - a,)(b, - b,) ( + ) Outside head, tension

d, --

p2-t
--

Figure 2-38.Discontinuity at flat head and cylindrical shell juncture

50 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

PROCEDURE 2-10
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF STIFFENING RINGS

I = YAY2 t X I ~ C YAY

I
L = 1.1
L Y,=

Pall I Area: A I Y 1 Y2 I AY I AY' I I

I I

Figure 2-39. Case 1: Bar-type stiffening ring I

~

!
I
i
i
i

4 I
I
i

Figure 2-40. Case 2. T-type stiffening ring.

LS PDo = D%St + A J U A I
I + AJL,
I
8=.75-
I 14
P If B 5 2,500psi,
DO A = 281E D%dt + A J W
I; =
If ü > 2,500psi, I
i
AS 10.9
E = modulus al determine A from
elasticity applicable material
charts

I
i
 General Design 51

PROCEDURE 2-11
REINFORCEMENT FOR STUDDING OUTLETS

tpi
T-

L
Minimum length o1 thread engagement 11, UG~44lblI

Maximum depth o1 holes. x I t . UG~43lO!l

< Md,

d, 518 in. 314in. 718in. 1 in. 1% in. 1114 in. in.

1318 1% in. 1518 in. 1% in. in.
1718 2 in. 2314 in.
X 1.11 1.33 1.55 1.77 2.00 2.44 2.66 2.88 3.10 3.32 3.56 3.98 4.44
S 1.28 1.84 2.50 3.28 4.15 5.12 6.20 7.38 8.66 10.05 11.55 13.1 16.6

Calculation of Area of Reinforcement

(Figure 2-47)
A = (dt,F) + S
L = Greater of d or R, + t,, +t
A, = 2(L - R, - t,,)(t ~ tL)
A2 = 2(t, - h - tr)(t. ~ tm)
AS = 2(ht,)
AT = A, + A, + A3

Notes
1. Chcck plane which is nearest the longitudinal axis of
the vessel and passes through a pais of studdcd holes.
2. Sb = allowable stress of stud material at design tem-
perature.
Sfo= allowable stress of flange material at design Figure 2-42. Chart for determining the value of F. (Reprinted
temperature. by permission from ASME Code, Section ViII, Div. 1, Figure
3. A2 as computed ignores raised face. UG-37.)
52 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

PROCEDURE 2-12
DESIGN OF INTERNAL SUPPORT BEDS [8,9]

Notation
A = cross-sectional area of bolt, in.'
B = ratio of actual force to allowable forcc per inch of
weld
b = width of bearing bar, grating, in.
d = depth of bearing bar, grating, in.
D = vessel inside diameter, ft
E = modulus of clasticity, in.3
F = total load of bed, lb
Fb = allowable bending stress, psi
wf = fillet weld size, in.
h = height of beam seat or length of clip, in.
1 = moment of inertia, in.4
K = distance from bottom of bcam to top of fillet of
web, in. [9]
P = length of beam, width of ring, or unsupported
width of grating, ft or in. Gialing, Support plate.
vapor diSlr8buiOr.
M = bending moment, in.-lb
N = minimum bearing length, in.
n = number of bolts
1' = concentrated load, lb
AP= differential pressure between top and bottom of
bed, ( - ) up, ( + ) down, psi
p = uniform load, psf
R = end reactions, lb
R, = root area of bolts,
S = allowable shear stress in bolts or fillet welds, psi
t = thickness of clip, gusset, or ring, in.
w = uniform load, lb/ft
F, = minimum specified yield strength, psi
Z = section modulus, some applicuiions
,equ,re paci<,ng
/" ,hi5 area

Process vessels frequently have internal beds that must

be supported by the vessel shell. Sand filters, packed
columns, and reactors with catalyst beds are typical ex-
amples. The beds are often supported by a combination
,herma, expansion
of beam(s), grating, and a circumferential ring which
supports the periphery of the grating. The beams are in
turn attached to the shell wall by either clips or beam
seats. This procedure offers a quick way for analyzing Figure 2-43. Typical support arrangements and details of an
the various support components. internal bed.
 I
WEIGHTS
I

Free area

Packinglcatalysl unit weight

Weight Of liquid above bed

i
II
Tola1 load, F =

Figure 2-44. Loading diagram of single-beam support. Uniform load, p = ~

 General Design 55

Clip (Figure 2-46, Table 2-10) Beam Seat íFieure 2-47)

/
,
- continuous ring

Figure 2-47. Typical beam seat support

t bolts

Figure 2-46. Typical clip support N = minimum bearing length, in.

t = thickness required, gusset, in.
t, = thickness, web, in.
R = total end reactions, Ib K = vertical distance from bottom of beam flange to
M = moment in clip, in.-lh top of fillet of beam web, in. [9]
t = thickness required, clip, in. B = ratio of actual force to allowable force per inch of
Fb = allowable stress, bending, psi weld
A, = area of bolt required, in.? wf = fillet weld size, in.
n = number of bolts F, = yield strength, psi

Moment in clip, M .
M = R c
Thickness required, Susset, t.
Thickness required t.
R(6e - 2a)
t=
6 M Fba2sin2 q4
t=--
h2 FI,
Length, N.
Area required, A,
R
N= -K
t4.75 F,)
RBtiO, B.
Select appropriate bolts
For E60 welds:
Quantity-
R
~

Size- ~
B=
Material- ~
23,040 wf
Table 2-10 For E70 welds:
R
Size 518 in. % in. 7/8 in. 1 in. B=
R. ,202 ,302 ,419 .55i ,693 26,880 wf
0 Required heishi, h
Material A-307 A-325
Single i0,ooo 15.000 B
Double 20,000 30,000 h = (B + JB* + 64 e*)
2
~
56 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Notes for Beam Seat Gratine

1. Make width of beam seat at least 40% of h. Fb = maximum allowable fiber stress = 18,000 psi
2. Make fillet weld leg size no greater than .75 t , . M = maximum moment at midspan, ft-lb
3. Make stiffener plate thickness greater of tlv or 1.33 p = uniform load, psf
Wf. E = modulus of elasticity, 10' psi
n = number of bearing bars per foot
6 = deflection, in.
I moment of inertia per foot of width, in.4
Ring (Figure 2-48)
=
Z = section modulus per foot of width, i n 3
e = maximum unsupported width, ft.
Case 1: single beam-P = .5 D
Case 2: two beams-P = ,333 D
b = width of bearing bar (corroded), in.
d = depth of bearing bar (corroded), in.

Figure 2-48. Loading diagram of a continuous ring,

Case 1: Single Beam Proposed bearing bar size:

ws = maximum unit load on circular ring, l b h . z = n b d2

~

I = n b d3
~

12
M = wse 6=
5 p P(12 P)3
384 E I
Select grating size,

Select appropriatc ring size.

Notes
Case 2: Two Beams
1. Recommended beam ratio, span over dcpth, should
be between 15 and 18 (20 maximum).
2. For loading consider packing, catalyst, grating,
weight of beam(s), liquid above packing or filter me-
M=wsP dia, entrained liquid, and differential pressure acting
down on bed. Entrained liquid = volume x specific
gravity x liquid holdup x free area x 62.4 Ib per cu

t= &i ft .
3 . Minimum gusset thickness of beam seat should not
be less than the web thickness of the beam.
4. Main bearing bars of grating should run perpendicu-
Select appropriate ring size lar to direction of support beams.

PROCEDURE 2-13
NOZZLE REINFORCEMENT
The following are only guidelines based on Section
VIII, Division i of the ASME Code [i]. This is not an
attempt to cover every possibility nor is it to become a
substitute for using the Code.
1. Limits
a. No reinforcement other than that inherent in the
construction is required for nozzles [ 1, Section
UG-36 (c) (3)]:
3-in. pipe size and smaller in vessel walls Ya-
in. and lcss.
2-in. pipe size and smaller in vessel walls
greater than %-in.
b. Normal reinforcement methods apply to [ I , Sec-
tion UG-36 (b) (i)]:
Vessels 60-in.diameter and less-% the vessel di-
ameter but not to exceed 20-in.
Vessels greater than 60-in.diameter-'/3 the vessel
diamcter but not to exceed 40-in.
c. For nozzle openings greater than the limits of
Guideline l b , reinforcement shall be in accor-
dance with para. 1-7 of ASME Code.
2. Strength.
It is advisable but not mandatory for reinforcing
pad material to be the same as the vessel material
[ i , Section UG-4.11:
a. If a hkhher strength material is used, cither in the
pad or in the nozzle neck, no additional credit
may be taken for the higher strength
b. If a h e ~ e strength
r material is used, either in the pad
or in the nozzle, then the area taken as reinforce-
ment must be decreased proportionately by the
ratio of thc stress intensity values of the two ma-
terials. Weld material taken as reinforcement
must also be decreased as a proportion, assum-
ing thc weld material is the same strength as the
weaker of the two materials joined.
General Design 57
3. Thickness I
While minimum thicknesses are given in Reference
1, Section UG-lG(b), it is recommended that pads I
be not less than 75% nor more than 150% of the
part to which they are attached.
4. Width.
While no minimum is stated, it is rccommended
that re-pads be at least 2-in. wide.
5. Forming.
Reinforcing pads should be formed as closely to the
contour of the vessel as possible. While normally
put on outside of vessel, re-pads can also be put in-
side providing they do not interfere with the vessel's
operation [ 1, Section UG-821.
6. Ell-tale holes.
Reinforcing pads should be provided with a %in.
tapped hole located at least 45" off the longitudinal
ccnter line and given an air-soap suds test [ 1, Sec-
tion UW-i5(c)].
7. Elliptical or obround openings.
When reinforcement is required for elliptical or ob-
round openings and the long dimension exceeds
twice the short dimension, the reinforcement across
the short dimension shall be increased to guard
against excessive distortion due to twisting moment
[ i , Section UG-36(c) (I)].
8 . Openings inflat heads.
Reinforcement for openings in flat heads and blind
flanges shall be as follows [1, Section UG-391:
a. Oflenings <Vi head diameter-area to be replaced
equals .5d (tr), or thickness of head or flange
may be increased by:
58 Pressure Vessel Design Manual
Doubling c value.
Using c = .75.
Increasing head thickness by 1.414.
b. Openings> l/z head diameter-shall be designed as
a bolted flange connection. See Procedure 2-14.
9. Opening in torispherical heads.
When a nozzle opening and all its reinforcement fall
within the dished portion, the required thickness of
head for reinforcement purposes shall be computed
using M = 1 [ l , Section UG-37 (b) (i)].
IO. Openings in elliptical heaús.
When a nozzle opening and all its reinforcement fall
within .8D of an elliptical head, the required thick-
ness of head for reinforcement purposes shall be
equal to the thickness required for a seamless sphere
of radius K(D) [ I , Section UG-37 (B) (3)].
11. General.
Reinforcement should be calculated in the corroded
condition assuming maximum tolerance (minimum
t). For non X-rayed vessels, t, must he computed
using a stress value of .8S [ i , Section UG-37 (b)
(411.
12. Openings throuth seam. 11, Section UW-141.
a. Openings that have been reinforced may be lo-
cated in a welded joint. E = joint efficiency of
seam for reinforcement calculations. ASME
Code, Division I , does not allow a weldedjoint
to have two different weld joint efficiencies.
Credit may not be taken for a localized x-rayed
portion of a spot or non x-rayed seam.
b. Small nozzles that are not required to be
checked per the Code, can be located in circum-
ferential joints providing the seam is x-rayed for
a distance three times the diameter of the open-
ing with the center of the hole at midlength.
13. Re-padr ouer seam.
If at all possible, pads should not cover weld seams.
When unavoidable, the seam should be ground
flush before attaching the pad [ i , Section UG-821.
14. Obenings near seam.
Small nozzles (for which the Code does not require
the reinforcement to be checked) shall not be lo-
cated closer than */z in. to the edge of a main seam.
When unavoidable, the seam shall be x-rayed, per
ASME Code, Section UW-51, a distance of one and
a half times the diameter of the opening either side
of the closest point [1, Section UW-141.
15. External pressure.
Reinforcement required for openings subject to ex-
ternal pressure only or where longitudinal compres-
sion governs shall only bc 50% of that rcquired for
internal pressure and t, is thickness required for ex-
ternal pressure [ l , Section UG-37 (C) (i)].
16. Ligaments.
When there is a series of closely spaced openings in
a vessel shell and it is impractical to reinforce each
opening, the construction is acceptable, provided
the efficiency of the ligaments between the holes is
acceptable [ I , Section UG-531.
17. Multiple openinp. 11, Section UG-421.
a. Closer than 2 times average diameters:
Reinforcement must be as strong as combined
strength of the separate openings.
No portion of the cross section shall apply to
more than one opening.
b. Closer than 11/z times average diameters: 50%
of the reinforcement available between the noz-
zles must apply to cach nozzle
c. Closer than 1% times average diameters: No
credit for reinforcement shall be taken for metal
between the openings.
18. Plane reinforcement.
A correction factor f may be used for “integrally re-
inforced” nozzles to compensate for differences in
stress from longitudinal to circumferential axis of
the vessel. Values off vary from 1.O for the longitu-
dinal axis to .5 for circumferential axis [ i , Section
UG-371.
 General Design 59

WORKSHEET FOR NOZZLE REINFORCEMENT CALCULATIONS

~~ ~ ~ ~ ~

VESSEL DESCRIPTION ITEM N O SIZE

1 2 3 4 5 Nozzle 1 2 3 4 5

Nozzle 1"

LOCallO" 1°C

Size and
schedule I,.

I Shell I Head
THICKNESS REQUIRED

I Noules

I,. = __
PR PD PR,
I,=-- t," =
S - .6P 2s - .2P S - .6P
~

-
S,Shell
~~

'O Nozzle

S,head P
~

'Note: D = R for hemi.heads R"

D = .9D if nozzle and reinforcement lie within .ED of 2 1 head
D = L if nozzle and reinforcement lie within dished portion of a S
flanged and dished head.
7,"
I
I
I I I I I I

-
FORMULAS

-
h = lesser of 2.5I
A dl,F + 2tnl,F(l - f,,) or 2.5I". + I ,
hi lesser of 2.5 t
At = (2L - d)(t - Ft,)
- 21,(1 - FI,)(l f,d - or 2.5 (1" -
2 c a.)

< I

< I

L - greater of d
or R, + I + b.

I DESIGN DAiA

corrasian Specific
allowance, c.a. gravity

Design liquid level Thinning allowance

3gure 2-49. Chart for determinin
he value of F [ l , Figure UG-371.
60 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

&
C.B.

B
I- L -- L

Figure 2-50. Typical nozzle connections,

-1__
C
c -

Figure 2-51. Typical self-reinforced nozzles.

 General Design 61

PROCEDURE 2-14
DESIGN OF LARGE OPENINGS IN FLAT HEADS [ 11

-
Notation

p = internal pressure, psi

M, = bending moment in head, in:lb
M,, = moment acting on cnd of hub or shell at junc-
ture, in.-lb
Mo = component of moment M, due to HB, in.-lb
M-r = component of moment M, due to HT, in.-lb
H = hydrostatic end force, Ib
H,, = hydrostatic end force on area of central opening,
Ib
HT = H - Hn, Ib
SH = longitudinal hub stress, psi
SK = radial stress in head, psi
ST = tangcntial stress in head, psi
SHS = longitudinal hub strcss, shell, psi
SICS= radial stress, head, at O.D., psi
= tangential stress, head, at O.D., psi
Silo = longitudinal hub stress a t central opening, psi
SRO= radial stress, head, at central opening, psi
= tangential stress, head, at central opening, psi
Z, Z,, Y , T, U , F, V, f, e , d, L, X, and 0 are all factors.

Factor Formulas

1. Calculate geometry faciors: Figure 2-52. Dimensions (A) and loading diagram (B) for a flat
integral head with opening.
g1 -
-~
go V =
u = -A =
f =
B" 3 . Using the values found in the preceding steps, coni-
pute the following factors:
h , = G =

h
- --
h,
2. Using the factors calculated in Step 1 , find the fol-
lowing factors in Procedure 2-5.

Z =
Y =
T =
U =
F =
 62 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

5 . Factor, O .
~

Stress and Moment Calculations

Integral:
1. Hydrostatic endforces, H, HD, HT,
BI = B, + go
H = - BT P?r Iff21
4

?r Bn P
Ho=-
4
Loose:
H.r = H - HD
O = -B, Sr
2. Moment arms, hD and hT. t

Integral: 6. Moment atjuncture ofshell and head, MH

A - B, - t,,
hi) = O
2 MH =
Loose:
A - B,
hu = __
2
where h,, go, V, B,, and F refer to shell.
Integral or loose:
7 . Factor XI.

3 . Momentr.
MI) = hi) Hi,
wherc F and h, refer to shell.
M., = h.,. HT
M, = MI) + MT
8 . Stresses at head-shelljuncture.
4. Stresses in head and hub.
1 . 1 XI 0 h, f
SHS =
(gi/gJ2 Bs V

(1.33t e + 1) M,
SRS=
1.91 MH 1
( + -h:j + .64 F MH

SR = B, t2 B, h, t
L t2 R,,

Integral:

wlicre B,, F, h,, Z , f, g,, g,, and V refcr to shell.

Loosc: 2 . Calculate stresses at head-nozzlejuncture

SI10 = x,S H
SKO = XI SR

I cable configurations see sketches in ASME Code,
where F, B,, and h, refer to shell.
Notes
1. This procedure is only applicable for integrally at-
tached flat heads with centrally located openings
which exceed one half the head diameter. For appli-
REFERENCES
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section
VIII, Division 1, 1983 Edition, American Society
of Mechanical Engincers.
2. Harvey, J . F., Theory and Desipn of Modern Pressure
Gssels, 2nd Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,
1974.
3. Bednar, H. H., Pressure Gssel Design Handbook, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1981.
4. Modern Flange Desipn, 7th Edition, Bulletin 502,
Taylor Forge International, Inc.
5. Brownell, L. E., and Young, E. H., Process Equip-
ment Design, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1959, Sec-
tion 6.2 pp. 157-159.
6. Watts, G. W., and Lang, H. A,, “The Stresses in a
Pressure Vessel with a Flat Head Closure,” ASME
Papcr No, 51-A-146, 1951.
7. Burgreen, D., Design Methodsfor Power Plant Struc-
tures, C . P. Press, 1975.
General Design 63
Section UG-34 (a), (b-i), (b-Z), (d) or (g).
2. For details where inside corner of shell-head juncture
is machined to a radius: gl = go and f = 1.
3. The method employed in this procedure is to disre-
gard the shell attached to the outside diameter of the
flat head and then analyze the flat head with a cen-
tral opening.
4. This procedure is based on appendix 14 of ASME
Section VIII, Division I .
8. Blodgett, O. W., Desipn of Welded Structures, J. F.
Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, 1966, Section
5.3.
9. Manual of Steel Construction, 8th Edition, American
Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., 1980.
10. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section
VIII, Div. 2, 1983 Edition, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers.
11. Radzinovsky, E. I., “Bolt Design for Repeated
Loading,” Machine Desipn (November 1952), pp.
135ff.
12. Meyer, G., and Strelow, D., “Simple Diagrams Aid
in Analyzing Forces in Bolted Joints,” Assembly En-
gineerzng (January i972), pp. 28-33.
13. Horsch, R., “Solve Complicated Force Problems
with Simple Diagrams,” Assembly Enpineering (De-
cember 1972), pp. 22-24.
3
Design of Vessel Supports
PROCEDURE 3-1
WIND DESIGN FOR VESSELS [ 11

Exposure B: Urban, suburban, or wooded areas with

Notation numerous closely spaced obstructions the sizc of single
family dwellings or larger.
F =design wind force, Ib (Fl, F2, FL, F,, etc.)
Exposure C: Open terrain with scattered obstructions
q. =wind pressure, psi
having heights less than 30 ft. This category includes
K, = velocity pressure exposure coefficient from Table
fiat open country and grasslands.
3-1
Exposure D: Flat, unobstructed coastal areas directly
I = importance factor (1.0 for vcsscls)
exposed to wind flowing ovcr large bodies of water.
V = basic wind speed, mph (See Figure 3-2)
Includes areas extending inland 1,500 ft or 10 times
G,, = gust factor from Table 3-1
height of structure.
Cr = shape factor, .6-.8 for cylindrical and spherical
sections (.6 smooth, .8 rough) Table 3-1
Af = projected area, ft2 Wind Coefficients
-
G = p s t response factor for flexible structures K,
~

Height G”
P = probability of exceeding design wind speed in n Above Exposure Category Exposure Category
years Grade
Pa = annual probability of wind speed exceeding a ..
Ift) A B C D A B C D

given magnitude, from Table 3-3 0-15 .12 .37 .80 1.20 2.36 1.65 1.32 1.15
15-20 .I5 .42 .87 1.27 2.20 1.59 1.29 1.14
p = structural damping coefficient, % of critical 20-25 .17 .46 .93 1.32 2.09 1.54 1.27 1.13
damping (.O1 (1 %) for vessels) 25-30 .19 SO .98 1.37 2.01 1.51 1.20 1.12
TI = exposure factor evaluated at 213 of structure’s 30-35 23 .57 1.06 1.46 1.88 1.46 1.23 1.11
height 40-50 27 .63 1.13 1.52 1.79 1.42 1.21 1.10
S = structure size factor from Figure 3-1 50-60 .30 68 1.19 1.58 1.73 1.39 1.20 1.09
60-70 .33 .73 1.24 1.63 1.67 1.36 1.19 1.08
D, = vessel effective diameter, ft, from Table 3-4 1.34 1.18 1.08
70-80 .37 .77 1.29 1.67 1.63
Do = surface drag coefficient from Table 3-2 80-90 .40 .82 1.34 1.71 1.59 1.32 1.17 1.07
f = natural frequency, 1íT cycles per second 90-100 .42 .86 1.38 1.75 1.56 1.31 1.16 1.07
01 = power law coefficient from Table 3-2 100-120 .48 .93 1.45 1.81 1.50 1.28 1.15 1.06
T = period of vibration, sec (See Procedure 3-2) 120-140 .53 .99 1.52 1.87 1.46 1.26 1.14 1.05
140-160 .58 1.05 1.58 1.92 1.43 1.24 1.13 1.05
M,= overturning moment, ft-lb or in.-lb 1.40 1.23 1.12 1.04
160-180 .63 1.11 1.63 1.97
L, = vessel effective length, ft 180-200 .67 1.16 1.68 2.01 1.37 1.21 1.11 1.04
Q = vertical reaction due to wind and dead loads, lb 200-250 .78 1.28 1.79 2.10 1.32 1.19 1.10 1.03
W = weight of vessel, Ib * Adapted from ANSI Code A58.1-1982.
N = number of legs or lugs
n = number of years of reference period, 1 to 100 yr Table 3-2
Exposure Category Constants
Z = height above grade to 213 of structure’s height
Category u D.
A 3.0 ,025
Exposure Catecories B 4.5 .O10
C 7.0 ,005
D 10.0 ,003
Exposure A : Large city centers where at least 50% of ~~

the buildings exceed 70 ft in height. * Adapted from ANSI Code A58.1-1982.

64
 Design of Vessel Supports 65

Table 3-3
Probability of Exceeding Design
Wind Speed During Reference Period
I 4
n I Pa
13
Years Probability
I?
1 .O4 .o2 o1 .O05
6 .I8 .IO .O5 .o2 I1
10 .34 .18 .IO .O5
IO
25 .64 .40 .22 .IO
50 .87 .64 .40 .22 s o9
1O0 .98 .87 .64 .39
O8

07

O6

O5
I I i l U I I I I I I I , 1 1 1 1
II
I I / I I I \
01

04 I I / / I I I I I i I I I I l l I I 1 1 i 1 1 ~ I
IO 20 30 40 5 0 60 8 0 100 200 300 4005006008001000 2000
hilt1

Figure 3-1. Structure Size factor. Reprinted by permission of

the ANSI "Minimum Design Load for Buildings and Other
Structures," ANSI A58.1-1982. Copyright 1982 by American
National Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY
10018.

Figure 3-2. Basic wind speed map of the United States. Reprinted by permission from ANSI "Minimum Design Loads for Build-
ings and Other Structures," ANSI A58.1-1982. Copyright 1982 by American National Standards institute, 1430 Broadway, New
York, NY 10018.
66 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Application of Wind Forces

Longiludinal

Figure 3-3. Vertical vessels. Figure 3-4. Horizontal vessels.

Ai = L, D.
F = AiCiGA
w
Q=-+-
4 ~ r I
Q
t
N-NB O

3-5. Vessels on lugs or rings. Figure 3-6. Vessels on legs

Formulas Cf = .6
Af = (see Figures 3-3 through 3-6)
General Vessel
F = qzGi,Cr&
Flexible Vessel
If HID < 5 or T < 1 sec,
then I = 1.0 If HID > 5 or T > 1 sec,
V = (see Figure 3-2) then I = 1.0
K, = (see Table 3-1) V = (see Figure 3-2)
q, = ,00256 K,(I V)* K, = (see Table 3-1)
G,, = (see Table 3-1) q, = ,00256 K,(I V)'
 Design of Vessel Supports 67

Cc= .6 zones can more conveniently and realistically be de-

Ar = (see Figures 3-3 through 3-6) signed by applying one uniform pressure over the en-
Pa = (see Table 3-3) tire vessel.
n= 2. Fur “fiexiblc” vessels, G is calculated only once and
P = 1 - (I - P.)” is multiplied by the velocity pressure K, at each
D, = (see Table 3-2) height.
CY = (see Table 3-2) 3. “Flexible structures," as defined by ANSI A58.1,
Z = .667 H are structures where H / D > 5 or T > 1 sec. For tall

(Gr
towers in this category, it is necessary to calculate the
2.35 6” period of vibration of the tower for several reasons:
T, =
a. To determine if the vessel is in the “flexible” cate-
wry.
p = .o1
S = (see Figure 3-1) b. To determine if the natural period of the vessel
coincides with the vibration frequency induced by
(see Note 2) the Von Karman vortex trail shedding, thus in-
creasing the amplitude of oscillation.
F = q, G C,A, (compute for eat elevation)
Vessels that qualify as “flexible” may or may not re-
quire “dynamic analysis.” Dynamic analysis is a
check for elastic instability. Dynamic stability (elastic
Notes instability) should be investigated if R,,/t > Z O O ,
H/D > 15 or if the vessel exceeds the critical line in
1 . Short vessels or horizontal vessels whose heights are Figure 3-9. For additional information see the section
such that they are divided between two pressure entitled “Vibration of Tall Towers” in Chapter 1.

PROCEDURE 3-2
SEISMIC DESIGN FOR VESSELS [2,3]

Horiz. vessel on pier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0

Notation Vertical vessel on unbraced legs . . . . . . . . . . 3.0
V =base shear, Ib
S = site coefficient (1.0-2.0 based on soil profile)
W, = operating weight of vessel, Ib
Z = seismic zone factor (see Figure 3-8)
w = uniform weight of vessel or stack, Ib/ft
Zone O: O F, = lateral force applied at top of structure, Ib
Zone 1: ,075
Zone2A: .15 F, = .O7 T V or .25V
Zone 2B: .20 whichever is lesser or
Zone 3: .3
Zone 4: .4 = 0, if T < .7 sec
I = Importance factor (1.0-1.25 for vessels)
C = Coefficient H overall height of vessel, ft
=
D outside diameter of vessel, ft
=
T = period of vibration, seconds (see Figure 3-7)
y = deflection, in.
N = number of column legs
R, = Coefficient A = cross-sectional area of leg braces, in.’
Self supporting stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 s = acceleration due to gravity, 386 in./sec2
Vertical vessel on skirt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 I = moment of inertia of pier, legs, stack, etc., in.4
Spheres and vessels on braced legs . . . . . . . . 3.0 E = modulus of elasticity, psi
68 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

I = n r3t Pier or
1-Support
y = - wH4
8EI

T=l.i'9@
H
y = -w, r3
See Figure 3-9. 3EI
Note uniform weight distribution and
constant cross section.
T=.324

2W,P 3
= 3NE(I, + IJ

See Figure 3-9.

Be consistent with units. H, D, and t
P Ix and lyare proper-
ties of legs.
are in feet.

yab= deflection at B
due to lateral
load at A
See Procedure 3-8 for definitions
Weights include
Note variation of either cross structure.
section or mass. See Note 1.

way, + WbYb + d(w.da - wbYb)2 + 4WawbY.d

T= 29

r sins2

6
W,
'= 6EA
W, H3
T = 3.63
T=27r$

Legs over 7 ft should

P be cross braced

Figure 3-7. Formulas for period of vibration, T, and deflection, y.

c
O
70 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

e
al
al
._c
cn
c
W
L
O
3
ü
c
O I
C
.-O
in
.-
in

Em
a

U
.-O
G>
a

1. Vessels mounted in structures at some elevation
other than grade generally will experience amplified
base motion near and above the natural frequencies
of the support structure.
Li& vessels (less than 1% of structure weight):
a. If vessel frequency > structure frequency, then
vessel is subjected to maximum acceleration of
the structure.
b. If vessel frequency < structure frequency, then
vessel will not be affected by structure. It will
respond as if it wcre mounted at grade.
M e d i u m vessels (less than 20% of structure weight):
Approximate methods may be used to develop the
in-structure response spectra. The method used
should account for interaction between vessel and
structure (energy feedback). Consideration should
be given to account for ductility of the vessel.
PROCEDURE 3-3
SEISMIC DESIGN-VESSEL
Notation
A = cross-sectional area, leg, in.’
V = base shear, Ib
Z = seismic zone factor
I = importance factor, 1.0
C = coefficient
R, = coefficient, 3.0
S = site coefficient, 1.0-2.0
W = operating weight, Ib
n = number of legs
C, = vertical seismic factor
Ch = horizontal seismic factor
y = static deflection, in.
F, = vertical seismic force, Ib
Fh = horizontal seismic force, Ib
F, = allowable axial stress, psi
Fh = allowable bending stress, psi
F, = seismic force applied at top of vessel, Ib
F: = Euler stress divided by safety factor, psi
f, = maximum eccentric load, Ib
Design of Vessel Supports 71
H e a v y vessels (single large vessel or multiple large
vessels): The vessel(s) is the principal vibrating ele-
ment. It requires a combined seismic model, which
simulates the mass and stiffness properties of vessel
and structure.
I
2. For tail slender vessels, the main concern is bending.
For short, squat vessels the main concern is base
shear.
3. If the period of vibration (P.O.V.) of a uniform vessel
is greater than the solid line on the chart, the vessel
should be checked for vibration. Initially, all vessels
with a P.O.V. greater than .4 seconds were checked
for dynamic stability; however, it was found that ves-
sels with high wD/t ratios were giving satisfactory
service even though their P.O.V. exceeded .4 sec-
onds. Vessels which exceed this line are to he consid-
ered beyond the scope of this text and require a dy-
namic analysis. For additional information see
Chapter 1, “Vibration of Tali Towers.”
ON UNBRACED LEGS r4-71
f2 = maximum axial load, Ib
f? = lateral load on leg, lb
fa = axial stress, psi
fh = bending stress, psi
E = modulus of elasticity, psi
g = acceleration due to gravity, 386 in./sec’
e = eccentricity of legs, in.
Mb = overturning moment at base, in.-lb
M, = overturning moment at tangent line, in.-lb
M = bending moment in Icg, in.-lb
El, = summation of moments of inertias of all legs
perpendicular to Fh, in.4
ElI = summation of moments of inertia of one leg
perpendicular to Fh, in.4
I = moment of inertia of one leg perpendicular to
F,,,
C , = distance from centroid to extreme fiber, in.
C, = coefficient, .85 for compact members
K, = end connection Coefficient, 1.5-2.0
T = period of vibration, sec
r = least radius of gyration, in.
72 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

(See Nole 5)

Three legs s 3 11 6 in diameter

Four legs

Figure 3-10. Typical dimensional data and forces for a vessel supported on unbraced legs.

Angle legs

Beams. channels, and rectangular tubing

f.=- M C,

M CI
lb=-
I

Figure 3-11. Various leg configurations

 Design of Vessel Supports 73

Table 3-5 Table 3-6

[
K, End Connection Coefficient Fa,Allowable Compression Stress
~

(a) _
Kd _
Fa
I r

21
fk+ii

20.54 41 19.11
Main and Secondary Members
81 17.33 81 15.24 101 12.85
22 20.48 42 19.03 62 17.24 82 15.13 102 12.72
Buckled shape of column 23 20.41 43 18.95 63 17.14 83 15.02 103 12.59
is shown by dashed line ; 24 20.35 44 18.86 64 17.04 84 14.90 104 12.47
25 20.28 45 18.78 65 16.94 85 14.79 105 12.33
26 20.22 46 18.70 66 16.84 88 14.67 106 12.20
27 20.15 47 18.61 67 16.74 87 14.56 107 12.07

f 28
29
20.08
20.01
48
49
18.53
18.44
68
69
16.64
16.53
88
89
14.44
14.32
108
109
11.94
11.81
Theoretical K, value 015 0.7 1.0 1:O '2.0 '2.0 90 14.20 110 11.67
30 19.94 50 18.35 70 16.43
Recommended design
value when ideal condi- 0.65 0.80 1.2 1.0 2.10 2.0 31 19.87 51 18.26 71 16.33 91 14.09 111 11.54
lions are approximated 32 19.80 52 18.17 72 16.22 92 13.97 112 11.40
33 19.73 53 18.08 73 18.12 93 13.84 113 11.26
34 19.85 54 17.99 74 16.01 94 13.72 114 11.13
Rotation fixed and translation fixed
55 17.90 75 15.90 95 13.60 115 10.99

y
35 19.58
Rotation free and translation fixed 36 19.50 56 17.81 76 15.79 96 13.48 116 10.85
37 19.42 57 17.71 77 15.69 97 13.35 117 10.71
End condition code Rotation fixed and translation free 38 19.35 58 17.62 78 15.58 98 13.23 118 10.57
39 19.27 59 17.53 79 15.47 99 13.10 119 10.43
? Rotation free and translation free 40 19.19 60 17.43 80 15.36 100 12.98 120 10.28

Reprinted by permission of AISC.

Structure response factor, C

Calculations
The following information is needed to complete the c =1.25
- S
leg calculations: fi
No. I, =
Size I, =

A = CI, =
Base shear, lb.
r = CI, = ZICW
I, = K,P/r =
V=
Rw
I, = F, =
I, = (see Table 3-6)
1, = Horizontal force at top o f uessel, FI, lb.

Deflection, J, in F, = .O7 T V or .25V

2 w 13 whichever is less or
3 n E CI,
= 0 if T < .7 sec
Note: Limit deflcction to 6 in. per 100 ft or equivalcnt
proportion. Horizontal force at .c!. of vessel, fi,, lb.

Penod o f vibration, I; sec. F,, = V - F,

or

F,, = ChW
74 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Verticalforce at c.g. o f vessel, F , lb IX

Downward: ( - ) F , = W

or (1 + C,) W
Upward: ( + ) F, = (C, ~ 1) W

if vertical seismic is greater than 1.0 Inside I Y

legs
Overturning moment at base, in. -1b. legs

Mb = LFh + HF, Figure 3-12. Sample plan view of vessel on four legs.

Note: Include piping moments if applicable

Inner legs:
Overturnin! moment at bottom tantent line, in. -lb

M, = (L - f)F,, + (H - f)F,

Maximum eccentric load, lb Therefore V, and Vi are the distribution of the base
shear applied to each of the legs. The lateral load on
fie---
-F, 4M, the legs, f3, is equal to the base shear on that leg.
n n D Therefore the general equation would be:

Note: fl is not considered in leg bending stress if legs VI

are not eccentrically loaded. f3 = -
13 1,
Axial load, 16 where I = moment of inertia of any one leg per-
pendicular to force F,,
-F, 4Mh
XI, summation of moments of inertia of all
f2 compression =- _____ =
n nd
~

legs perpendicular to force F,,

. F, 4Mb
f2 tension = + _____ Bending moment in leg, M, in. -1b.
n nd
~

Lateral load on le!,f3, lb. Base shear is distributed to the M = fl e + fjí!

legs based on each leg’s ability to resist the shcar, i.e.,
stiffer legs take a higher portion of the shear than Axial stress in leg, h, psi
weaker legs and vice versa. Stiffness in the legs is in
turn dctermined by the moment of inertia of the legs
perpendicular to the horizontal force. An example il-
lustrating this is shown in Figure 3-12, Shear forces V,
and V, would be computed as follows:

Outer legs: Bending stress in leg, &, psi.

fl, =

Select appropriate formula from Figure 3-1 1 .

 Design of Vessel Supports 75

Combined stress F, = allowable compressive stress is factor “A” from

ASME Code.

.125t
Factor “A” =
R
~

“B” = from applicable material chart of ASME

Code, Appendix 5

where C, = .85 Shear load in welds attaching legs.

12x’E Ib
F,’ = fi -
-~
2h in. of weld
23 (+!

Note: AISC Code allows a one-third increase in allow- See Table 3-7 for allowable loads on fillet welds in
able stress due to seismic. Fa, F b , and Fé may be in- shear.
creased.
Anchor bolts. If W > 4 M,,/d, then no uplift occurs and
Maximum compressive stress in shell, fo psi. anchor bolts should be made a minimum of in. in
diameter. If uplift occurs, then the cross-sectional area
of the bolt required would be:
f2
At, = - in.‘
St
where A,, = area of bolt required
f2 = axial tension load
S, = allowable stress in tcnsion

Notes

1. Legs longer than 7 ft should be cross-braced.

2. Do not use legs to support vessels where high vibra-
tion, shock, or cyclic service is anticipated.
Figure 3-13. Dimensions of leg attachment. 3. Select legs that give maximum strength for minimum
weight for most efficient design. These sections will
also distribute local loads over a larger portion of the
L1 = W + 2h shell.
4. For vessels supported on four legs, the manner in
which dimension d is measured will vary depending
Above leg:
on the direction of the applied force. This is a pecu-
liarity to satisfy the computation of axial forcc.
5. Legs may be made ofpipe, channel, angle, rectangu-
lar tubing, or beam sections.
6. This procedure assumes a one-mass bending struc-
General: ture which is not technically correct for tall vessels.
Tall towers would have distributed masses and
should be designed independently of support struc-
ture, i.e., legs.
76 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

LENGTH OF LEGS IN FEET

Figure 3-14. Leg sizing chart.

 Design of Vessel Supports 77

PROCEDURE 3-4
SEISMIC DESIGN-VESSEL ON BRACED LEGS 171

Notation I fa = axial stress, psi

y = static deflection, in.
T= maximum period of vibration, sec
g = acceleration due to gravity, 386 in./sec2
A = cross-sectional area of brace, in.' r = radius of gyration, in.
A, = cross-sectional arca of leg, in.2 M = overturning moment, in.-lb
V = base shear, lb N = number of legs
VI = maximum force in sway brace, Ib d = centerline diameter of leg circle, in.
V2 = maximum force in cross brace, Ib C, = chord length between legs, in.
E = modulus of elasticity, psi Ch = horizontal seismic factor
W = operating weight of vessel, Ib C, = vertical seismic factor
Al = change in length of brace, in. K, = end connection coefficient
Fh = horizontal seismic force, Ib Z,I,S,C,R, = UBC seismic factors. See Procedure 3-2
F, = vertical seismic force, Ib for definitions
F, = lateral force at top of vessel, lb I, = moment of inertia, cross brace, in.'
Fa = allowable axial stress, psi S, = slenderness ratio
F, = minimum specified yield stress, psi Tan 0 = h'1C;
f = axial load in leg, Ib 1= length of cross brace; = h'lsin O

Ci

Four legs (for illuSlratlon only) or fastener group

Figure 3-15. Typical dimensional data and forces for a vessel supported on braced legs

Calculations bracing is sized and the period of vibration, T, is de-

termined.
1 . Horzzontal seismic force, Fh. ZIC
Ch =
R"
~

UBC design: Estimate seismic force as first trial us-

ing C = 2.75. The value of C is unknown until the Fh = Ch W
78 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

2. Sway bracins. Sway braces are tension only members, Axial stress, tension, or compression, fa
not connected at the center. There is one per panel
alternating in each adjacent panel.

Maximum tension force in sway brace, V,.

tension: ( + ) 5 .66 F,
compression: ( - ) 5 F, from AISC Code

1.. End connections.

Axial stress, tension,
.5(V, or V,)
Shear per bolt =
No. of bolts

.5(V, or V,)

,-+py
3 . Cross bracins. Cross braces are tension and compres-
Shear per inch of weld = .
in. of weld
sion members. They may be pinned at the center or
not. If the slenderness ratio of the cross brace exceeds
120, then the cross bracing must be pinned at the Bolted Welded v, or v2
center.

Maximumforce in cross bracins, V,

, V A
v2= Fh
NCosO
~

Required moment of inertia, I,.

Pinned at center
Figure 3-16. Typical end connections of leg bracing.
V*!?2
I, =~
47r2E Table 3-7
Allowable Load in kips
Not pinned at center Bolt Size A-307 A-325

I,
v2e2
=-
%in.
% in.
3.07
4.42
4.60
6.63
7r2E 6.01 9.02
7.85 11.76
Slenderness ratio, SI. 1% in. 9.94 14.91
Weld Size ESOXX E70XX
Pinned at center &e in. 2.39 2.78
114 in. 3.18 3.71
Y x in. 3.98 4.64
SI = -kip % in. 4.77 5.57
2r 7/16 in. 5.56 6.50

Not pinned at center

5. Seismicfactors
s, =-
kit
Change in len@h of brace, Al.
r

Select size of cross-bracing:

I = A = r =
 Design of Vessel Supports 79

Static deflection, y 6. Design of legs.

AI Force at top of vessel, F, (UBC design only).
Y =-
cose
F, = .O7 T V or .25V
Period of uibration, 7: whichever is less or
= O if T < .7 sec

Ve~ticalforce,F,.

where g = 386 in./sec2 UBC design

Seismic coefficient, C ( U B C design only). F, = W

with vertical seismic factor
F, = up = (C, - 1) W
= down = (1 + C,) W = ( - )

Overturning moment at base, M.

Base shear, V

ZICW
UBC design: M = L (F,, - F,) + HF,
UBC design: V =
R" Other: M = L Fh
Other: V = Ch W Axial load on outer le! (worst case), $

Note: Bracing calculations may now be repeated f = (-) - F,

4M - _
using Fh = V to reduce member sizes if possible. Nd N

Table 3-8
Suggested Sizes of Legs and Cross Bracing
Vessel Tan to Tan Support Leg Base Plate Bracing Bolt
O.D. Length Angle Sizes Size Angle Size Size Y
(in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.)
Up to 30 Up lo 240 (3) 3 x 3 x v4 6 x 6 x 3/8 2 x 2 x 'h Y4 12
u p to 120 (4) 3 x 3 x '/4 6x6x% % 8
30 to 42 121 lo 160 (4) 3 x 3 x v4 6x6x% 2 x 2 x fh Y4 10
170 to 240 (4) 3 x 3x % 6 x 6 x Vz Y4 12
u p to 120 (4) 3 x 3 x % 6 x 6 x Vz % 8
43 to 54 121 to 169 (4) 3 x 3 x Y8 6 x 6 x Vz 2% x 2 u x va i 4 10
170 to 240 (4) 4 x 4 x % 8X8XY8 % 12
u p to 120 (4) 4 x 4 x i s 8X8XY8 1 8
55 to 66 121 lo 169 (4) 4 x 4 x ' h 8 x 8 x v2 2% x 2v2 x I/4 1 10
170 to 240 (4) 4 x 4 x 1/2 8 x 8 x 'h 1 12
u p to 120 (4) 5 x 5 x Y8 9x 9x 1h 1I/* 8
67 to 78 121 10 169 (4) 5 x 5 x Y8 9 x 9 x 1/2 3x3x '/a 11/23 10
170 to 240 (4) 6 x 6 x '/2 10 x 10 x ' h 1v* 12
u p to 120 (4) 6 x 6 x I h 10 x 10 x v 2 1% 10
79 to 90 121 lo 169 (4) 6 x 6 x Vz 10 x 10 x v2 3x 3x '/a 1 12
170 to 240 (4) 6 x 6 x Vz 10 x 10 x ' h 1Y0 12
u p to 120 (4) 6 x 6 x *h 10 x 10 x ih 1% 12
91 to 102 121 lo 169 (6)6 x 6 x V2 10 x 10 x '$ 3X3XY8 13/8 12
170 to 240 (6)6 x 6 x % 10 x 10 x Y4 1Y8 12
 1 r

80 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Axial stress, f..

fa =-
f
I Notes
1. Cross-bracing the legs will conveniently reduce
.
bending in legs due to overturning moments (wind,
equipment) normally associated with unbraced legs.
The lateral bracing of the legs must be sized to take
lateral loads induced in the frame that would other-
Slenúerness ratio f o r legs, S, wise cause the legs to bend.
2. Legs may be made from angles, pipes, channels,
Klh' beam sections, or rectangular tubing.
SI =-
r 3 . Legs longer than about 7 ft should be cross-braced,
4. Check to see if the cross-bracing interferes with pip-
K, = .5 to 1.0 ing from bottom head.
5. Shell stresses at the leg attachment should be investi-
Allowa6le compressive stress, Fa. gated for local loads. For thin shells, extend "Y."
Legs should be avoided as a support method for ves-
Fa = from AISC (see Table 3-6) sels with high shock loads or vibration service.

PROCEDURE 3-5
SEISMIC DESIGN-VESSEL ON RINGS 14,5,81

K, = internal moment coefficient

Notation C, = internal tensionlcompression coefficient
Z = requircd section modulus, ring, in.3
i l ~=* moment of inertia of rings, in.4
C,, Ch = verticallhorizontal seismic factors S = code allowable stress, tension, psi
A,, = bearing area, in.' A,.? = cross-sectional area, ring, in.'
F,, Fh = verticaVhorizonta1 seismic force, Ib T,, T.r = compressionltension loads in rings, lb
N = number of support points M = internal moment in ring, in.-lb
n = number of gussets at supports MI, = bending moment in base ring, in.-lb, greater
P, E,' = Internallexternal pressure, psi of M, or M,
W = vessel weight under consideration, lb B, = bearing pressure, psi
u,,= bending stress, psi Q = maximum vertical load at supports, lb
u+ = circumferential stress, psi f = radial loads on rings, lb

Figure 3-17. Typical dimensional data and forces for a vessel supported on rings.

rt
 Design of Vessel Supports 81

Upper Ring Lower Ring

Moment diagrams shown (typical) + l

f f f I

At loads - ,3183
I I

Two loads ,

f f f I

tf
I K. I c. I
Al loads
1 I
Between - .O705 - ,7071 loads
loads
Four loads

f I

I 4
&Iween
loads
+ ,034 I + 1.306
Eight Loads

Figure 3-18. Coefficients for rings.

 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

f f

A i Loads Between Loads a A t Loads Between Loads

K, C, K. C. K, C, K. C,
+ ,619 -.O17 - ,365 - 1 .o0 10 + ,254 -1.018 -.I43 -1.411
+ ,601 - ,041 - ,366 - ,999 20 + ,238 - 1.040 - ,143 -1.410
+ ,584 - ,052 - ,363 - ,998 +.221 - 1.050 - ,142 - 1.409
+ ,566 - ,071 - ,362 - ,997 + ,206 - 1.O66 -.140 - 1.408
+ ,550 - ,087 - ,360 - ,996 +.I94 - 1.079 -.136 - 1.407
+ ,532 - .lo5 - ,359 - ,995 + .178 - 1.095 -.135 - 1.406
+.515 -.I22 - ,357 - ,992 +.I65 -1,108 -.I33 - 1.405
+ ,498 -.I38 - ,355 - ,990 +.153 -1.117 -.130 - 1.404
+ ,481 -.155 - .352 - ,986 + .141 -1.130 -.124 - 1.397
+ ,466 -.171 - .348 - ,985 +.130 -1.141 -.119 - 1.393
+ ,387 - ,250 - ,329 - ,966 + ,090 - 1.183 - .O93 - 1.366
+ ,315 - ,321 - ,303 - ,940 + ,069 - 1.204 - .O56 - 1.329
+ ,254 - ,383 - ,270 - ,906 + ,069 - 1.204 - .O08 - 1.282
+ 204 - ,433 - ,229 - ,866 + ,090 -1.183 + .O49 - 1.225
+.167 - ,469 -.183 -219 +.132 -1.141 +.115 -1.158
+.I44 - .492 -.129 - ,766 + .194 - 1.079 + ,190 - 1.083
+.137 - ,500 - ,070 - ,707 + ,273 - 1 .o00 + ,273 - 1.000
Figure 3-19. Coefficients for rings. (Signs in the table are for Figure 3-20.Coefficients for rings. (Signs in the table are for
loads as shown. Reverse signs for loads in the opposite direc- loads as shown. Reverse signs for loads in the opposite direc-
tion.) tion.)

Maximum uertzcal load at support points, Q.

~

Formulas
Forces. Q=-+-
F, 4FhL
N NB
H o r i z o n t a l force
Maximum radial load, f: Note: It is the gussets which
Fh = Ch W transmit the loads to the rings
Vertical force
f = -Qa
F, = (1 + C,) W nh
 Design of Vessel Supports 83

Internal moment in rings, MI and M2. Properties .flower ringr.

Upper ring

M, = K, f R, cos 0

Lower ring

M 1 = K, f R2 cos 0

Note: cos 6’ is to be used for nonradial loads. Disregard

if load f is radial.

Required section modulus of upper ring, Z.

Note; It is assumed the lower ring is always larger or of

equal size of the upper ring.
E AY
c2=-- =
EA
Y2
Properties of upper ring

l2= E AY2 + E I - C2 E AY =

Figure 3-22. Properties of lower ring

Ension/compression l o a h in ring. Note; In general the

upper ring is in compression at the application of the
loads and in tension between the loads. The lower ring
is in tcnsion at the loads and in compression between
the loads. Since the governing stress is normally at the
loads the governing stresses would be:
Y, =
Upper ring
I I = E AY2+ E I - C, EAY =
T, = c, f cos e
Item A Y YZ AY AY2 I Lower ring

11 Rino
_. II II II II II II I T~ = c, f cos e
c where C, is the maximum positivc value for TT,and
Figure 3-21. Properties of upper ring. the maximum negative value for T,.
84 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

M a x i m u m circumfrential stress in shell, u+. e ~

b
Compression: in upper ring
MI, =

Minimum thickness of lower ring,

+
tl>

Tension: in lower ring tl> = -

S
Load area

Maximum bending stress in shell.

Upper ring

B
Lower ring

M a x i m u m bending stress in ring.

Upper ring

Lower ring

Thickness of lower ring to resist bendinz.

/
/Area of bearing =
area of cap plate
Bearing area, Ab b = P = diameter of piate

Ab =

Bearing pressure, B, Support

B =- Q
Ab

From Table 3-9 select the equation for the maximum

bending moment in the hearing plate. Use greater of Figure 3-23.Determining t h e thickness of the lower ring to re-
M, or My. sist bending.
 Design of Vessel Supports 85

Table 3-9 3 . Since the mean radius of the rings may be unknown
Maximum Bending Moments in a at the beginning of computations, yet is requircd for
Bearing Plate With Gussets determining maximum bending moment, substitute
Y R, as a satisfactory approximation at that stage.
4. The following values may be estimated
~

*
O O (-)SO0 B, P2
,333 ,0078B, b2 (-).428 B,Y~ Ring thickness: The thickness of each ring is arbi-
.5 ,0293B, bZ (-).319 B, P trary and can be selected by the designer. A sug-
,666 ,0558 B, bZ (-).227 B, Y 2 gested value is
1 .o .O972 B. b2
1.5 .1230B, b2
2.0 ,1310B. b2
3.0- m ,1330B, bZ (-).I25 E,Pz tb = . 3
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sans, Inc.
From Process Equipment Design, Table 10.3. (See Note 2.)
Ring spacing: Ring spacing is arbitrary and can be
selected by the designer. A suggested minimum
value is

Notes h = B - D

1. Rings may induce high localized stresses in shell im- A* Ring depth: The depth ofring cannot be computed
mediately adjacent to rings. For an analysis of these directly, but must be computed by successive ap-
stresses, see Procedure 4-3. proximations. As a first trial
2. When P/b 5 1.5 the maximum bending moment oc-
t .
curs at the junction of the ring and shell. When
Plb > 1.5, the maximum bending moment occurs at
the middle of the free edge.

LUG SUPPORTS
Lugs offer one of the least expensive and most direct
ways of supporting pressure vessels. They can readily
absorb diametral expansions by sliding over greased or
bronzed plates, are easily attached to the vessel by mini-
mum amounts of welding, and are easily leveled or
shimmcd in the field.
These types of eccentric supports induce compressive,
tensile, and shear forces in the walls of pressure vessels.
The tensilc and compressivc forces cause indeterminate
flexural stresses that must be combined with pressure
stresses circumferentially and lonsitudinally
In thin-wall vessels, flexural stresses from lug concen-
tration arc generally high. Lugs, when designed without
any consideration of their effects on the vessel shell have
been known to deform the vessel considerably. Such de-
formations cause angular rotations on the lugs, which in
turn cause torsional rotations to supporting steel.
Two or four lugs are commonly used; however, more
may be used, depending on loads and types of supports.
The lug itself may have a top plate, called a compression
plate, and one or two gussets. If a compression plate is
used, it must be “rigid” enough to distribute the load
uniformly along the shell.
Two methods are presented here for analyzing the
shell stresses induced by the eccentric lug action.
Method 1 was developed by Wolosewick in the 1930s
and utilizes “strain-energy” concepts to analyze the
shell as a thin ring. Method 2 utilizes the local load anal-
ysis of WRC Bulletin #107. The principle behind this
procedure was developed by Bijlaard and utilizes the
principles of “flexible load surfaces.” Either technique is
valid but the stresses from WRC Bulletin #io7 are more
accurate since they include direct loads (membrane)
plus bending as separate quantities. Ring analysis does
not take into account localized loading but the “influ-
ence” of cach load on the ring section as a whole.
86 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

PROCEDURE 3-6
SEISMIC DESIGN-VESSEL ON LUGS #l [5,8-101

K = Moment coefficient
Notation F = radial load, lb
f = localized uniform load, Ihíin.
Ch = horizontal seismic factor Q = vertical load on lug, Ib
C, = vertical seismic factor S = code allowable stress, psi
FIT= horizontal seismic force, Ih o, = circumferential stress, psi
F, = vertical seismic force, lh ML = longitudinal moment, in.-lb
VI, = horizontal shear per lug, Ih M = internal bending moment, in.-lb
V, = vertical shear per lug, Ib E = joint efficiency
P = internal pressure, psi 0 = one half angle between gussets or top plate, radi-
R, = mean radius of shell, in. ans
W = weight of vessel and contents, Ih C P
t = shell thickness, in. sin 0 = - or -
N = number of lugs 2R, 2R,
I
~~~

n = number of gussets per lug e = .78 R,t but< 12t

Figure 3-24. Case 1: Lugs below the center of gravity. Figure 3-25. Case 2: Lugs above the center of gravity.

l""W outer

Figure 3-26. Dimension and forces for support lug,

 07
I
Design of Vessel Supports

8 Basic equation f o r vertical load Q on lugs.

Forces and Moments

Horizontal force.
Substituting F, for W
Fh = ChW

Horizontal shear per l u ~ .

Since M, = FhL,
v,,= - Fh

N v,=-F"
N'
Verlicalforce.
and

F,, = (1 + C,)W Fh
Vh = -
N
%rtical shear per lux.
the basic equation becomes

4VHL
v,,= 2
77
I.
Q=V,'--
N B

FORCES AND MOMENTS

CASE A
I CASE 0
I CASE C
I
Outer

si es

Inner
88 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

axis

L Assume as .BP
for single gusset

e = .78 a
F = ML
but < 121 h

~ M L cosa F
F= At bottom f = 2
F f=-
(h + e)(h + 2e) [y] P P
Type 2 Type 3
Figure 3-27. Radial loads F and f.

PR,, 6M
Stresses a,$ = -+-
t t2

1. Find the maximum local bending moment M due to
radial loads on ring from appropriate casc of Table
3-10,
2. Add locaiized strcss due to bending to gcneral mem-
brane stress due to prcssure:
Note: P is (+ ) for internal pressure and ( - ) for ex-
ternal pressurc. M is ( + ) or ( - ) depending on the
direction of load F or location of moment in ring. Al-
¡ lowable tensile stress = 1 . 5 SE. Allowable compres-
sive stress = 1.25 S .
 Design of Vessel Supports 89

Two-Lug System Four-Lug System

FR, MF = ,1366 FR,

$' MF=-
m
a 71
= - ,0705 FR,
Msa= -.I817 FR, M,

al fR$ 9
fR2

I
m
c M, =

I
Me=?

1
E

I
3 sin 8 cos O + 2 O sin2 O + O2 8 6 sin O cos O + 4 Os/n28+ 2 8 + 2 0 -sinz8 - 2 Sin O
C
._OYI
YI a 71
?!
n -fR$ -fRi
M, =-

I
M,,=-
2 2
O
a)- &
)-&I
r, 3 sin Ocos8 + 2 0 sinzO + 8 - 2 8 - 2 sin 8 + SinzO 6 sin O cos R + 4 R sin28 + 2 8 + sin O ( I -
3 a a

sin O sin 0 M c = 2 F R m [ 2 (cos O + O sin 8 sin R

M, = ZFR,
m [,,O 2
c
m
z Q sin Q +cos Q - 0 sin 8 - cos0 MF = M, + FR, ( I - cos O ) =
MF=2FR,
a
._ = M, + FR, (1 - cos 4 5 O )

I
O

YI -sin$ +sin0 - FR, (sin 45" - sin O ) =

[m 1
(Y

Mso = 2FR, sin Q + cos Q - O sin 8 - cos 8 M, MF. Mhs = FR,K (See Figure 3-29)
O a
O
z 1 -sin Q
M, MF,Mpa= FR,K (See Figure 3-28)

t,! i K F R,

o 5' 10' 150 200

Figure 3-28. Two lugs with two gussets. Figure 3-29. Four lugs with two gussets.
90 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

1900 ,900
1

F
* FF

Two lugs-single gusset

IF

Four lugs-single gusset IF Four lugs-double gussets

f - Ib/in. f - Ib/in.

Two lugs with

compression plates
Figure 3-30.Stress diagrams

Notes
1. Stresses due to radial loads are determined for a sec-
tion of shell, 1 in. in length (thus the “ring” anal-
ogy). The bending stresses are a result of this “ring”
absorbing the radial loads.
2. Assume effects of radial loads as additive to those due
to internal pressure even though the loadings may be
in the opposite directions. Although conservative,
they will account for the high discontinuity stresses
immediately adjacent to the lugs.
3 . In general, the smaller the diameter ofthe vessel, the
further the distribution of stresses in the circumferen-
tial direction. In small diameter vessels, the longitu-
dinal stresses are confined to a narrow band (approx-
imately 2 in. for a 24-in. diameter vessel). The
opposite becomes true for larger diameter vessels or
larger R,/t ratios.
4. This procedure utilizes strain-energy concepts and
assumes all loads are in the plane of the ring and that
the ring is of uniform cross section.
5. This procedure ignores effects of sliding friction be-
tween lugs and supporting structure during heat-up
and cool-down cycles. Effects will be negligible for
small-diameter vessels, low temperatures, or where
slide plates are used to reduce frictional forces.
PROCEDURE 3-7
SEISMIC DESIGN-VESSEL
1
Notation
R, = centerline radius of shell, in.
N = number of equally spaced lugs
W = weight of vessel + contents, Ib
f = radial load, Ib
Fh = horizontal seismic force, lb
F, = vertical seismic force, lb
V,, = horizontal shear per lug, lb
V, = vertical shear per lug, Ib
Q = vertical load on lugs, lb
y, (3 = coefficients
M, = external circumferential moment, in.-lb
ML = external longitudinal moment, in.-lb
M, = internal bending moment, circumferential,
in.-lb/in.
Design of Vessel Supports 91
6. No credit has been taken for stiffness due to proxim-
ity of lugs to heads or stiffening rings; however, such
location may be advantageous.
7. There is no difference between Cases 1 and 2 except
that lugs designated as “inner” and “outer” would
tcchnically be reversed.
8. Effects of operating contents of vesscl may be signifi-
cant for locating lugs. The location of the c.g. for
empty, half full, and full may vary considerably, thus
affecting the lever arm of the applied forces.
9. If shell stresses are cxcessive, the following methods
may be utilized to reduce the stresses:
Add more lugs.
Add more gussets
Increase angle 8 between gussets.
Increase height of lugs, h.
Add reinforcing pads under lugs. (See Proccdure
3-8.)
Increase thickness of shell course to which lugs are
attached.
Add top and bottom plates to lugs or increasc
width of plates.
Add Circumferential ring stiffeners at top and bot-
tom of lugs. (See Procedure 3-5.)
ON LUGS #2 [ 11-13]
M, = internal bending moment, longitudinal, in.-
lbh.
N, = membrane force in shell, circumferential, lb/
in.
N, = membrane force in shell, longitudinal, Ib/in.
P = internal pressure, psi
Ch = horizontal seismic factor
C , = vertical seismic factor
C,, CL = multiplication factors for N, and N, for rec-
tangular attachments
K,, KL = coefficients for determining (3 for moment
loads on rectangular areas
K,, K, = coefficients for determining (3 for radial loads
on rectangular areas
K,, Kb = stress concentration factors (see Note 5)
u, = circumferential stress, psi
u, = longitudinal stress, psi
t, = thickness of shell, in.
tp = thickness of reinforcing pad, in.
92 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

mol,up O",., I"*

*,**et lOldi"O
,500N01e6,

Figure 3-31. Typical dimensional data, forces, and load areas, for a vertical vessel supported on lugs.

Step 1: Compute forces and moments.

y = R.JI Di = CdRm
~ _ _ _ _ ~ ~
Rz = CdRm I m*
Step 3: Compute equivalent (3 values (values of CL, Cc, KLand Kc from Tables 3-11 and 3-12),
~

p Values for Longitudinal Moment fl Values for Circumferential Moment

 Design of Vessel Supports 93

Step 4: Compute stresses

4 Values from Fioure Forces and Moments Stress

5-24A 8, =

Membrane
5-248 Ob =

5-25A BC =
Bending
5-258 4d =

5-26A O# =
Membrane
5-266 0'=

5-27A P, =

Bending
5-278 Oh =

Table 3-11 Table 3-12

Coefficients for Longitudinal Moment, ML Coefficients for Circumferential Moment, M.
8, C, C, & KO 41 CL CL KL KL
O* Y for N, for N, for M, for M. 82 Y for N, for N, for M, lor M.
1.eo
~

15 .31 .49 1.31 1.84 15 75 .43 1.24

50 21 .46 1.24 1.62 50 .77 33 1.65 1.16
25 100 .15 .44 1.16 1.45 25 1O0 .80 24 1.59 1.11
200 .I2 .45 1 .o9 1.31 200 .85 .10 1.58 1.11
300 .o9 .46 1.o2 1.17 , 300 .90 .O7 1.56 1.11
15 .64 .75 1.09 1.36 15 .90 .76 1.O8 1 .O4
50 57 .75 1 .O8 1.31 50 .93 .73 1.O7 1 .O3
.5 1 O0 .51 .76 1 .O4 1.16 .5 100 .97 .68 1.O6 1.o2
200 .45 .76 1.o2 1.20 200 .99 .64 1 .o5 1.o2
300 39 .77 .99 1.13 300 1.10 .60 1.o5 1.o2
15 1.17 1.O8 1.15 1.17 15 .89 1.o0 1.o1 1.O8
50 1.o9 1.O3 1.12 1.14 50 .89 .96 1.o0 1 .O7
1 1O0 .97 .94 1.O7 1.10 1 100 .89 .92 .98 1.o5
200 .91 .91 1.o4 1 .O6 200 .89 .99 .95 1.o1
300 .85 .89 .99 1 .o2 300 .95 1.o5 .92 .96
15 1.70 1.30 1.20 .97 15 .87 1.30 .94 1.12
50 1.59 1.23 1.16 .96 50 .84 1.23 .92 1.10
2 100 1.43 1.12 1.10 .95 2 1 O0 .81 1.15 .89 1 .O7
200 1.37 1.O6 1 .o5 .93 200 .80 1.33 .84 .99
300 1.30 1.o0 1.o0 .90 300 .80 1.so .79 .91
15 1.75 1.31 1.47 1.O8 15 .68 1.20 .so 1.24
50 1.64 1.11 1.43 1 .O7 50 .61 1.13 .86 1.19
4 1O0 1.49 .81 1.38 1.O6 4 1O0 .51 1 .O3 .81 1.12
200 1.42 .78 1.33 1.o2 200 .so 1.18 .73 .98
300 1.36 .74 1.27 .98 300 .50 1.33 -64 __
33
Reprinted by permission o1 the Welding Research Council.
~

Reprinted by permission o1 the Welding Research Council.

94 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Analysis When Reinforcing Pads Are Used

Assumed
#.

2 dl
4

o"
*

Area of loading for

radial load. f

At Edge of Attachment At Edge of Pad

R,=Io +tr+tp
R,=-
I D +ts
2 2

t=m t = t,
y = FIJI y = R,tl
R . = P.,FI- R. = d.lR..

Table 3-13
Values of Coefficient K, and Kz
K, K2
N, .91 I .48
N" 1.68 1.2
M, 1.76 .88
M, 1.2 1.25

Reprinted by permission Of the Welding Research Council.

 Design of Vessel Supports 95

Step 4: Compute Stresses for a Radial Load

I
Radial Load Figure Values from Fioure Forces and Moments Stress !j
Membrane 5-22A

5-226 Ob = I
!
'7

Bending 5-23A Oc =

5-236 Od =

I
I
COMBINING STRESSES I
I
WlTHOtlT REINFORCING PAD I
,!
$
i
.angitudinal moment. ML

:ircumiersntial moment, M,

"terna1 pressure. P

iI

internal pressure, P
iI
I

I
I E I + l + l + l + l + l + l + l + ~ i
1
NOTES I

creasing or decreasing the "L," dimension. Different

Notes levels and weights should be investigated for deter- j
mining worst case ( ¡ . e . ,full, half full, empty, etc.)
1 . A change in location of the c.g. for various operating 2. This procedure ignores effects of sliding friction be-

I
96 Pressure Vessel Design Manual
These effects will he negligible for small-diameter
vessels, relatively low operating temperatures, or
where slide plates are used to reduce friction forces.
Other cases should be investigated.
3 . Sincc vessels supported on lugs are commonly lo-
cated in structures, it is assumed that earthquake ef-
fects will be dependent on the structure and not on
the vessel. Thus equivalent horizontal and vertical
loads must be provided rather than applying UBC
seismic factors. See Procedure 3-2.
4. If reinforcing pads are used to reduce stresses in the
shell or a design that uses them is being checked,
then Bijlaard recommends an analysis that converts
moment loadings into equivalent radial loads. The
attachment area is reduced about two thirds. Stresses
PROCEDURE 3-8
SEISMIC DESIGN-VESSEL
Notation
z, I, c,
S, R, seismic coefficients (see Procedure 3 - 2 ) .
=
T period of vibration, sec
=
S,
= code allowable stress, tension, psi
H
= overall height of vessel from bottom of base
plate, ft
h, = height from base to center of section or c.g.
of a concentrated load, ft
hi = height from base to plane under consider-
ation, ft
a,0, y = coefficients from Table 3-14 for given plane
based on h,/H
W, = total weight of section, kips
W = weight of concentrated load or mass, kips
W, = total weight of vessel, operating, kips
W,, = total weight of vessel above the plane under
consideration, kips
w, = uniformly distributed load for each section,
kips/ft
F, = portion of seismic force applied at the top of
the vessel, kips
F, = lateral force applied at each section, kips
V = base shear, kips
V, = shear at plane x, kips
M, = moment at plane x, ft-kips
Mb = overturning moment at base, ft-kips
D = mean shell diameter of each section, ft or in.
at the edge of load area and stresses at the edge of the
pad must be checked. See “Analysis When Reinforc-
ing Pads are Used.”
5. Stress concentration factors are found in Procedure
5-5.
6. To determine the area of attachment, see “Attach-
ment Parameters.” Please note that if a top (compres-
sion) plate is not used, then an equivalent rectangle
that is equal to the moment of inertia of the attach-
ment and whose width-to-height ratio is the same
must be determined. The neutral axis is the rotating
axis of the lug passing through the centroid.
7. Stiffening effects due to proximity to major stiffening
elements, though desirable, have been neglected in
this procedure.
ON SKIRT [1,2,41
E =modulus of elasticity at design temperature,
io6 psi
E, =joint efficiency
t = thickness of vessel section, in.
Pi = internal design pressure, psi
P, = external design pressure, psi
Am, A y = difference in values of 01 and y from top to
bottom of any given section
1, = length of section, ft
uxt= longitudinal stress, tension, psi
uxc= longitudinal stress, compression, psi
R, = outside radius of vessel at plane under con-
sideration, in.
A = code factor for determining allowable com-
pressive stress, B
B = code allowable compressive stress, psi
F = lateral seismic force for uniform vessel, kips
Cases
Case 1: Uniform Vessels
For vessels of uniform cross section without concen-
trated loads (i.e., rehoilers, packing, large liquid sec-
 Design of Vessel Supports 97

I* I
I
V=

F, =
ZICW,
R,v
.O7 TV or .25V
whichever is less
I Note: If HID5 3 or T 5 .7 sec, then F, O
I =

I F=V-F,
I
MI, = F,H + 213 (FH)
I
I

r:
Moment at any height hi
I
I
I
M, = F, (H - hi) + F -- h;
i
Case 2: Nonuniform Vessels
Procedure for finding period of vibration, moments,
and forces at various planes for nonuniform vessels.
A “nonuniform” vertical vessel is one that varies in di-
ameter, thickness, or weight at different elevations. This
procedure distributes the seismic forces and thus base
shear, along the column in proportion to the weights of
each section. The results are a more accurate and realis-
tic distribution of forces and accordingly a more accu-
rate period of vibration. The procedure consists of two
main steps:

1 Step 1: Determination of period of vibration (P.O.V.), T.

Divide the column into sections of uniform weight
Figure 3-33. Typical dimensional data, forces, and loadings on and diameter not to exceed 20% of the overall height.
a uniform vessel supported on a skirt (6 = deflection).
A uniform weight is calculated for each section. Di-
ameter and thicknesses are taken into account
tions, etc.) weight can be assumed to be uniformly dis-
through factors 01 and y. Concentrated loads are han-
tributed over the entire height.
dled as separate sections and not combined with other
w, = sections. Factor 0 will proportion effects of concen-
Z= trated loads. The calculation form is completed for
R, = 4 each section from left to right, then totaled to the bot-
I = 1.0-1.25 tom. These totals are used to determine T (P.O.V.)
D= and the P.O.V. in turn is used to determine V and F,.

(zre
t =
Step 2;Determination of forces, shears, and moments.
s = 1.0-2.0 Again, the vessel is divided into major sections as in
Step 1; however, longer sections should be further
T = .O000265 subdivided into even incrcments. For these calcula-
tions, sections should not exceed 10% of height. Re-
member, the moments and weights at each plane will
Note: P.O.V. may be determined from chart in Figure be used in determining what thicknesses are required.
3-9. H and D are in feet; t is in inches. It is convenient to work in 8 to 10 foot increments to
match shell courses. Piping, trays, platforms, insula-
tion, fireproofing and liquid weights should be added
into the weights of each section where they occur.
98 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Overall weights of sections are used in determining

forces, not uniform weights. Moments due to eccen-
tric loads are added to the overall moment of the col-
umn.

Notes for nonuniform vessels.

1 . Combine moments with corresponding weights at

each section and use allowable stresses to determine
required shell and skirt thicknesses at that elevation.
2. C w A a and WPIH are separate totals and are com-
bined in computation of P.O.V.
3. (D/10)3is used in this expression ifkips are used. Use
(D)3if Ib are used.
4. For vessels having a lower section several times the
diameter of the upper portion and where the lower
portion is short compared to the overall height, the
P.O.V. can more accurately be determined by find-
ing the P.O.V. of the upper section alone (see Figure
3-34).

'I

WX
w. = -
Figure 3-34. Nonuniform ves- Figure 3-35. Nonuniformves-
sel illustrating Note 4. sel illustrating Note 5. PX

V - F,
5. For vessels where Rlt is large in comparison to the F, =
EW,h, (Wxhx)
~

supporting skirt, the P.O.V. calculated by this

method may be overly conservative. More accurate
methods may he employed (see Figure 3-35).
6. Make sure to add moment due to any eccentric loads
to total moment.
M, = F,(H - h,) + EF,(h, - h,)
Figure 3-36. Typical dimensionaldata, forces, and loadings on
a nonuniform vessel supported on a skirt.
 Design of Vessel Supports 99

STEP 1 : PERIOD OF VIBRATION

E(DI~O)~IA-,
Note 3

ise
c=

?e Notes 2 and 3.

= o if T 5 .7C ~ C

See example of completed form on next page

100 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

'EP 1: PERIOD OF VIBRATION EXAMPLE

w
or
W hdH
-- 1.0

g-

4 z-
-- .5?

-- .w

-
3
!.72

-2- IO6--

--
%-
-09
I
-- o -

-
ise
 Design of Vessel Supports 101

STEP 2: SHEAR AND MOMENTS

M,
(ft-kips)

ise

= FdH - h) + F,(h, - h) =

See example of completed form on next pa!

102 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

TEP 2: SHEAR AND MOMENTS EXAMPLE

W, hx Wxhx F.or Ft V. M.
pait (kips) (n) (ft-kips) (kips) (kips) (It-kips)

z .
I lld I 12.34 I 0 -

I
 Design of Vessel Supports 103

I
P,D 40M, Wh
u,, = compression side = ( - ) -- --
Longitudinal Stresses 4t ?rD2t ?rDt
~

In the equations below D is in inches. The term Allowable longitudinal stresses.

“48M,” is used for ft-lb or ft-kips. If in.-lb or in.-kips
are used, then the term “4M,” should be substituted tension: S,El =
where “48M,” is used. The allowable stresses S,El or B
may be substituted in thc equations for t to determine or
verify thicknesses at any elevation. Compare the stresses compression:
or thicknesses required at each elevation against the
thickness required for circumferential stress due to inter- 125t
A=’
nal pressure to determine which one will govern. If R”
there is no external pressure condition, assume the max-
imum compression will occur when the vessel is not B = from applicable material chart of ASME
pressurized and the term PCD/4twill drop out. Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Appendix 5.

. PiD 48M, Wh Note: Joint efficiency for longitudinal seams in com-

ax, = tension side =- + --
pression is 1.0.
rD2t ?rDt
~

4t
104 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Table 3-14
Coefficients for Determining Period of Vibration of Free-Standing
Cylindrical Shells Having Varying Cross Sections and Mass Distribution

u 4 Y a B B Y
H H __ __
1.oooooo
~

1.00 2.103 6.347 0.65 0.3497 2.3365 0.99163 0.30 0.010293 0.16200 0.7914
0.99 2.021 8.121 1.oooooo 0.64 0.3269 2.2240 0.99065 0.29 0.006769 0.14308 0.7776
0.98 1.941 7.898 1.oooooo 0.63 0.3052 2.1148 0.98934 0.28 0.007426 0.12576 0.7632
0.97 1.663 7.678 1.oooooo 0.62 0.2646 2.0069 0.96769 0.27 0.006249 0.10997 0.7460
0.96 1.767 7.461 1.oooooo 0.61 0.2650 1.9062 0.96630 0.26 0.005222 0.09564 0.7321
0.95 1.714 7.246 0.999999 0.60 0.2464 1.6068 0.98455 0.25 0.004332 0.06267 0.7155
0.94 1.642 7.037 0.999996 0.59 0.2286 1.7107 0.98262 0.24 0.003564 0.07101 0.6981
0.93 1.573 6.830 0.999997 0.56 0.2122 1.6177 0.98052 0.23 0.002907 0.06056 0.6600
0.92 1.506 6.626 0.999994 0.57 0.1965 1.5279 0.97823 0.22 0.002349 0.05126 0.6610
0.91 1.440 6.425 0.999969 0.56 0.1616 1.4413 0.97573 0.21 0.001678 0.04303 0.6413
0.90 1.377 6.227 0.999962 0.55 0.1676 1.3579 0.97301 0.20 0.001485 0.03579 0.6207
0.69 1.316 6.032 0.999971 0.54 0.1545 1.2775 0.97007 0.19 0.001159 0.02946 0.5992
0.88 1.256 5.840 0.999956 0.53 0.1421 1.2002 0.96686 0.18 0.000893 0.02400 0.5769
0.87 1.199 5.652 0.999934 0.52 0.1305 1.1259 0.96344 0.17 0.000677 0.01931 0.5536
0.86 1.143 5.467 0.999905 0.51 0.1196 1.0547 0.95973 0.16 0.000504 0.01531 0.5295
0.65 1.o90 5.265 0.999867 0.50 0.1094 0.9863 0.95573 0.15 0.000366 0.01196 0.5044
0.64 1.038 5.106 0.999617 0.49 0.0996 0.9210 0.95143 0.14 0.000263 0.00917 0.4783
0.83 0.968 4.930 0.999754 0.46 0.0909 0.6564 0.94683 0.13 0.000163 0.00669 0.4512
0.62 0.939 4.758 0.999674 0.47 0.0826 0.7967 0.94189 0.12 0.000124 0.00506 0.4231
0.81 0.892 4.569 0.999576 0.46 0.0749 0.7418 0.93661 0.11 0.000081 0.00361 0.3940
0.60 0.847 4.424 0.999455 0.45 0.0676 0.6676 0.93097 0.10 0.000051 0.00249 0.3639
0.79 0.804 4.261 0.999309 0.44 0.0612 0.6361 0.92495 0.09 0.000030 0.00165 0.3327
0.78 0.762 4.102 0.999133 0.43 0.0551 0.5872 0.91854 0.06 0.000017 0.00104 0.3003
0.77 0.722 3.946 0.998923 0.42 0.0494 0.5409 0.91173 0.07 0.000009 0.00062 0.2669
0.76 0.683 3.794 0.998676 0.41 0.0442 0.4971 0.90448 0.06 0.000004 0.00034 0.2323
0.75 0.646 3.645 0.998385 0.40 0.0395 0.4557 0.89679 0.05 0.000002 0.00016 0.1966
0.74 0.610 3.499 0.996047 0.39 0.0351 0.4167 0.86864 0.04 0.000001 0.00007 0.1597
0.73 0.576 3.356 0.997656 0.38 0.0311 0.3601 0.68001 0.03 0.000000 0.00002 0.1216
0.72 0.543 3.217 0.997205 0.37 0.0275 0.3456 0.87088 0.02 0.000000 0.00000 0.0823
0.71 0.512 3.081 0.996669 0.36 0.0242 0.3134 0.86123 0.01 0.000000 o.ooooo 0.0418
0.70 0.461 2.949 0.996101 0.35 0.0212 0.2833 0.85105 O. O. O. O.
0.69 0.453 2.820 0.995434 0.34 0.0185 0.2552 0.64032
0.66 0.425 2.694 0.994681 0.33 0.0161 0,2291 0,82901
0.67 0.399 2.571 0.993834 0.32 0.0140 0.2050 0.81710
0.66 0.374 2.452 0.992885 0.31 0.0120 0.1626 0.60459
Reprinted by permission of the Chevron Corp., San Francisco

wind and seismic at that elevation. The larger of the

Notes
1. This procedure is for use in determining forces and
moments at various planes of uniform and nonun-
iform vertical pressure vessels.
2. To determine the plate thickness required at any
given elevation compare the moments from both
two should be used. Wind-induced moments may
govern the longitudinal loading at one elevation, and
seismic-induced moments may govern another.
3. If the period of vibration, T, exceeds die “critical
line” of Figure 3-9, the vessel must be checked for
dynamic stability. See “Vibration of Tall Towers” in
Chapter 1 for detailed information on how this
“check” should be performed.
 Design of Vessel Supports 105

PROCEDURE 3-9
DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL VESSEL ON SADDLES
[ 1,3,5,14,151

M2 = longitudinal bending moment at midspan, in:

Notation
A, = cross-sectional area of composite ring stiffener,
Al = projected area of vessel, ft2
E =joint efficiency
E, = modulus of elasticity, psi
C , = seismic factor
Cr = shape factor = .8
q, = wind pressure, psf
D, = effective vessel diameter, ft
I, = moment of inertia of ring stiffener, in.+
t," = thickness of wear plate, in.
t, = thickness of shell, in.
ti, = thickness of head, in.
Q = total load per saddle (including piping loads,
wind or seismic reactions, platforms, operating
liquid, etc.) lb
W, = operating weight of vessel, Ib
MI = longitudinal bending moment at saddles, in.-lb
lb
S = allowable stress, tension, psi
S, = allowable stress, compression; psi
Si.in = shell, head and ring stresses, psi
K1.9= coefficients
FL = longitudinal force due to wind, seismic, expan-
sion or contraction, lb
FT = transverse force, wind or seismic, Ib
ux = longitudinal stress, internal pressure, psi
u+ = circumferential stress, internal pressure, psi
u, = longitudinal stress, external pressure, psi
us = circumferential stress in stiffening ring, psi
u, = latitudinal stress in head due to internal pres-
sure, psi
F, = minimum yield stress, shell, psi
P = internal pressure, psi
P, = external pressure, psi
GI, = gust factor, wind
K, = velocity pressure coefficient
I = importance factor, 1.0-1.25 for vessels
V = basic wind speed, mph

R, = mean radius. in.

Stiffening
ring

Figure 3-37.Typical dimensions for a horizontal vessel supported on two saddles,

106 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

r S , - 3 = longitudinal bending ai saddles (tension at top, compression at bottom)

S,4 = circumferential stress

in stiffener

s , =~circumferential compression
= longitudinal bending at at bottom of shell

S5-, = tangential shear-results

in diagonal lines in shell
t sI3 circumferential compression
in plane of saddle

Ss = tangential shear in head (A c RI2)

-s9-io= Circumferential bending at
horn of saddle
Si, = additional tension in head (A c RI2)
Figure 3-38.Stress diagram

M2 is negative for Me is positive for

Hemi-heads. Flat heads where A/R i,707.

If any of the below conditions are exceeded. 100%-6% F&D heads where AIR < .44
2:l S.E. heads where AIR < ,363.

Figure 3-39.Moment diagram


TvDes of Stresses and Ailowables
SI lo S:, longitudinal bending.
Tension: S I , Si, or S4 + a,<SE
Compression: Sz, S3, or S4 - u<<&
where S, = factor "B"
01
S or
t,El/16r
whichever is less.
1. Compressive stress is not significant where R,,/t
< 200 and the vessel is designed for internal pres-
sure only.
2. When longitudinal bending at midspan is exces-
sive, move saddles away from heads; however, do
not exceed A? .2L.
3 . When longitudinal bending at saddles is excessive,
move saddles toward heads.
4. If longitudinal bending is excessive at both saddles
and midspan, add stiffening rings. If stresses are
still excessive, increase shell thickness.
S, to S, < .8S: tangential shear
1 . Tangential shear is not combined with other
stresses.
2. If a wear plate is used, t, may be takcn as t, + t,",
providing the wear plate extends R/10 above the
horn of the saddle.
3 . If the shell is unstiffened, the maximum tangential
shear stress occurs at the horn of thc saddle.
4. If the shell is stiffened, the maximum tangential
shear occurs at the equator.
5. When tangential shear stress is excessive, move
saddles toward heads, A 5 . 5 R , add rings, or in-
crease shell thickness.
6. When stiffening rings are used, the shell-to-ring
weld must be designed to be adequate to resist the
tangential shear as follows:
Q. lb
<
allowable shear
S, = -<
m in. circumference in. of weld
S,,+ u,, < 1.25 SE: additional stress in head.
1 . SI, is a shear stress which is additive to the hoop
stress in the head and occurs whenever the saddles
are located close to the heads, A S . 5 R . Due to
Design of Vessel Supports 107
their close proximity the shear of the saddle extends
into thc head.
2. If stress in the head is excessive, move saddles away
from heads, increase head thickness, or add stiffen-
ing rings.
S, and S,, < 1.5 S and . SF,: circumferential bending at horn
.f saddle.
1 . If a wear plate is used, t, may be takcn as t, + t,
providing the wear plate extends R110 above the
horn of the saddle. Stresses must also be checked at
the top of the wear plate.
2. If stresses at horn of saddle are excessive:
a. Add a wear plate.
b. Increase contact angle O .
c. Move saddles toward heads, A < R.
d. Add stiffening rings.
S, < .5Fy or 1.5 S: circumferential compressive stress.
1. If a wear plate is used, t, may be taken as t, + t,,
providing the width of the wear plate is at least
b + 1.56 fi.
2. If shell is unstiffened the maximum stress occurs at
the horn of the saddle.
3 . If shell is stiffened the maximum hoop compres-
sion occurs at the bottom of the shell.
4. If stresses are excessive add stiffening rings.
( + )SI.? + a+ < 1.5s: circumferential tension stress-shell
stifjened.
..
( - )SI3 - a, < .5F,: circumferential compression stress-
shell stiffened.
( - )SI+- a, < . 9Fy. circumferential compression stress in
stiffening ring.
Procedure for Locating. Saddles
Trial 1: Set A = .2L and 0 = 120' and check stress at
the horn of saddle, Sg or Slo.This stress will govern
for most vessels except for those with large LIR ratios.
Trial 2 . Increase saddle angle O to 150' and recheck
stresses at horn or saddle, Sg or Slo.
ilia1 3: Move saddles near heads (A = Rl2) and return
'6 to 120°. This will take advantage of stiffness pro-
vided by the heads and will also induce additional
stresses in the heads. Compute stresses S4, S8, and S g
or Slo.A wear plate may bc used to reduce the stresses
108 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

at the horn or saddle when the saddles are near the
heads (A<R/2) and the wear plate extends R/10
above the horn of the saddle.
Eid 4: Increase the saddle angle to 150" and recheck
stresses S4, Sa, and Sg or Slo.Increase the saddle angle
progressively to a maximum of 168" to reduce
stresses.
Trial 5: Move saddles to A = .2L and 0 = i20° and de-
sign ring stiffeners in the plane of the saddles using
the equations for SL3and SI+(see Note 7).

Figure 3-40. Chart for selection of saddles for horizontal vessels. Reprinted by permission of the American Welding Society.

Table 3-15
Wind and Seismic Forces Seismic Factors, C. (For I = 1.0)

Longitudinal forces, FL. Zone C,

O O
Seismic: UBC (C, from Table 3-15) 1 .O69
2A ,138
28 ,184
FL = C,W, 3 ,275
4 ,367
Wind: ANSI Code A58.1 (Exposure C)
Table 3-16
FL = AtCrGhq, Effective Diameter, D.
,De Diameter (in.) D.
where AI = -
4 < 36 1.5 D
36-54 1.37 D
C r = .6 54-78 1.28 D
Gh = from Table 3-17 78-102 1.2 D
q, = .00256K, (IV)' > 102 1.18 D
 Design of Vessel Supports 109

Table 3-17
Gust Factor, Gh, and Coefficient, k, Shell Stresses
Height (ft) Gh K, There arc 14 main stresses to be considered in the de-
0-15 1.32 .8 sign of a horizontal vessel on saddle supports:
20 1.29 .87
25 1.27 .93
30 1.26 .98 SI = longitudinal bending at saddles without stiffencrs,
40 1.23 1.O6 tension
50 1.21 1.13 S2 = longitudinal bending at saddles without stiffeners,
60 1.20 1.19 compression
S3 = longitudinal bending at saddles with stiffcners
K, = from Table 3-16
S4 = longitudinal bending at midspan, tension at bot-
I = 1.0 tom, compression at top
V = basic wind speed, 70-100 mph (see Proce- Ss = tangential shear-shell stiffened in planc of saddle
dure 3-1) S6 = tangential shear-shell not stiffened, A > R / 2
S7 = tangential shear-shell not stiffened exccpt by
heads, A 5 R/2
Sa = tangential shear in head-shell not stiffened,
Transverse forces, Ft, per saddle. A 5 R/2
Sn = circumferential bending at horn of saddle-shell
Seismic: not stiffened L 2 8R
Slo = circurnfcrential bending at horn of saddle-shell
F, = (C,W,).5 not stiffened L < 8R
SlI = additional tension stress in head, shell not stif-
Wind: fened, A S R l 2
SI2= circumferential compressive stress-stiffened or
F, = (ArCtGhq,).5 not stiffened, saddles attached or not
A, = D,(L + 2H) Si3 = circumferential stress in shell with stiffener in
plane of saddle
SI4= circumferential stress in ring stiffener
%tal saddle reaction forces, Q.
Longitudinal Bending
Q = greater of Ql or Q 2
SI,longitudinal bending at saddles-without stiffeners, ten-
Longitudinal, QI sion.

Transverse, Q2
MI = 6Q
8AH + 6A2 - 3R2 + 3H2
3L + 4H 1
SI=(+)- MI

Fv
W, 6F,B K,r2t,
Qi=-+-
2 E S,, longitudinal bending at saddles-without stiffeners, com-
pression.

Q, L, to,
S, longitudinal bending at saddles-with stffeners

MI
s3 = ( i1) -
Figure 3-41. Saddle reaction forces. d t ,
110 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

S,,longitudinal bending at miúspan 4dditional Tension Stress in Head

M2 = 3Q
3L2 + 6R2 - 6H2 - 12AL - 16AH
3L + 4H I B SI,, additional tension stress in head-shell
AS.5R.

SI, = -K4Q
not stiffened,

rtl,

Tangential Shear
Note: If shell is stiffened or A > .5R, S I , = O

S,tangential shear-shell stiffened in the plane of the saddle. Circumferential Tension/Compression

s5=- S i ,circumferential compression.

3 .
not stiffened, A > . 5 R

I 4l
S , tantential shear-shell

L-2A Note: t, = t, + t, only if wear plate is, attached to shell

se=-K2Q and width of wear plate is a minimum of b + 1.56 rt,
rt,
L+-H
S i ,circumferential stress in shell with stffener (see Note 8
)
.
S , tangential shear-shell not stiffened, A S .5R

K3Q
s7 = -
rt,
Note: Add second expression if vessel has an internal
S, tantential shear in head-shell not stiffened, A S .5R. stiffener, subtract if vessel has an external stiffener.

S I ,circumferential compressiue stress in stiffener (see Note 8).

Note: If shell is stiffened or A > .5R, Ss = O

Circumferential Bending Pressure Stresses

S,circumferential bendins at horn of saddle-shell not stq-
fened (L 2 8R).

(-1 Q 3KsQ
-~
sg =
4t,(b + 1.56 fi) 2tS u, PR,
=-
t,
Note: t, = t, + t, and ti = tS + :t only if A S .5R and
wear plate extends R/lO above horn of saddle.

S i ,circumferential bendint at horn ofsaddle-shell not stf-

fened (L < BR).
Q - 12K6QR
(-)
SI0 =
4t,(b + 1.56 fi) Lt:
uh = u,, maximum circumferential strcss in head is
Note: Requirements for t, are same as for Ss equal to hoop stress in shell
 Design of Vessel Supports 111

SlreSS Allowable Stress Allowable

st +ox SE = - 5 2 - ,sa s, =
s3 + m" SE = - s3- me s, =
SI + 6 SE = - 4- s, =
s,, + O h 1.25SE = - ST3 - 0 8 .5Fy=
$13 + *e 1.5s = - st4 - Y I .9F, =

Contact Contact
Angle Angle
8 KI' K? Ka K, Kr KI KB Ks 8 K,' Kg KJ Ka K, K, Ke K,
120 0.335 1.171 0.880 0.401 0.760 0.003 0.340 0.053 152 0.518 0.781 0.466 0,289 0.669 0.894 0.298 0.031
122 0.345 1.139 0.846 0.393 0.753 0.618 0.338 0.051 154 0.531 0.763 0.448 0.283 0.665 0.913 0.296 0.030
124 0.355 1.108 0.813 0.385 0.746 0.634 0.336 0.050 156 0.544 0.746 0.430 0.278 0.661 0.933 0.294 0.028
126 0.366 1.078 0.781 0.377 0.739 0.651 0.334 0.048 158 0.557 0.729 0.413 0.272 0.657 0.954 0.292 0.027
128 0.376 1.050 0.751 0.369 0.732 0.669 0.332 0.047 160 0.571 0.713 0.396 0.266 0.654 0.976 0.290 0.026
130 0.387 1.022 0.722 0.362 0.726 0.689 0.330 0.045 162 0.585 0.698 0.380 0.261 0.650 0.994 0.286 0.025
132 0.398 0.996 0.694 0.355 0.720 0.705 0.328 0.043 164 0.599 0.683 0.365 0.256 0.647 1.013 0.282 0.024
134 0.409 0.971 0.667 0.347 0.714 0.722 0.326 0.042 166 0.613 0.668 0.350 0.250 0.643 1.033 0.278 0.024
136 0.420 0.946 0.641 0.340 0.708 0.740 0.324 0.040 168 0.627 0.654 0.336 0.245 0.640 1.054 0.274 0.023
138 0.432 0.923 0.616 0.334 0.702 0.759 0.322 0.039 170 0.642 0.640 0.322 0.240 0.637 1.079 0.270 0,022
140 0.443 0.900 0.592 0.327 0.697 0.780 0.320 0.037 172 0.657 0.627 0.309 0.235 0.635 1.097 0.266 0.021
142 0.455 0.879 0.569 0.320 0.692 0.796 0.316 0.036 174 0.672 0.614 0.296 0.230 0.632 1.116 0.262 0.020
144 0.467 0.858 0.547 0.314 0.687 0.813 0.312 0.035 176 0.687 0.601 0.283 0.225 0.629 1.137 0.258 0.019
146 0.480 0.837 0.526 0.308 0.682 0.831 0.308 0.034 178 0.702 0.589 0.271 0,220 0.627 1.158 0.254 0.018
148 0.492 0.818 0.505 0.301 0.678 0.853 0.304 0.033 180 0.718 0.577 0.260 0.216 0.624 1.183 0.250 0.017
150 0.505 0.799 0.485 0.295 0.673 0.876 0.300 0.032
' K, = 3.14 if the Shell is Stiffened by ring or head (A<RIZ).

Figure 3-42. Coefficients.

112 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

A Table 3-18
E _ _ E - '12 in. typically
Slot Dimensions
Temperature Distance Between Saddles
O F 10 it 20 i t 30 It 40 ft 50 I t

- 50 O O .25 25 .375
100 O O ,125 .125 ,250
~.~ ,375 ,375 ,500

I
700
_.. o ,250
300 ,250 .375 ,625 ,750 1 .o0
400 375
.~ ,625 ,875 1.125 1.375
500 ,375 ,750 1,125 1.500 1.625
~~

600 ,500 1.00 1.375 1.875 2.250

700 ,625 1.125 1.625 2.125 2.625
800 ,750 1.250 1.625 2.375 3.000
900 ,750 1.375 2.000 2.500 3.375

Figure 3-43. Saddle dimensions.

D
Bolt diameter
+ 118 in.
1- See
Table
4

30 16,700 27 24 10 4 16.5 1200 100

36 15,700 33 27 12 18.8 125O 170
42 15,100 38 30 20.0 123O 200
48 25,330 44 33 22.3 127O 230
54 26,730 48 36 22.7 1210 270

1
60 38,000 54 39 24 25.0 124O 310
66 38,950 60 42 27 Y 27.2 127' 35D
72 50,700 64 45 10 I 30 ,375 27.6 1220 420
124O 710

[
78 56,500 70 48 11 .75 33 29.8
84 57,525 74 51 12 30.2 1210 810

I I
90
96
102
64,200
65,400
94,500
80
86
92
54
57
13
14 i:
42
45 10 ,500
32.5
34.7
37.0
t
123'
125'
126O
880
940
1,350
60 15 1%

I
1 O8 85,000 96 63 16 48 I 37.3 123O 1,430
114 164,000 102 66 17 51 ,625 39.6 125' 1,760
120 150,000 106 69 18 54 1.800
132 127,500 118 75 20 2,180
144 280,000 128 81 22 66 124O 2,500
156 266,000 140 87 24 Y 60
72 126" 2,730

Notes 'A.'
c. Load due to weight is combined with other loads.
1. Horizontal vessels act as beams with the following
exceptions :
a. Loading conditions vary for full or partially full 2. Large-diameter, thin-walled vessels are best sup-
vessels. ported near the heads, provided the shell can take the
 Design of Vessel Supports 113

load between the saddles. The resulting stresses in
the heads must be checked to ensure the heads are
stiff enough to transfer the load back to the saddles.
3. Thick-walled vessels are best supported where the
longitudinal bending stresses at the saddles are about
equal to the longitudinal bending at midspan. How-
ever, 'A' should not exceed .2L.
4. Minimum saddle angle 0 = 120°, except for small
vessels. For vessels designed for external pressure
only 0 should always = 120°. The maximum anzle is
168" if a wear plate is used.
5 . Except for large L/R ratios or A > R / 2 , the Sovern-
ing stress is circumferential bending at the horn of
the saddle. Weld seams should be avoided at the horn
of the saddle.
6. A wear plate may be used to reducc stresscs at the
horn of the saddle only if saddles are near heads
(ASR/2), and the wear plate extends R/10 (5.73
deg.) above the horn of the saddle.
7. If it is determined that stiffening rings will be re-
quired to reduce shell stresses, move saddles away
from the heads (preferable to A = .2L). This will
prevent designing a vessel with a flexible center and
rigid ends. Stiffening ring sizes may be rcduced by
using a saddle angle of 150".
8. An internal stiffening ring is the most desirable from
a strength standpoint because the maximum stress in
the shell is compressive, which is reduced by internal
pressure. An internal ring may not be practical from
a process or corrosion standpoint, however.

PROCEDURE 3-10
DESIGN OF SADDLE SUPPORTS FOR LARGE VESSELS
r4.15-171 J

Fh =allowable bending stress, psi

Notation F, =yield stress, psi
A, = cross-sectional area of saddle, in.2 fi, = saddle splitting force, Ib
Ab = area of base plate, in.' $, = axial stress, psi
AI = projected area for wind, ft2 fh = bending stress, psi
A, = pressure area on ribs, in.2 f,, = unit force, Ib/in.
A, = cross-sectional area, rib, in.2 B, = bearing pressure, psi
Q= maximum load per saddle, lb M = bending- moment, in.-lb
QI = Q + QR, lb I = moment of inertia, in.*
Q 2 = Q + QI., lb Z = section modulus, in.'
Q = load per saddle, operating-, lb r = radius of gyration, in.
QT= load per saddle, test, Ib C, = seismic coefficient (see Table 3-15)
QL= vertical load per saddle due to longitudinal Cf = shape factor = .6-.8
loads, lb G,, = gust factor
QR= vertical load per saddle due to transverse loads, q, = wind pressure, psf
Ib K = pier spring rate, lb/in.
FL = maximum longitudinal force, Ib K, = saddle splitting coefficient
F,., = long-itudinal force due to expanding/contract- y = pier dcflection, in.
ing vessel, lb p = friction coefficient (see Note 5)
F1.2= longitudinal force duc to pier deflection, lb n = number of ribs, including outer ribs, in one
F , ~ ,= longitudinal force due to wind or earthquake, saddle
lb P = equivalent column load, lb
F, = seismic force, lb d = distance from base to centroid of saddle arc, in,
FwJ,,= longitudinal wind force, lb W, = operating weight of vessel + contents, Ib
FwT= transverse wind force, lb W.1 = vessel weight full of water, lb
F, = allowable axial stress, psi = tension stress. Dsi
114 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

32
30
=a; 28
5 26
E
.% 24
O
-
$ 22
u)

+! 20
18
16

Web and Rib Thickness, t, and J, in.

Figure 3-44. Graph for determining web and rib thicknesses.

A l Optional 168' saddle-optimum Size for large Vessel5

Figure 3-45. Dimensions of horizontal vessels and saddles,

 Design of Vessel Supports 115

Transverse wind or seismic

Forces and Loads
6(.5F, or FwT) B
Wind or Seismic Forces QR =
A
Earlhquake-1onSitudinal or transuersa. Horizontal Loads
F, CW,

E 2 Z 3
=

Wind-longitudznal.
Expanding vessel CanIracling "esse1
Fwr. = A&rGh%

Wind-transverse. K = spring rate. kipslin

y = pier deflection, in.
Fwi = .5(&CrGhqz)

For definitions of Af, Cf, GI, and q,, see Procedure 3-1. F. -
---_____..
Vertical Load per Saddle
T-support

Fier deflection

Figure 3-47. Examples of deflection of a horizontal vessel.

Longitudinal For loads due to the following causes, use the given
formulas.
.5 Expandinglcontracting vessel
FLI = 1%
p = (see Note 5)
Pier deflection
Transuecie
FL2 =-
KY
Figure 3-46. Saddle loadings. 2
Wind or seismic
For loads due to the following causes, use the given
formulas. FIJ = Feor FWI.

Operating weight whichever is greater

Q=- W, Maximum Loads

2
Test weight Vertical.

WT greater of QI,Q 2 , or QT
QT = 2 QI = Qo+ QR
Longitudinal wind or seismic Q 2 = Qm+ QI.
QI. = (F, or F W I P LonSitudinal.
Ls FL = greater of Fr,l, FL2,or FIiS
116 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Saddle Properties CAY

c, =-
Preliminary web and rib thickness tu and J. From F'g
'1 ure EA
3-44 '22 = h - C,
J = t, I = CAY' + XI,, - CIEAY
Number o f ribs required, n.
Cross-sectional area o f saddle (excluding shell)
A
n=-+ 1
24 A, = EA - A,
Round up to the nearest even number
M i n i m u m width ofsaddle at top, G?; in Design of Saddle Parts
Veb

Wch is in tension and bending as a result of saddle

plitting forces. The saddle splitting forces, fi,, are the
where FL and Fb are in kips and ksi or Ib and psi, and urn of all the horizontal reactions on the saddle.
J , h, A are in in.
M i n i m u m wear plate dimensions 1 Saddle coefficient

Width: i + coso - .5sin20

K1 =
H = GT + 1.56 ./iiiF ír - + sinpcosp
Thickness: Note: /3 is in radians. See Table 3-20
H - GT
t, = __
2.43R
Moment of inertia ofsaddle, I.
H + 1.56 a
H 1

Y = distance
from aXlS
to cerner
o1 Sectio".
in.
Io = Moment
o1 inertia
01 seclio",
Varying unit radial
in? pressure

Figure 3-49. Saddle splitting forces.

Saddle splittinp force.

bh3
Nole: lo for reclangles = 12
fi, Kz (Qor QT)
~

=
Figure 3-40. Cross-sectional properties of saddles
 Design of Vessel Supports 117

Base Plate

Note: Circumferential bending at

horn is neglected for
this calculation.

Figure 3-50. Bending in saddle due to splitting forces.

Figure 3-51. Loading diagram of base plate

Tension stress.
Area.

A,, = AF

Bearing pressure.
Note: For tension assume saddle depth "h" as R/3
maximum.
Q
B* =
Bending Moment.

R sin 8 Base plate thickness.

d=B--
8
Now M =
Q
- and Z =
(Fi2)tb ~ ti
-
4A 6 3F
~ ~

8 is in radians

M = 2fhd
M 3QF
and fb = - = -
Bendinp stress. Z 4Atb

Therefore

Table 3-20
Values of I<,
k. 28
,204 1200 Assumes uniform load fixed in center.
,214 126'
,226 132'
,237 138'
Bolts
,248 144O
260 150' Shear load per bolt (lb or kips) = greater of FL or
,271 156O F, + no. of bolts in fixed saddle only
,278 162'
,294 168'
Note: Bolts should also be checked for uplift.
118 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

nside Ribs
, Inssde rib

Outside Ribs
G

1 eor1 1
1 rib spacing 1

A, = area oi rib and web. in?

A, = pressure area. F X e

le=rnt>rneotolinertia. 3
JG
12
C z = .5Gb

A, = area o1 rib and web, in?

Figure 3-53.Dimensions of saddle ribs and webs.
Ap = pressure area, = .We

Figure 3-52.Dimensions of saddle ribs and webs. 1 Axial load, El

Axial load, El P = B,A,

P = B,Ap D Compressiue stress, h.

P
Compressive stress, h. f =-
a A,
b Radius ofgyration, K

Radius oforation, K
I=&

r=&
0 Slenderness ratio, &/r
&/I =
Slenderness ratio, e,/r
&Ir = Fa =
F, = Unitforce, f u .
Unitforce, J,. f = -FL
" 2A
Bending moment, M.
Bendins moment, M . M = fuf2e
M = .5f,,d
Bendins stress, fn.
Bendins stress, fh =
MC2
fb =
f b = - MC I I
~

I
Combined stress. Combined stress.
 Design of Vessel Supports 119

Notes tively contribute to lower shell stresses and are more

difficult to fabricate. The wear plate need not extend
1. The depth of web is important in developing stiffness beyond centerlines of vessel in any case or 6' beyond
to prevent bending about the cross-sectional axis of saddles.
the saddle. For larger vessels, assume 6 in. as the 5. Friction factors:
minimum depth from the bottom of the wear plate to
Friction
the top of the base plate.
Surfaces Factot; p
2. The full length of the web may be assumed effective
in carrying compressive stresses along with ribs. Lubricated steel-to-concrete .45
Ribs are not effective at carrying compressive load if Steel-to-steel .4
they are spaced greater than 25 times the web thick- Lubrite-to-steel
ness apart. 0 Temperature over 500'F .15
3. Concrete compressive stresses are usually considered Temperature 500°F or less .io
to be uniform. This assumes the saddle is rigid 0 Bearing pressure less than 500 psi .15
enough to distribute the load uniformly. Teflon-to-teflon
4. Large-diameter horizontal vessels are best supported hearing 800 psi or more .O6
with 1 6 8 O saddles. Larger saddle angles do not effec- bearing 300 psi or less .1

PROCEDURE 3-1 1
DESIGN OF BASE PLATES í71

Table 3-21
Notation Concrete Compressive Strength
Water Contenff
P = total load, kips Bag 1: (ksi)
f: = ultimate 28-day compressive strength, ksi
7% 2.0
fp = bearing pressure, ksi
6% 2.5
F,, = allowable bending stress, .75F,, ksi 6 3.0
F, = minimum specified yield stress, ksi 5 3.75
t = thickness of base plate, in.
t," = thickness of web of column, in.
tf = thickness of flange of column, in. Design Procedure
A, = area of base plate, in.'
A2 = arca of pier, in.' 1. Determine pier size.
A, a = coefficients n
n' = equivalent cantilever of base plate, in. z
A2=-
.175f:

i
0
t Size of pier approx. = JA;
n .8b n
Use
1 1 I ,
~ x -: A2 =

_. m
2. Determine minimum area of base, A , .
95d

-. m
A, = greater of
P

If no pier, assume

Figure 3-54. Dimensions of base plates.

120 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

3 . Determine dimensions “B” and “N.”

A = .95d ~ .8b
2
N=JÁ;+A

A 6. Thickness of base plate.

B=>
N
Usc ~ x -: A, =

Note: A = O for pipe columns and B = N

or
4 . Delermine bearing pressure, fp.

4(1 + 3.2a3)Fb
5 . Determine dimensions m, n, and n’

N - .95d
m= Notes
2
1. This procedure is for axial load on base plates. Mo-
ment loads must be calculated by other methods.
2. The base plate is designed as a cantilever beam,
fixed at the edges. The column load, P, is assumed to
be uniformly distributed over the base plate within
rectangle .8b x .95d, or ovcr a square area.

PROCEDURE 3-12
DESIGN OF LUG SUPPORTS

Z =section modulus, in.3

Notation w =uniform load on base plate, Ibíin.
I = moment of inertia of compression plate, in.‘
E,, = modulus of elasticity of vessel shell at d e s i p tem-
Q = vertical load per lug, Ib perature, psi
Qa = axial load on gusset, Ib E, = modulus of elasticity of compression plate at de-
Q b = bending load on gusset, Ib sign temperature, psi
n = number of gussets per lug e = log base 2.71
Fa = allowable axial stress, psi MI,= bending moment, in.-lb
F, = allowable bending stress, psi M, = internal bending moment in compression plate,
f, = axial stress, psi in:lb
f+, = bending stress, psi K = spring constant or foundation modulus
A = cross-sectional area of assumed column. in.’ p = damping factor
 Design of Vessel Supports 121

Q, = Q sin O
Q~ = Q COS a

c = -b sin ü
2

hole diameter

Double gusset

a = bearing
width

IC,
Figure 3-55. Dimensions and forces on a lug support.
122 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Thickness required base plate.

Design of Gussets
Assume gusset thickness from Table 3-22:

Q. = Q sin O
where Mh is grcater moment from tension or bearing.
Qb= Q cos O

C = -b sin O
2

A = t,C

F, .4F,

r-7
=

Fh = .GF, Bearing

z=-
t,C2

u
G

MI, = QP ~

n
- w - Ib/in
f =~ Qa
Figure 3-56. Loading diagram of base plate with one gusset.
a nA

f h = Mb
-
Z Double Gusset

Desim of Base Plate

-
Single Gusset

Tension. Assume to be a simply supported beam.

F
Bearing

Bearing.

w = -Q
al ib/in

wd2
Mb=- Figure 3-57. Loading diagram of base plate with two gussets.
2
 Design of Vessel Supports 123

Tension. Assume to be between simply supported and

fixed.

f
M -~
- 40
Bearing.

w = -Q f,, = -
M X
< .6F,
Z
al
Note: These calculations a bs dc a beam on elastic
wi: foundation methods.
Mb=-
10
Double Gusset
Thickness required base plate
f +-..L.f

where Mb is greater moment from tension or bearing.

w
Compression Plate Figure 3-59.Loading diagram of compression plate with two
gussets.

Single Gusset
I f

Figure 3-58.Loading diagram of compression plate with one

gusset.

f = -Qe
h

f
Assume thickness t, and calculate I and Z: M, = - [i + -ox(cos ox - sin ox))]
4P
~

Bx is in radians. See Procedure 5-2.

M."
fb = - < .6F,
Z
124 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Table 3-22
Standard Lua Dimensions
Type e b V X h t. = i n Caoacifv (Ibl
1 4 6 2 6 6 WE 23.500
2 4 6 2 6 9 7/16 45,000
3 4 6 2 6 12 112 45,000
4 5 7 2.5 7 15 %s 70,000
5 5 7 2.5 7 18 518 70,000
6 5 7 2.5 7 21 11liS 70,000
7 6 8 3 8 24 3/q 100,000

PROCEDURE 3-13
DESIGN OF BASE DETAILS FOR VERTICAL VESSELS #l
[5,10,14,18,19]

Notation M, bending moment per unit length, in:

=

Ab = required area of anchor bolts, in.'
B,I = anchor bolt diameter, in.
B, = allowable bearing pressure, psi (see
Table 3-26)
b,>= bearing stress, psi
C = compressive load on concrete, lb
d = diameter of bolt circle, in.
dl, = diameter of hole in base plate or com-
pression plate or ring, in.
F,;, = longitudinal tension load, lb/in.
FLC= longitudinal compression load, M n .
Fb = allowable bending stress, psi
F, = allowable compressive stress, concrete,
psi (see Table 3-26)
F, = allowable tension stress, anchor bolts,
psi (see Table 3-24)
F, = minimum specified yield strength, psi
fh = bending stress, psi
f, = compressive stress, concrete, psi
f = equivalent tension stress in anchor
bolts, psi
Mh = overturning moment at base, in.-lb
M, = overturning moment at tangent line,
in.-lb
M, = unit bending moment in base plate,
circumferential, in.-lblin.
M, = unit bending moment in base plate, ra-
dial, in.-lb/in.
lb/in.
N = number of anchor bolts
n = ratio of modulus of elasticity of stecl to
concrete (see Table 3-26)
P = maximum anchor bolt force, Ib
PI = maximum axial force in p s s e t , lb
E =joint efficiency of skirt-head attach-
ment weld
R, = root area of anchor bolt, in.' (see Table
3-23)
r = radius of bolt circle, in.
Wh = weight of vessel at base, lb
W, = weight of vessel at tangent line, lb
w = width of base plate, in.
Z , = section modulus of skirt, in.'
s, = allowable stress (tension) of skirt, psi
S, = allowable stress (compression) of skirt,
psi
G = width ofunreinforced opening in skirt,
in.
C,,CT,J,Z,K = coefficients (see Table 3-29)
yi,y2 = coefficients for moment calculation in
compression ring
S = code allowable stress, tension, psi
E, = modulus of elasticity, psi
t, = equivalent thickness of steel shell
which represents the anLhor bolts in
tension, in.
T = tensile load in steel, lb
v = Poisson's ratio, .3 for steel
B = iode allowable longitudinal compres-
sive stress, psi
 Design of Vessel Supports 125

Lap welded Butt welded Pedestal Conical

E = .5
4 E = .7
I
Small diametei
vessels only

BL Shear ring 01
slip band
I

Figure 3-60. Skirt types.

d
Type 1: Wilhoul gussels Type 2 With gussels

amin= 2 in. am,"= 2 in.

Cm," = 1 % in Cm," = 1 % in.

lb

21
Type 3: Chairs Type 4: Tap ring

Boll e 'la in. Boll e+ 1 in.

5 in. minimum ball e+ 1 in. 5 in. minimum Boll 4 + 1 in^

Figure 3-61. Base details of various types of skirt-supported vessels,

 126 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Table 3-23 Table 3-26

Bolt Data Averaae ProDerties of Concrete
Size Ult
(in.) R. amin 28-Day Allowable Allowable
Water Content1 Str Compression, F. B,
~ ~

3/4-10 ,302 2 1.5

Bag (Psi) (Psi) (psi) Coefficient, n
718-9 ,419 2 1.5
1-8 ,551 2 1.5 7.5 2,000 800 500 15
lila-7 ,693 2 1.5 6.75 2,500 1,000 625 12
I$-7 .a90 2 1.5 6 3,000 1,200 750 10
1We-6 1.054 2.13 1.75 5 3.750 1.400 938 8
1'12-6 1.294 2.25 2
~~

Reprinted by permission al John Wiley 8 Sans, Inc,

1%-5% 1.515 2.38 2
1W4-5 1.744 2.5 2.25
1718-5 2.049 2.63 2.5
2-4112 2.300 2.75 2.5 Table 3-27
2114-4th 3.020 3 2.75 Bendina Moment Unit iensth
2112-4 3.715 3.25 3
PI b
O O - .51,f2
Table 3-24 ,333 .00781cb2 - .428lZz
Number of Anchor Bolts. N .5 .02931cbz - .3i91J2
Skirt Diameter ,667 .0558f,b2 - ,22718
(in.) Minimum Maximum 1.o .09721cb2 - . I 1918
1.5 .123fcb2 - .124fcP2
24-38 4 4 2.0 .i311cb2 -.125fJ2
42-54 4 8 3.0 .133fcb2 - .i25fcf2
60-78 8 12 m . I 33f-b' - ,125f.PZ
84-102 12 16
108-126 16 20 Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sans, Inc
132-1 44 20 24

Table 3-28
Table 3-25 Constants for Moment Calculation, y, and y2
Allowable Stress for Bolts, F,
blf Yi Y2
Diameter
1.o
~

,565 ,135
SDec fin.) Allowable Stress
1.2 ,350 ,115
SA-306 All 12,600 psi 1.4 211 .085
SA-325 All 15,000 psi 1.6 ,125 ,057
SA-l93-B7 5 2112 18,000psi 1.8 .O73 .037
SA-193-87 > 2% 16,000 psi 2.0 ,042 .023
SA-193-BI6 5 2% 18,000 psi m O 0
SA-193-BI6 > 2-12 15,700 psi
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley &Sons.Inc.

Table 3-29
Values of Constants as a Function of K
K C, Ct J Z K C, C, J Z
.1 ,852 2.887 ,766 ,480 .55 2.113 1.884 ,785 ,381
.I5 1.049 2.772 ,771 ,469 .6 2.224 1.765 ,784 ,369
.2 1.218 2.661 ,776 ,459 .65 2.333 1.640 ,783 ,357
.25 1.370 2.551 ,779 ,448 .7 2.442 1.510 ,781 ,344
.3 1.510 2.442 ,781 .438 .75 2.551 1.370 .779 ,331
35 1.640 2.333 .783 ,427 .8 2.661 1.218 ,776 ,316
.4 1.765 2.224 ,784 ,416 .85 2.772 1.O49 ,771 ,302
.45 1.884 2.113 ,785 .404 .9 2.887 ,852 ,766 ,286
.5 2.000 2.000 .785 ,393 .95 3.008 ,600 ,760 ,270
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Design of Vessel Supports I27

I
ANCHOR BOLTS: EQUIVALENT AREA METHOD
PROCEDURE
I. Calculate preliminary K value based on allowables.
!. Make preliminary selection of anchor bolts and width 01 base
plate.
I. Calculate loads and stresses.
I. Calculate K based on actual Stresses and compare with value
computed In Step 2.
c.g.. i. Ifdiflerence exceeds .01, select a new K between both values ani
tensior repeat Steps 2-8. (See Note 6.)

.
3-

1 Data
I11 Data TRIAL 2

F, (Table 3-25) Mb
I
F, rabie 3-26) d

4
n (Table 3-26) I

Wb
2 Approximate K Using Aiiowables coe11icients 2 Approximate K Ublng Allowabler

1 C,
K=-
1 +I
F 4
nFc J
z
3 ens si le Load in Steel 3 Tensile Load in Steel

+ zd
= M b - Wb
Jd I
4 Number of Anchor Bolts Required 14 Number al Anchor Bolts Required

Trd R, (Table 3.23) in.2

Ab=-
Fd9
AdN use( )
5 Stress in Equivalent Steel Band

NR T
1, B fs = -
nd t&
I I

-- .
6 Compressive Load in Concrete
P - T II W i ..O

7 stress in concrete
i
I
I
I

iiw - 1,) + nt,lrC,

8 Recheck K Using Actual I, and 1, 8 Recheck K Using Actual Is and 1,
128 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

ANCHOR BOLTS: EQUIVALENT AREA METHOD EXAMPLE

PROCEDURE
1. Calculate preliminary K value based on allowables.
2. Make preliminary selection 01 anchor bolts and width of base
Jd plate.
& 3. Calculate loads and stresses.
4. Calculate K based on actual stresses and compare with value
computed in Step 2.
5. If dilterence exceeds .01, select a new K between bath values ani
repeat Steps 2-8. (See Note 6.)

TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2
Data 1 Data
(Table 3-25) = EK5l Mb= 3034 F T - r t t S
I
le W: B25"
E (Table 3.26) = 1.1 K $ l d =e.%'
o? 105''
(Table 3-26) = 10 r = 9 . 3 0 ' ~515" K=.33
lh = 1qq kl& .
Approximate K Using Allowables Coeflicients 2 Approximate K Using Allowables

Tensile Load in Steel 3 Tensile Load in Steel

_Mb-Wb+Zd 303+-144(.b3)6.15 h
33b.7
Jd ,184(0.19)
Number 01 Anchor Bolts Required 4 Number 01 Anchor Bolts Required

'b=- Tnd = 34 \ TV 8.15 = 67.5 I+ R, (Table 3-23) = 3,115

in? ?%.l NL1.15, :q,qq
F,rC, I 5 (L(.38)2.113 . -SI 20
337 ?'A" 4 bolts 59.81 U5L 114 Z ' / Z ' ' & ~ L .
~

LdN = Ll.%'?o p s e ( 2s )
Stress In Equivalent Steel Band 5 Stress in Equivalent Steel Band
 Design of Vessel Supports 129

Base Plate
A
C I IP

Maximum
bearing load

f?

Figure 3-62. Loading diagram of base plate with gussets and

chairs.

Type 1: Without Chairs or Gussets

K = from “Anchor Bolts.”

e=
f, = from “Anchor Bolts.”

d =

0 Bending moment per unit lenp-th. Figure 3-63. Dimensions of various base plate configurations.

M, = .5fCl2 M, = greater of M, or My from Table 3-27

Maximum bearin8 load.

)
2Kd + w
< B, (see Table 3-26)
2Kd W i t h twice as many gussets as anchor bolts,
0 Thickness required.

P
-
b
M, = greater of M, or My from Table 3-27
Type 2: With Gussets Equally Spaced, Straddling
Anchor Bolts

W i t h same number as anchor bolts

Type 3 or 4: With Anchor Chairs or Full Ring

Between gussets
e
b P = F,R,
130 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Between chairs.

-
P
b, Figure 3-64. Top plate dimensions and loadings

M, = greater of M, or My from Table 3-27

@F%kg
Washers

Top Plate or Ring (Type 3 or 4)

Minimum reyuired height of anchor chair (Ijpe 3)

If anchor chair height is excessive, reduce bolt eccen-

tricity “a,” use more anchor bolts of smaller diameter,
or use a continuous top ring.
Figure 3-65. Compression plate dimensions
M i n i m u m reyuired thickness of top plate of anchor chair.

t, = d& -
(.375b - .22dl,)
2. If a # 1/2 but b/l > 1, My governs

Top plate is assumed as a beam, e x a, with partially 47r 47r

fixed cnds and a portion of the total anchor bolt force
P/3, distributed along part of the span. (See Figure
3-64.) 3 . If b/l< 1, invert b/l and rotate axis X-X and Y-Y
900
Bending moment, Mo, in top rinz ( l j p e 4).

b
-
e 47r

yl = (see Table 3-28)

47r
y2 = (see Table 3-28)

E
Minimum required thickness o f top ring ( Q p e 4)
1. If a = P/2 and b/e > 1, My governs

t, =
47r
 Design of Vessel Supports 131

G = width of opening, in

]
Gussets
1 48Mb
fi, = a D - 3 G [ T + WI,
0 Tvpe 2. Assume each p s s e t shares load with each ad-
joining gusset. The uniform load on the base is fL, and
the area supported by each gusset is I x b. Therefore Actual weights and monients at the elevation of the
the load on the gusset is opening may be substituted in the above equation if
desired.
PI = fJb
Skirt thickness required:
Thickness required is

Pi(6a - 21)
tq =
Fb12
whichever is greatci
0 Type 3 or 4 .
Determine allowable lonyitudinal stresses.
P 3 .
tg = - in,
18,000 1 8 Tension

S, = lesser of .6F, or 1.33 S

Skirt
Compression
i’hickness required at compression plate or riny due to reac- S, = ,333 F,
tions. = 1 . 3 3 x factor “B”
?id
m = (for Type 3 ) greater of - or ?.A - -t&,
-
N 16R
(for Type 4) rn = b, = 1.33 s

whichever is less

Thickness required ut base due to Mb

Longitudinal forces

FLT= 48Mb - -
WI,
aD2 TD
~

Pa 48Mb Wb
h FL(: = ( - ) -
aD2 TD
~ ~

Figure 3-66. Dimensions and loadings on skirt due to load F!

Skirt thickncss required
Thickness required at opening of skirt
No&: If skirt is stiffened locally at the opening to com-
pensate for lost moment of inertia of skirt cross sec-
tion, this portion may bc disregarded. whichever is greater.
132 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Thickness required ai skirt-head attachment due to M!. the skirt. Arc spacing should be kept to around a 1-ft
minimum if possible.
Longitudinal forces 4. The base plate is not made thinner by the addition of
a compression ring, tl, would be the same as required
48M, W, for chair-type design. Use a compression ring to re-
FLT= __ - - duce induced stresses in the skirt or for ease of fabri-
a D 2 TD
cation when chairs become too close.
5. Dimension “a” should be kept to a minimum to re-
48M, W,
Flc = (-) -- duce induced stresses in the skirt. This will provide a
aD2 TD
~

more economical design for base plate, chairs, and

anchor bolts.
Skirt thickness required 6. The value of K represents the location of the neutral
axis between the anchor bolts in tension and the con-
t,k =
FLT or FI.C crete in compression. A preliminary value of K is es-
.707S,E .707S,E timated based on a ratio of the “allowable” stresses
~ ~

of the anchor bolts and concrete. From this prelimi-

whichcver is greater.
Notes
1. Basc plate thickness:
If t 5 Vz-in., use Type 1 .
If %-in. < t 5 3/4-in., use Type 2.
If t > V-in., use Type 3 or 4.
2. To reduce sizes of anchor bolts:
Increase number of anchor bolts.
Use highcr strength bolts.
Increase width of base plate.
3 . Number of anchor bolts should always be a multiple
of 4. If more anchor bolts are required than spacing
allows, the skirt may be angled to providc a larger
bolt circle or bolts may be used inside and outside of
nary value anchor bolt sizes and number are deter-
mined and actual stresses computed. Using these ac-
tual stresses, the location of the neutral axis is found
and thus an actual corresponding K value. A com-
parison of these K values tells the designer whether
the location of the neutral axis he assumed for selec-
tion of anchor bolts was accurate. In successive trials,
vary the anchor bolt sizes and quantity and width of
base platc to obtain an optimum design. At each trial
a new K is estimated and calculations repeated until
the estimated K and actual K are approximately
equal, This indicates both a balanced design and ac-
curate calculations.
7. The maximum compressive stress betwecn base plate
and the concrete occurs at the outer periphery of the
base plate.
8. For heavy wall vessels, it is advantageous to have the
centerlines of the skirt and shell coincide if possible.
For average applications, the O.D. of the vessel and
O.D. of the skirt should be the same.
9. Skirt thickness should be a minimum ofRI200.

PROCEDURE 3-14
DESIGN OF BASE DETAILS FOR VERTICAL VESSELS #2

w =width of base plate, in.

Notation S =code allowable stress, tension, psi
N = number of anchor bolts
E joint cfficiency
= Fc’= allowable bearing pressure, concrete, psi
E, modulus of elasticity at design temperature, psi
= F, = minimum specified yield stress, skirt, psi
Ab = cross-sectional area of bolts, in.‘ F, = allowable stress, anchor bolts, psi
d = diamcter of bolt circle, in. fLT = axial load, tension, lb/in.-circumferencc
W,, = weight of vessel at base, lb fLc = axial load, compression, lb/in.-circumfercnce
WT = weight of vessel at tangent line, lb F, = allowable stress, tension, skirt, psi
 Design of Vessel Supports 133

F, = allowable stress, compression, skirt, psi Allowable Stresses

FI, = allowable stress, bending, psi
f8 = tension force per bolt, lb .6F, =
FT = lesser of
f, = bearing pressure on foundation, psi 1.33s =
MI, = overturning moment at base, ft-lb .333F, =
M.r = overturning moment at tangent line, ft-lb 1.33 Factor B =
F, = lesser of
tsk E,
~-

16 R
1.33s =

FI, = .66F, =

Fc' = 500 psi for 2000# concretc

750 psi for 3000# concrete

,125 tSk -
Factor A = -
R
~

Factor B = from applicable material

chart of ASME Code, Appendix 5

Anchor Bolts

r
Force per bolt due to upl;ft.

48Mb
f,=--- Wh
d N N

Butt welded Lap welded Required bolt area, A,

E = .7 E = .5

Use ( ) diameter bolts

~

Note: Use four J/+in.-diameter bolts as a minimum

3m7:m::gj
Base Plate

Bearing pressure, (auerage at bolt circle).

tsn = Y16 in. minimum

f,=- 48 MI, +--WI, < F:
nd2w ndw
'h-1 in.

Required thickness of base plate, ta

Figure 3-67. Typical dimensional data and forces for a vertical

vessel supported on a skirt.
t,,=1
II ~

3fc
20,000
134 Pressure Vessel Design Manual
Skirt
Longitudinal forces, jLTandfLc
4 8 M b Wb
fLT = __ - -
?rD2 ?rD
f - ( - ) - -4-8 M b Wb
LC -
?rD2 ?rD
Notes
1. This procedure is based on the “neutral axis”
method and should be used for relatively small or
simple vertical vessels supported on skirts.
2. If moment Mb is from seismic, assume wb as the op-
erating weight at the base. If Mb is due to wind, as-
sume empty weight for computing the maximum
value of fLT and operating weight for fLc.
REFERENCES
1. ANSI A58.1-1982, American National Standard
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures, American National Standards Institute,
New York.
2. “Recommended Practice #11, Wind and Earth-
quake Design Standards,” Chevron Corp., San
Francisco, March 1985.
3. Uniform Building Code, 1988 Edition, International
Conference of Building Officials, Whittier, CA,
1985,
4. Bednar, H. H., Pressure Vessel Dexign Handbook, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1981, Section 5.1.
5. Brownell, L. E., and Young, E. H., Process Equip-
ment Design, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1959, Sec-
tion 1 0 . 2 ~ .
6. Fowler, D. W., “New Analysis Method for Pressure
Vessel Column Supports,” Hydrocarbon Processing,
May 1969.
7. Manual of Steel Construction, 8th Edition, American
Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., 1980, Tables
C1.8.1 and 3-36.
I Thickness required o f base plate, tsr.
fLT
tSk= greater of - =
FT
fLC
or - =
Thickness required o f skirt at skirt-head attachment
Longitudinal forces:
fLT =
f1.C =
Thickness required: ~
8. Roark, R. J., Formulas for Stress and Struin, 4th Edi-
tion, McGraw Hill, 1971, Table VIII, Cases 1, 8,
9, and 18.
9. Wolosewick, F. E., “Support for Vertical Pressure
Vessels,” Petroleum Refiner, July 1981, pp. 137-140,
August 1981, pp. 101-108.
10. Blodgett, O., Design of Weldments, The James F. Lin-
coln Arc Welding Foundation, 1963, Section 4.7.
11. “Local Stresses in Spherical and Cylindrical Shells
Due to External Loadings, WRC Bulletin #107,
3rd revised printing, April 1972.
12. Bijlaard, P. P., “Stresses from Radial Loads and
External Moments in Cylindrical Pressure Ves-
sels,” Welding Journal Research Supplement, December
1955, pp. 608-617.
13. Bijlaard, P. P., “Stresses from Radial Loads in Cy-
lindrical Pressure Vessels,” Welding Journal Research
Supfllemenl, December 1954, pp. 615-623.
14. Megyesy, E. E, Pressure Vessel Handbook, 3rd Edition,
Pressure Vessel Handbook Publishing Co., 1975,
pp. 72-85.

15. Zick, L. P., “Stresses in Large Horizontal Cylindri-
cal Pressure Vessels on Two Saddle Supports,”
Welding ResearchJournal Supplement, September 1951.
16. Moody, G. B., “How to Design Saddle Supports,”
Hydrocarbon Processing, November 1972.
17. Wolters, B. J., “Saddle Design-Horizontal Vessels
over 13 Feet Diameter,” Fluor Engineers, Inc., Ir-
vine, CA, 1978.
Design of Vessel Supports 135
18. Committee of Steel Plate Producers, Steel Plate Enp-i-
neerinf Data, Volume 2, Useful Information on the Design
ofplate Structures, American Iron and Stecl Institute,
Part VIL
19. Gartner, A. I., “Nornographs for the Solution of
Anchor Bolt Problems,” Petroleum Refinel; July 1951,
pp. 101-106.
4
Special Designs
PROCEDURE 4-1
DESIGN OF LARGE OPENINGS IN CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

Notation Step 3: Compute membrane and bending stresses in

accordance with the equations given later.
A, = area of steel, in.*
A, = area of pressure, in.' U", =
P = internal pressure, psi (design or test) u, =

r," = mean radius of nozzle, in.

R,, = mean radius of shell, in. Step 4: Combine stresses and compare with allowable.
T = thickness of shell, in.
t = thickness of nozzle, in. u, + Ob =
F, = minimum specified yield strength, ksi
u = maximum combined stress, psi
u,, = bending stress, psi
~~

Membrane Stress, n,,,

,u = membrane stress, psi
I = moment of inertia, in.4 R, =
M = bending moment, in.-lb r, =
T=
t=
Procedure
Step I : Compute boundary limits for bending along shell
and nozzle in accordance with Note 3. Limit will be
governed by whether material of construction has a
yield strength, F,, less than or greater than 40 ksi.

Along shell =
Along nozzle =

Step 2: Utilizing the appropriate case (Figure 4-2) calcu-

late the moment of inertia, I, and the distance from
centroid to the inside of the shell. C .

I =
C = Figure 4-1. Areas of pressure and steel for nozzles.

136
 Special Designs 137

I= CAY*+ El - C C A Y
Case 1
Case 2

;I[
z
rmí
AXIS

c
:
Part A Y AY AY2 I I Part I A I Y I AY I AY2 I I I
1
9

I = CAY'+ Xi - C C A Y I = CAY'+ Xi - C C A Y
Case 3 Case 4

Figure 4-2. Calculation form for moment of inertia I and centroid C for various nozzle configurations. Select the case that fits the
geometry of the nozzle being considered.
138 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Boundary d o n s shell.
Notes
1 , This procedure is for the design of “large” openings
that exceed the limits of ASME Code, Section UG-
36(b)l and must meet the requirements of ASME
Boundary along nozzle neck.
Code, Section 1-7. Thc limits are as follows:

J;mt= Vessels 5 60 in. diameter: 2

> 20 in.
1/z vessel diameter or

Area ofpressure. (See Figure 4-1.) Vessels > 60 in. diameter: 2 ‘13 vessel diameter or
> 30 in.
Ap =
2. This analysis combines the primary membrane stress
Area ofsteel resistins pressure. (See Figure 4-1.) due to pressure with the secondary bending stress
from the flexure of the shell near the nozzle-shell in-
tersection. The nozzle is assumed to be bent about
As =
the hard axis rather than a beam on elastic founda-
Membrane stress. tion type analysis.
3 . Boundaries of metal along the shell and nozzle wall
to he considered as resisting pressure and bending,
respectively, are as follows:

Along Shell Along Nozzle

Bending Stress, ab See Note 3a.

Pressure Area m 42
Bending moment, M .

[r
F, 5 See Notes 3a and c. See Note 3b
40 ksi 16T 161
M = P - i n , + R,,r,,, (C - .5T) See Notes 3a and c See Note 3b
Bending
’
B e n d i q stress, a,.
F”
40 ksi
($=IT
MC
ah=- a. T should be assumed as T + T, only if the outside
I
edge of the pad‘ extends beyond the applicable
limit assuming the combined thickness. Other-
Note: I and C are from the preceding cases
wise T = shell thickness only
b. If the centroid of the flange is located within this
distance along thc neck, consider the flange as
part of the section resisting bending.
~~ ~
c. This limit is measured along the longitudinal axis
Combined Stress, u of the vessel. However for practical purposes and
since thc nozzle is assumed as symmetrical, this
2 distance should be considered as being within
u = u , + u, = < -F,
3 180° of vessel circumference.
 Special Designs 139

PROCEDURE 4-2
DESIGN OF CONE-CYLINDER INTERSECTIONS 121

Notation HI.+= radial thrust due to weight and mo-

ment, Ih/in.-circumference
H, = circumferential Inad due to internal or
external pressure, lb/in.-circumference
P, = equivalent internal pressure, psi
FL1.2= total longitudinal load on cylinder at
P = internal pressure, psi
Elevation 1 or 2, Ib/in.-circumference
P, = external pressure, psi FLc = longitudinal load in cone, Ib/in.-cir-
PI.' = longitudinal force due to internal or ex- cumference
ternal pressure, Ih/in.-circumference f, = equivalent axial load at junction of
A = ASME external pressure factor small end, Ib/in.
fL = equivalent axial load at junction of
A, = cross-sectional area of ring, in.'
large end, Ib/in.
A, = excess metal area available, in.' El.2 =joint efficiency of longitudinal welded
AT = equivalent area of composite shell, joints in shell or cone
cone and ring, in.' Es,Ec,ER = modulus of elasticity of shell, cone and
ring, respectively, at design tempera-
A, = required area of reinforcement at small
end of cone, in.' ture, psi
Ss,Sc,SR = allowable stress, tension, of shell, cone
AL = required area of reinforcement at large
and ring, respectively, at design tem-
end of cone, in.'
perature, psi
A, = minimum required cross-sectional area W 1 ~=* dead weight at Elevation 1 or 2, Ib
of ring, in.'
uL = longitudinal stress in shell, psi
B = allowable longitudinal compressive
stress, psi uLc = longitudinal stress in cone, psi

M, = longitudinal bending moment due to uc = circumferential stress, psi

wind or seismic at Elevation 1 or 2, in:
1 = moment of inertia of ring, in.4
Ih
I, = moment of inertia required of ring, in.4
M = equivalent radius of large end, in.
t, = excess metal thickness available for re-
N = equivalent radius of small end, in inforcement, in.
VI = longitudinal loads due to weight plus t,, = thickness required, shell, in.
moment, Ib/in.-circumference
t,, = thickness required, cone, in.
HP1.2= radial thrust due to internal or external
pressure, Ib/in.-circumference A,m,K,X,Y = factors as defined herein
140 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Dimensions Force5

__
Minimum = dR,(I, - 1.)

+$I
L
For inlermediale
stíteners on cone

Figure 4-3. Dimension and forces of cone-cylinder intersections.

 Special Designs 141 1
COMPUTING FORCES AND STRESSES
.END LAR< END
Case 3 Tension Case 4: Compression
see Note 1 See Note 1

See Note 1 iee Note 1

>,=%
2 '
p-s
2
Pi =same >*=Et m
2 ' 2
2
' =same

FL = FL =

Hz = V2tan DL la = va tan a
Hpl = PI tan rn + ip2 = - P i tan 0
Hcq = same I ic2 = same
Fc = Fc =

FLC=
C. ALLOW. STRl
Aaximum longitudinal 2,Para. UG-23(b](2) longitudinal
,tress :ampression only.1
yiinder, "L, psi Large FLlt2= FLR2= h a l l end
daximum circumferential Small Fdti= Fdt, = 125 ti
,tress at junction, CC, psi j = L
Large Fdt2 = Fdtz = RS B=
daximum longitudinal Small FLdtCr= Fidtcr =
,tress in C M B , OLC, psi Large FLdtcI = .atge end:
Fidtcz =

I I

1 . Signs for V T , HT,VI, and HI must be reversed if uplift due to moment is greater than weight
2. 1nt.lExt. signify cases for internal andlor external pressure.
142 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

50(30.156)
Example Pi = = +754
2
- 7.5(30.156)
Pi = = -113
2
P = 50 psi
50(60.2 19)
P, = 7.5 psi P2 = = + 1,505
2
Material: SA516-55, F, = 30 ksi
- 7.5(60.219)
S 13.8 ksi P, = = -225
=
2
E = .85 Hi = Vi tan a = + 350
Design temperature: 650'F H2= V2 tan a = - 533
ti = ,1875 in. H3= V3 tan a = t 86
ti = ,3125 in. H4= V4 tan a = - 189
tCl = tc2 = ,3125 in. Hpl = P, tan a = + 3581 - 54
R, = 30.156 in. = P, tan a
Hp2 = - 7171 + 107
RL = 60.219 in. H,, = PR, = 50(30.156) = t 1,508
d, = 60.3125 in. P,R, = - 7.5(30.156) = - 226
DL = 120.438 in. = PRL
HC2 = 50(60.219) = + 3,011
Wj = 36,500 lb P,RL = - 7.5(60.219) = - 452
W, = 41,100 lb
M, = 2,652,000 in.-lb
-VI
- - + 814
cosa
M 2 = 3,288,000 in.-lb
a = 25.46'
v2
-- -' - 1,241
cosa

vi = ~-636,500 4(2,652,000)
= +735 -v3
- - + 199
0 .125
3 a60.31252 cosa

v, = - 36,500
-
4(2,652,000)
= -1,121
v
-=
4
- 438
a60.3 125 a60.3125' cosa
- 41,100 Pi + 754 - 113
v3= + 4(3,288,000)+180 = -=--
cosa
- + 835, ~

cosa
= - 125
~120.438 ~~120.438~ cosa

v4= -41,100 4(3,288,000) P, - + 1,505

+ 1,666, __
- 225
249
- = -396 -- = = -
a120.438 a120.4382 cosa cosa cosa
i

a ST
=-
'd

a s<
=-
'A

I $ION 88

ia m aas I
3b
a so3

S3SS3tllS aNV S33tlOA 9NllfldW03

144 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Reinforcement Required at Large End Due

to Internal Pressure

Determine area of rinf required, A,.

Table 4-1
(A Degrees)
t, = smaller of (t2 - trJ or
PJX A
no1 11
.O02 15
,003 18
,004 21
,005
,006
23
25 A, = 4t, JRLt2
,007 27
.O08 28.5 A, = AL - A,
.o09 30
From ASME Code, Section VIII, Div. 1. Reprinted by permission. If A, is negative, the design is adequate as is. If A, is
Equivalent pressure, P,. positive, add a ring.

4v If a ring is required.
P,=P+-
DL Maximum distance to edge of ring
where V is the worst case, tension, at large end
dRdz
Determine fi reinforcement ir required.
Maximum distance to centroid of ring, LI
X = smaller of &EI or S,Ez

Y = greater of &E, or &E, LL = .5 &

A = (from Table 4-1)

Note: A = 30° if P,/X > .O09
Reinforcement Required at Small End Due
If A < a, then reinforcement is required. to Internal Pressure
If A 2 a,then no reinforcement is required
Table 4-2
Determine area of reinforcement required, AI (A Degrees)

PJX A
.O02 4
,005 6
.O10 9
.o2 12.5
.O4 17.5
.O8 24
1
.. 27
PDI, .I 25 30
t, =
2 cosa(S,Ei - .óP) From ACME Code, Section VIII, Diu 1. Reprinted by Pefm¡SS¡On.
 Special Designs 145

Equivalent pressure, P, A, = A, - A,

4v If A, is negative, the design is adequate as is. If A, is

P,=P+- positive, add a ring.
4
I f a ring is required.
where V is the worst case, tension, at small end

Determine if reinforcement is required. Maximum distance to edge of rinc

X = smaller of &El or S,E2

=a
Y = greater of S,E, or &E, Maximum distance to centroid of ring

-
p e--
X L , = . 5 G

A = (from Table 4-2)

Note: A = 30' if P,/X > .125

If A < o( then reinforcement is required. Reinforcement Required at Large End Due
If A 2 a then no reinforcement is required. to External Pressure
Determine area ~ reinforcement required, A,.
Table 4-3
(A Degrees)

PdSs E,

t)
A
O O
A, = P C R ' ~ (í - tana .O02 5
2x .O05 7
~

.O10 10
.o2 15
PR, .O4 21
t,, =
S,EI - .6P .O8 29
.I 33
,125 37
Pd, .I5 40
t,, =
.2 47
2 coso((S,E2- .6P)
25 52
.3 57
Determine area of ring required, A,. .35 60
From ACME Code, Section VIII, Div. 1. Reprinted by permission.
tl
m = smaller of - cos(a - A)
t,,
Determine if reinfrcement is required.
or
tC1coso(cos(o( - A ) P,
-
trc S,EI

A,= m E [( &)
tCl - + ( t l - t,,)]
A = (from Table 4-3)
Note: A = 60° if P,/S,EI > .35
E, = 1.0 for butt welds in mpressic
146 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

If A < a , then reinforcement is required.

If A 2 a , then no reinforcement is required

Determine area of reinforcement required, AL. A = using- calculated value of B determine A from ap-
plicable material chart of ASME Code, Appen-
dix 5. For values of A falling to the left of the ma-
terialltemperature line:

KFLRLtana PxRL- FL A
AL = SA [i-'25( FL )a]
where FL is the largest compressive force at large end. Required moment of inertia, I,
Ring only Ring-shell
Determine area of ring required, A,.
ADDAT
t,, = required thickness of shell for external pressure I, = ___
14
t, = smaller of (t2 - trs)
~~

Reinforcement Required at Small End Due

or
to External Pressure

- &) D Determine area of reinjarcement required, A,

A, = 4te a
A, = AL - A, KFLR,tana!
A, =
S,Ei
If A, is negative, t t design is if late is. If Ar is
positive, a ring must be added. where F,, is the largest compressive load at small end
and E, = 1.O for butt welds in compression.
If a ring is required.
Determine area of ring required, A ,

i
Assume a ring size and calculate the following:

A, =
m =
If
smaller of - cos(a - A)

a
I
or
L]. = .5 tCI cosacos(a - A )

L, = J L 2 + (RL - R,)'

where t,, is the thickness required of the small cylinder

- R L tana RL-RS due to external pressure and A is from Table 4-3 as
M= + -LL
+ computed for the large end.
2 2 ~ R tana
L

f,. = P,M + V, tana A, = A, - A,

 Special Designs 147

If A, is negative, the design is adequate as is. If A, is pendix 5 . For values ofA falling to the left ofthe
positive, a ring must be added. materiaMemperature line:

If a ring is required. A = -2B

E,
Assume a ring size and calculate the following:
Required moment of inertia, I,
A, =
Ring on& Ring-shell

L, = .5 Ir=-
Ad:AT I ' = AdzAT
~

14 10.9

L, = J L 2 + (R,, - R,)'
Notes

1. Cone-cylinder intersections are areas of high discon-

tinuity stresses. For this reason the ASME Code re-
quires reinforcement at each junction and limits an-
R, tana L, R?.- RI
N= +-+ gle 01 to 30° unless a special discontinuity analysis is
2 2 3RL tana performed. This procedure enables the designer to
take into account combinations of loads, pressures,
f, = P,N + V2 tana temperatures, and materials for cones where a is less
than or equal to 30° without performing a disconti-
nuity analysis and fulfill ail code requirements.
2. The design may be checked unpressurized with the
effects ofweight, wind, or earthquake by entering P,
A = using calculated value of B determine A from the as O in the design tables. This condition may govern
applicable material chart of ASME Code, Ap- for the compression side.

PROCEI 'URE 4-3

STRESSES AT CIRCUMFER ENTIAL RING STIFFENERS

AT, =temperature difference between 70'F and de-

Notation
P pressure, ( + ) internal pressure ( - ) external
= Mb = longitudinal bending moment, in.-lb
pressure, psi
v, = Poisson's ratio, shell, .3 for steel
a, = coefficient of thermal expansion of ring, in./in./
OF
a, = coefficient of thermal expansion of shell, in./in./
OF
E, = modulus of elasticity, ring, psi
E, = modulus of elasticity, shell, psi
AT, = temperature difference between 70°F and de-
sign temperature, ring, "F
sign temperature, shell, OF
M = bending moment in shell, in.-lb
F = discontinuity force, Ib/in.
N = axial force, Ib/in.
W, = operating weight of vessel above ring elevation,
Ib/in.
W1., = radial deflections, in.
A, = cross-sectional area of ring, in.'
ax = longitudinal stress, shell, psi
a, = Circumferential stress, shell, psi
omr= circumferential stress, ring, psi
p = damping factor
148 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

F F

-
Vessel centerline

Figure 4-4. Dimensions and forces for a stiffening ring on the outside of a VeSSel.

-
Vessel centerline

Figure 4-5. Dimensions and forces for a stiffening ring on the inside of a vessel.

Table 4-4
(Radial Displacements)

Cause DispI acement Notes

Shell Discontinuity force, F W,=- FRLP Solve for W, in terms o1 F

2E,t which is unknown at this time.
Thermal expansion Wz = RmubTs

Pressure, P PR$(1 - .5),.

w3 = -
tE.

Axial load, N
Ring Discontinuity force, F FRi solve for Ws in terms of F
W5 = (-) A,E. which is unknown at this time

Pressure, P ws= P-[E]

E, R i - r2
Thermal expansion W7 = Rma,ATT,
 Special Designs 149

Required Data Forces and Moments

R,, = E, = Equate displacements and solve for force R
r = ATs =
A, = ATr = w, + w2 + w3 + w4= w5 + W6 + w,
t = P=
a, = us = where W, = ( +)
a, = MI, = W5=(-)
E, = w, = F=

Internal Moment, M

Formulas M = (w2 - w7) + (w3 - w6) + w4

Coefficient, (3 w[$+$$]

Stresses
Shell
For steel where u, = .3
6M N PR,
u, = ( + ) -- +-
p=- 1.285 27rR,t 2t
~

t2

JR,r
6Mr, FR,
u* = ( +) - - + PR,,
Axial load, N t2 2t t
~ ~

Rinp-.

( + ) tension, ( - ) compression
Table 4-5
(Values of E (lo6 psi) and 01 in./in./"F))

Temp.
OF 100' 200' 300' 400° 500° 600' 700' 800° 900' 1000° 1100' 1200'
Material
Carbon E 29 28.7 28.2 27.6 26.8 25.9 24.5 23 21 18.1
Steel a 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.7 7.9 8.0
Austenitic E 28 27.3 26.6 25.9 25.2 24.5 23.8 23 22.4 21.6
Stainless Steel a 9.2 9.3 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3
Low Chromium E 29.9 29.5 29 28.6 28 27.4 26.6 25.7 24.5 23 20.4 15.6
(< 3%) a 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.7 7.9 8.0 8.1 8.2
Chrome-Moly E 27.4 27.1 26.8 26.4 26 25.4 24.9 24.2 23.5 22.8 21.9 20.8
(5%-9% Chrome) a 5.9 6.0 6.2 6.3 6.5 6.7 6.8 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4
High Chrome E 29.2 28.7 28.3 27.7 27 26 24.8 23.1 21.1 18.6 15.6 12.2
(I 1%-27%) a 5.4 5.5 5.7 5.6 6 6.1 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8
inconel E 31.7 30.9 30.5 30 29.6 29.2 28.6 27.9 25 20
600 a 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 8.0 8.1
lncoloy E 28.5 27.8 27.3 26.8 26.2 25.7 25.2 24.6
800 a 7.9 7.9 8.8 8.9 9 9.1 9.2
150 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

where longitudinal tension stresses due to pressure are

Notes
A stiffening ring causes longitudinal bending stresses
in the shell immediately adjacent to the ring due to dif-
ferential radial deflection between the vessel and ring.
The stress is highest at the inner surface of the shell
combined with local bending stresses. This stress may
be as high as 2.04 times the hoop stress in a simple, un.-
stiffened shell of like size. The stress is local and fades
rapidly with increasing distance from the ring. This pro-
cedure assumes stiffening rings are spaced greater than
s/@so effect from adjacent rings is insignificant.

PROCEDURE 4-4
TOWER DEFLECTION 171

Notation If E is not constant

L overall length of vessel, in.
=
L,, length of section, in.
=
E, modulus of elasticity of section, psi
=
I, moment of inertia of section, in.4
=
W, = concentrated loads, Ib
w = uniformly distributed load, Ib/in.
wmix = uniformly distributed load at top of vessel, Ib/
in.
wmin = uniformly distributed load at bottom of vessel,
lbh.
X = ratio L,/L for concentrated loads
6 = deflection. in.

Cases

Case 1: Uniform Vessel, Uniform Load

Case 3: Nonuniform Vessel, Nonuniform Load

6 = -wL4
8EI

Case 2: Nonuniform Vessel, Uniform Load

If E is constant
 Special Designs 151

Y I

I
I
I

w I

Wind Triangular loading

case 1 case 3 case 5 Case 6

Wind Concentrated loads

case 2 case 4 case 7 case 8

Figure 4-6. Dimensions and various loadings for vertical, skirt-Supported vessels.
152 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Case 4 : Uniform Vessel, Nonuniform Load Case 8: Concentrated Lateral Load at Any

I +
Elevation
6 = -L4 W",i"
-
5.5(Wm,, - Y";")
I 8E 60E

Case 5: Uniform Vessel, Triangular Load

For ungorrn uessel
Load at base = 0

( )
Load at top = w, lb/in 3 -x
a = - WL: __
3EI 2X
5.5wL4
6=--
60EI For nonuniform uessels

Case 6 : Nonuniform Vessel, Triangular Load

60E n-l

c =1

Case 7: Concentrated Load at Top of Vessel Notes

Uniform uessel 1. This procedure calculates thc static deflection of tall

towers due to various loadings and accounts for the
WL3 following:
6=-
3EI
a. Different wind pressures at different elevations.
Nonuniform uessel b. Various thicknesscs, diameters, and moments of
inertia at different elevations.
c. Different moduli of elasticity at different eleva-
tions due to a change in material or temperatures.

2. This procedure is not valid for vessels that are subject

to wind-induced oscillations or that must be designed
dynamically. Sce "Vibration of Tall Towers" in
Chapter 1 and Note 4 of Procedure 3-1 for additional
information regarding vessels in this category.

3. Deflection should be limited to 6 in. per 100 ft.

4. Deflections due to combinations of various loadings

should be added to find the overall deflection.
 Special Designs 153

PROCEDURE 4-5
DESIGN OF RING GIRDERS [8- 121
The circular girder supports the weight of the tank, C, = .01637FR
vessel, or bin; its contents, and any installed plant
equipment. The ring beam will take the load from the orst case opposite
vessel uniformly distributed over its full circumference,
and in turn will be supported on a structural steel
framework in at least four places.
The shell of a column-supported tank, vessel, or bin
can be considered as a ring beam whether or not there is
a special built-up beam structure for that purpose.
Horizontal scismic force is transferred from the shell
or short support skirt to the ring beam by tangential
shear. The girdcr performs the function of transmitting
the horizontal shear from the tank shell to the rods and
posts of the supporting strncinre.
The girder is analyzdl as a closed horizontal ring
acted upon by the horizontal shear stresses in the tank
shell and by the horizontal components of the stresses in
the rods and posts in the top panel of the supporting 6 , = .005FR
stcel framework.
Maximum girder stresses generally occur when the
direction of the earthquake force is parallel to a diameter
passing through a pair of opposite posts. Typical six column support
The ring beam (girder) is subjected to compression, strwture shown (C, are coefficients)
bending, and torsion due to the weight of the tank, con-
tents, and horizontal wind or seismic forces. The maxi- a-lblin
mum bending moment will occur at the supports. The
torsional momcnt will be zero at the supports and maxi-
mum at an angular distance @ away from support
points.
This proccdure assumes that the rods arc tension-only
members and connect every adjacent post. It is not valid
for designs where the rods skip a post or two!
For cases where thc ring beam has additional mo-
ment, tangcntial and/or radial loads (such as sloping
columns) these additional horizontal loads may be cal-
culatcd using ring redundants. See Procedure 5-1.

Notation
I

D =diameter of column circle, in.

F = horizontal wind or earthquake force at plane
of girder, Ib
F1,2= resisting force in tie rod, panel force, lb
fi, = bending stress, psi
R = radius of column circle, in. I Q
Q
R, = torsional resistance factor
Idealized ring
Q = equivalent vertical force at each support due
to dead weight and overturning moment, Ib Figure 4-7. Dimensions, forces, and loadings at a ring girder.
154 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

q = uniform vertical load on ring beam, lblin. Me horizontal bending moment between posts
=
q, = tangential shear, I b h . due to force F, in.-lb
W = operating weight, lb M, = vertical bendins moment between posts due
0 = location of maximum torsional moment
to force Q, in:lb
from column, degrees M, = overturning moment of vessel at base of ring
beam, in.-lb
i,,I, = moment of inertia,
MF = horizontal bending moment at posts due to
r = torsional shear stress, psi
force F, in.-lb
B, = bearing pressure, psi
M, = vertical bending moment at posts due to
J = polar moment of inertia, in.4 force Q, in.-lb
M = bending moment in base plate due to bear- MT = torsional moment at distance 13 from post,
ing pressure, in.-lb I in.-lb

Table 4-6
(Internal Bending Moments)

No. Due to Force, Q Due to Force, F

Of
Posts M. M. MT B MP MB

4 - ,1366 QR + ,0705 QR +.O212 QR 190-12' + ,0683 FR - ,049 FR

6 - ,0889 QR + ,0451 QR + ,0091 QR IZO-44' + ,0164 FR -.O13 FR
8 - ,0662QR + ,0333 QR + .O050 QR 90-33' +.O061 FR - .O058FR
10 - ,0527 QR + ,0265OR + ,0032 QR 70-37' + ,0030 FR - ,0029 FR
12 - ,0438 OR + ,0228 QR + ,0022 QR 6"-21' + ,0016FR - ,0016 FR
16 - ,0328OR + ,0165 OR + ,0013 OR 4O-46' + ,0007 FR - ,0007 FR
1 . Values in table due lo force Q are based an Wails, Wing and Grain Elevators by M. C. Ketchurn, McGraw Hill Book Co., 1929. Coefficients have been modified for
force Q rather than weight W.
2. Value5 in table due to force F are based an "Stress Analysis of the Balcony Girder of Elevated Water Tanks Under Earthquake Loads'' by W. E. Black, Chicago Bridge
and lion Co., 1941.

F sin 4
Formulas

0 WR 0 2 sin2 O/+
M, = M, COS +- [sin -
,

2 2N el2 F, is maximum where 90° since sin 90' 1.

~

01 = =

WR W 4M,
M,=(-)M,sinP--(l -cosP) q = (-)-I-
2N nD nD2

+ 2n i1 --
Q=Ñ
nDq
 Special Designs 155

Load Diagrams

Vertical Forces on Ring B e a m

Intermediate stiffener
Uniform vertical load

q= w 4M
--+o
aD - nD2

Post

I i
- \ Reaction from
Arc spacing vertical load
.r is assumed to
be ideally
transferred
to girder

Figure 4-0. Loading diagram for a ring girder: vertical forces on a ring beam

H o r i z o n t a l Forces o n Ring B e a m ferred to the girder by a sine-distributed tangential

shear. (See Figure 4-9.) These loads are resisted by the
In the analysis for in-plane bending moment and horizontal reaction components of the sway bracing as
thrust, the wind or seismic force is assumed to be trans- shown in Figure 4-10.

Figure 4-10. Loading diagram for a ring girder: support struc-

Figure 4-9. Loading diagram for a ring girder: shell to beam. ture to beam.
156 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

An alternate procedure is suggested by Blodgett in

Procedure Design of Welded Structures [ 121 for substituting a torsional
resistance factor, R,, for the polar moment of inertia in
Determine l o a h y and Q.
:he equation for stress. The torsional resistance factor,
R,, is determined by dividing up the composite section
W 4M, into its component parts, finding the properties of these
q = (-)-+-
D - ?rD2 iomponents and adding the individual properties to ob-
tain the sum. An example is shown in Figure 4-12,

a =y
rDq
R, for any rectangular section = ybd3. See Table 4-7
for y.
Determine bending moments in ring.

Note: All coefficients are from Table 4-6

M, = coefficient x QR
M, = coefficient x QR
MT = coefficient x QR
M p = coefficient x FR
M B = coefficient x FR CR, = Rq + R2 + R3
Determine properties of ring. Figure 4-12. Determination of value R, for typical Section

q
For torsion the formula for shear stress, r, is
Table 4-7
(Values of Coefficient 7)

bld Y
where J = Polar moment of inertia, in.4 1 .o ,141
1.5 ,196
= I, + I, 1.75 ,214
C, = Distance to extreme fiber, in. 2.0 ,229
2.5 ,249
Note: Box sections are best for resisting torsion 3.0 ,263
4.0 ,281

f
6.0 ,299
8.0 ,307
10.0 ,313
m ,333
Reprinted by permission of The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation.
MT X

Stresses in beam.

Y
Note: Bending is maximum at the posts. Torsion is
maximum at B .
CX Y

Figure 4-11. Axis and distance of extreme fibers of typical

beam sections.
 Special Designs 157

Figure 4-13. Dimensions and loadings for various ring girders.

MpG Moment for semi-fixed span.

fbr =
4
~

M=-
B,L2
MTG io
7=---
CRt Bending stress, f a .
Additional bending in base plate
6M
fl, =-
Additional bending occurs in base plate due to local- t2
ized bearing of post on ring.

Bearing pressure, B,, psi

Notes
B , = -Q
+
A- 1. The shell of a column-supported tank, vessel, or bin
is considered to he a “circular girder” or “ring
where A = assumed contact area, area of cap plate or beam” uniformly loaded over its periphery and sup-
cross-sectional area of post. See Figure ported by columns equally spaced on the ring cir-
4-13. Assume reaction is evenly distrib- cumference.
uted over thc contact area.
í! = Cantilever, in. 2. The ring beam (girder) is subjected to comprcssion,
L = Semi-fixed span, in. bending, and torsion due to the weight of the tank
and contents and horizontal wind or seismic force.
Note; Maximum bending is at center of base plate.
3. The maximum bending moment occurs at the sup-
Moment for cantilever portion. I ports
4 . The torsional moment MT will be O at the supports
B,l2 and maximum at angular distance p away from sup-
M=-
I 2 ports.
158 Pressure Vessel Design Manual
REFERENCES
1. McBride, W. L., and Jacobs, VV. S., “Design of Ra-
dial Nozzlcs in Cylindrical Shells for Internal Pres-
sure,”Journal ofpressure Vessel Technolog, Vol. 2, Feb-
ruary 1980.
2. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section
VIII, Division 1, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, 1983.
3. Catudal, F. W., and Schneider, R. W., “Stresses in
Pressure Vessels with Circumferential Ring Stiff-
eners,” WeldingJournal Research Supplement, 1957.
4. Wolosewick, F. E., “Supports for Vertical Pressurc
Vessels,” Part 111, Petroleum Refiner, October 1941.
5. Hicks, E. V. (Ed.), “Pressure Vessels,” ASME 1980
presented at Energy Sources Technology Confer-
ence and Exhibition.
6. Miller, U. R., “Calculated Localized Stresses in
Vacuum Vessels,” Hydrocarbon Processin!, April 1977.
7. Youness, A., “New Approach to Tower Deflec-
tion,” Hydrocarbon Processing, June 1970.
8. Lambert, E W., The Theor), ond Practical Des@ o j
Bunkers, British Constructional Steelwork Assoc.,
Ltd., London, pp. 32-33.
9. Kctchum, M. S., Walls, Bins, and Grain Eleuators,
3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
1929, pp. 206-211.
10. Blake, Alexander, “Rings and Arcuate Bcams,”
Product Enzineeriq, January 7 , 1963.
1 1 . Pirok, J . N., and Wozniak, R. S., StructuralEnfineer-
ing Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1968, Sec-
tion 23.
12. Blodgett, O., Desip .f Welded Structures, The James
F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, 1975, Section
2.6.
5
Local Loads
Stresses caused by external local loads are a major
concern to designers of pressure vessels. The techniques
for analyzing local stresses and the methods of handling
these loadings to keep these stresses within prescribed
limits has been the focus of much research. Various the-
ories and techniques have been proposed and investi-
gated by experimental testing to verify the accuracy of
the solutions.
Clearly the most significant findings and solutions are
those developed by professor P. P. Bijlaard of Cornell
University in the 1950s. These investigations were spon-
sored by the Pressure Vessel Research Committee of the
Welding Research Council. His findings have formed
the basis ofwelding Research Council Bullctin #107, an
internationally accepted method for analyzing stresses
due to local loads in cylindrical and spherical shells. The
“Bijlaard Curves,” illustrated in several sections of this
chapter provide a convenient and accurate method of
analysis.
Other methods are also available for analyzing
stresses due to local loads, and several have been in-
cluded herein. It should be noted that the mcthods uti-
lized in WRC Bulletin #lo7 have not been included
here in their entirety The technique has heen simplified
for ease of application. For more rigorous applications,
the reader is referred to this excellent source.
Since this text applies to thin walled vessels only, the
detail included in WRC Bulletin #lo7 is not warranted.
No distinction has been made between the inside and
outside surfaces of the vessel at local attachments. For
vessels in the thick wall category, these criteria would be
inadequate.
Other methods that are used for analyzing local loads
are as follows. The designer should be familiar with
these methods and when they should be applied.
1. Roark Technical Note #806 as outlined in Procedure
5-3.
2. Ring analysis as outlined in Procedurc 5-1.
3 . Beam on elastic foundation mcthods where the elas-
tic foundation is the vessel shell.
4. Bijlaard analysis as outlined in Procedures 5-5 and
5-6.
5. WRC Bulletin #107.
6. Finite element analysis.
159
These methods provide results with a varying degree
of accuracy Obviously some are considered “ball park”
techniques while others are extremely accurate. The use
of one method over another will he determined by how
critical the loading is and how critical the vessel is. Ob-
viously it would be uneconomical and impractical to ap-
ply finite element analysis on platform support clips. It
would however be considered prudent to do so on the
vessel lug supports of a high-pressure reactor. Finite ele-
ment analysis is beyond the scope of this text.
Another basis for determining what method to use de-
pends on whether the local load is “isolated” from other
local loads and what “fix” will be applied for ovcr-
stressed conditions. For many loadings in one plane the
ring-type analysis has certain advantages. This tech-
nique takes into account the additive overlapping effects
of each load on the other. It also has the ability to super-
impose different types of loading on the same ring sec-
tion. It also provides an ideal solution for design of a cir-
cumferential ring stiffener to take these loads.
If reinforcing pads are used to beef up the shell locally
then the Bijlaard and WRC #io7 techniques provide
ideal solutions. These methods do not take into account
closely spaced loads and their influence on one another.
It assumes the local loading is isolated. This technique
also provides a fast and accurate method of distinguish-
ing between membranc and bending stresses for com-
bining with other principal stresses.
For local loads where a partial ring stiffener is to be
used to reduce local stresses, the beam on elastic founda-
tion method provides an ideal method for sizing the par-
tial rings or stiffener plates. The stresses in the shell
must then he analyzed by another local load procedurc.
Shell stresses can be checked by the beam-on-elastic-
foundation method for continuous radial loads about the
entire circumference of a vessel shell or ring.
Procedure 5-4 has been included as a technique for
converting various shapes of attachments to those which
can more readily be utilized in these design procedures.
Both the shape of an attachment and whether it is of
solid or hollow cross section will have a distinct effect on
the distribution of stresses, location of maximum
stresses, and stress concentrations.
There are various methods for reducing stresses at lo-
cal loadings. As shown in the foregoing paragraphs,
160 Pressure Vessel Design Manual
these will have some bearing on how the loads arc ana-
lyzed or how stiffening rings or reinforcing plates are
sized. The following methods apply to reducing shell
strcsses locally.
1. Increase the size of the attachment.
2. Increase the number of attachments.
3 . Changc the shape of the attachment to further dis-
tribute stresses.
4. Add reinforcing pads. Reinforcing pads should not
he thinner than .75 times nor thicker than 1.5 times
the thickness of the shell to which they are attached.
They should not exceed 1.5 times the length of the
attachment and should be continuously welded.
Shell stresses must he investigated at the edge of the
attachment to the pad as well as at the edge of the
pad.
5. Increase shell thickness locally or as an entire shell
course.
6. Add partial ring stiffeners.
7 . Add full ring stiffeners.
The local stresses as outlined herein do not apply to local
stresses due to any condition of internal restraint such as
thermal or discontinuity stresses. Local stresses as de-
fined by this section are due to external mechanical
loads. The mechanical loading may be the external
loads caused by the thermal growth of the attached pip-
ing, but this is not a thermal stress! For an outline of
external local loads, sce “Categories of Loads” in Chap-
ter 1.

PROCEDURE 5-1
STRESSES IN CIRCULAR RINGS 11-61

f,,fb equivalent radial load on 1 in. length of

=
shell, lb
fl = resultant radial load, lb
R,, mean radius of shell, in.
= P, = radial load, lb
R, distance to centroid of ring-shell, in.
= P = internal pressure, psi
M = internal moment in shell, in.-lb P, = external pressure, psi
M,= external circumferential moment, in.-lb T = internal tensionlcompression force, lb
Mh = external longitudinal moment (at clip or K,,,,K,,K, = internal moment coefficients
attachment only), in:lb C,,C.,.,C, = internal tensionlcompression coefficients
MI. = general longitudinal moment on vessel, = shell stresses, psi
in.-lb Z = section modulus, in.3
FT = tangential load, lb t = shell thickness, in.
FI,F2= loads on attachment, lb ux = longitudinal stress, psi

Clockwise ( + 1
COUnterCloCkWiSe ( - 1 Opposite shown ( - I Outward ( + 1 lnwerd ( ~ j

Due io localized moment, M, Due lo tangential force. F, Due to radial load. P,

Figure 5-1. Moment diagrams for various ring loadings

 Local Loads 161

a+ = circumferential stress, psi i = moment of inertia, in.'

e = length of shell which acts with attach- S = code allowable stress, tension, psi
ment, in.
0 = angular distance between loads or from
point of consideration, degrees Table 5-1
W = total weight of vessel above plane under Moments and Forces in Shell, M or T
consideration. Ib Internal Tension/Compression
A = ASME external pressure factor Due to Moment, M Force, T
A, = metal cross-sectional area of shell, in.'
A, = cross-sectional area of ring, in.'
Circumferential
moment, M,
M = c (KmMJ T=
íCmMc)
R,
B = allowable longitudinal compression = (KTFT)Rm T= (c,F,)
stress,. psi
. fnrrri F-
E =joint efficiency
E, = modulus of elasticity. m i

fa + fb

e = .78 &J e = .78 JRm7 e = .78 Continuous rings

F, = F cos ü f, =d
Mh
fa = F,
fb = 6Mn
(d + e)(d + Ze)
d+e Fz = F sin 0
~

f, = f,
f , = fa
Mh = aF2 + bF,
F,
fa = -
d+e
6Mh
fb =
(d + e)(d + Ze)
f 1 = f, + f,
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Figure 5-2. Determination of radial load, f,, for various shell loadings.
162 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Table 5-2
Shell Stresses Due to Various Loadings
Stress Due
To Stress Direction Without Stiffener With Stiffener

A, = 1 Y 1 in.
Centroid

I, or P,

e= 7 8 r n

Internal
s, =-P R, s, = 3
pressure, P 2t 21

sp= -
P R,
t
Tension1 T
s,=’ sa=
compression A, + A,
~

A*
force, T
(+)tension (-)cornpression (+)tension (-)compression

Local 6M M
SI= - Sn =
bending t2
moment, M
Mcanbe(+)or(-) M can be ( + ) or ( - )

External
S,=(-)-P, R, S.=(-)- P, R,
pressure, P, 2t 21

se= ( - ) 2PR e
S8 = ( - ) P R, Om
t A, + A,

Longitudinal M M
si.= f L S I =k
Rit
moment, MI a Rit 7

Dead Se=(-)--
w Sa=(-)-
w
load, W 2 n Rt, 27R
t,

Table 5-3 Factor “B”

Combined Stresses
TvDe Tension Comnression
Longitudinal, o, o, = s, + s, - ss <rx= (-)% - SI - ss
Circumferential, o, 0, = s2+ sa+ s, o, = ( - ) S a - s, - SI
L
-= = 50 max
D“
Allowable Stresses
(Enter Figure 5-UGO-28.0 in Appendix 5, ASME
Longitudinal tension: < 1.5SE = Code)
Longitudinal compression: Factor “ H ” = A= = .í max
Circumferential compression: < .5F, =
Circumferential buckling: p-lblin.
Enter applicable material chart in ASME Code, Appen-
dix 5:
3E,I
P=- B = psi
4R3
For values of A failing to left of material iinc:
(Assumes 4: 1 safety factor)
B = -AE
Circumferential tension: < 1.5SE = 2
 Local Loads 163

1. Find moment or tension coefficients based on angu-

Procedure
External localized loads (radial, moment, or tangen-
tial) produce internal bending moments, tension, and
compression in ring sections. Thc magnitude of these
moments and forces can be determined by this proce-
dure, which consists essentially of the following steps:
lar distances between applied loads, at each load
from Tables 5-4, 5-5, and 5-6.
2. Superimpose the effects of various loadings by add-
ing the product of coefficients times loads about any
given point.

EXAMPLE
GIVEN

FT= ( + ) 1,000 Ib (would produce clockwise moment)

I I I
F, = ( - ) 1,500 Ib (inward radial load)

FB= ( + ] 500 Ib (outward radial load)

Mi = ( c ) 800 in.-lb (would produce Clockwise moment)

R, = 30 in.

t = 1 in.

A,= 1 in. x t = 1 Y 1 = 1 in2

Load R CoelliElent x Load ( + Radius) T

FI O" C,Fg = + ,2387( - 1.500) = - 358.1
M1 900 C,M,IR, = - 3183 ( + 600)130 = - 8.5
Fa 190- C.FJ = - ,2303 ( + 500) = - 115.2
F, 270' CTF, = - ,0796 ( + 1.000) = - 79.6
I T= - 561.4 Ib

Load R Coellicient x Load ( x Radius) M

FP O" K,F& = - 2387 ( - 1.500) 30 = + 10,742
Mi 900 K,Mi = - ,0683( + 600) = - 55
FI 1900 K,F& = - .O760 ( + 500) 30 = - 1,140
F, 270' KTFiR, = - ,0113 ( t 1.000) 30 = - 339
I M= + 9,208in.-lb
6M 6(+9208)- +55,246psi
= -=I NO Goodl
12 12

z=-=-- 9208 - ,614 in.3 Use this ring.

S 15.000
164 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Table 5-4
Values of Coefficients
Localized Tangential Localized Tangential
E Moment, M, Force, FT 8 Moment, M, Force, FT

-
O + .5 O O - .5 1800 O O O 0
50 + ,4584 - ,0277 - ,0190 - ,4773 185' + ,0139 + ,0277 - ,0069 - ,0208
100 + ,4169 - ,0533 - ,0343 - ,4512 190° + ,0275 + ,0553 - ,0137 - ,0442
15' + ,3759 - ,0829 - ,0462 - ,4221 195.3 + ,0407 + ,0824 - ,0201 - ,0608
200 + ,3356 -.lo89 - ,0549 - ,3904 2000 + ,0533 +.lo89 - ,0261 - ,0794
250 + ,2960 -.1345 - ,0606 - .3566 205O + ,0651 +.1345 - ,0345 - ,0966
30' + ,2575 - ,1592 - ,0636 - ,3210 2100 + ,0758 +.I592 - ,0361 -.1120
350 + ,2202 - ,1826 - ,0641 - ,2843 2150 + ,0854 +.1826 - ,0399 -.I253
40° +.I843 - ,2046 - ,0625 - ,2468 2200 + ,0935 + ,2046 - ,0428 -.I363
450 +.I499 - ,2251 - ,0590 - 2089 2250 +.IO01 + 2251 - ,0446 -.1447
50' +.1173 - ,2438 - ,0539 -.1712 230° +.I050 + ,2438 - ,0453 - ,1502
550 + ,0865 - ,2607 - ,0475 -.I340 235O +.lo80 + ,2607 - ,0449 - ,1528
60" + ,0577 - ,2757 - ,0401 - ,0978 240' +.lo90 + ,2757 - ,0433 - ,1522
65' + ,0310 - ,2885 - ,0319 - ,0629 2450 + ,1080 + ,2885 - ,0405 -.I484
70' + ,0064 - 2991 - ,0233 - ,0297 250' + ,1047 + 2991 - ,0366 -.I413
750 - ,0158 - ,3075 - ,0144 + ,0014 2550 + ,0991 + ,3075 - ,0347 -.1308
800 - ,0357 - ,3135 - ,0056 + ,0301 260° + ,0913 +.3135 - ,0257 -.1170
850 - ,0532 - ,3171 + ,0031 + ,0563 265O + ,0810 + ,3171 - ,0189 - ,0999
900 - ,0683 -.3183 +.O113 + ,0796 270° + ,0683 + ,3183 -.O113 - ,0796
950 -.O810 - ,3171 + ,0189 + ,0999 2750 + ,0532 + ,3171 - .O031 - ,0563
1000 - ,0913 - ,3135 + ,0257 +.1170 2800 + ,0357 + .3135 + ,0056 - ,0301
105" - ,0991 - ,3075 + ,0347 +.1308 2850 + ,0158 + ,3075 + ,0144 - ,0014
1100 -.IO47 - ,2991 + .O366 +.1413 2900 - ,0064 + ,2991 + ,0233 + ,0297
115.3 -.IO79 - ,2885 + ,0405 +.I484 2950 - ,0310 + ,2885 + .O319 + ,0629
1200 - .1 O90 - ,2757 + ,0433 +.I522 300° - ,0577 + ,2757 + ,0401 + ,0976
125O -.lo80 - ,2607 + .O449 +.I528 305' - ,0865 + ,2607 + ,0475 +.I340
130' -.lo50 - ,2438 + ,0453 +.1502 310' -.1173 + ,2438 + .O539 +.I712
135' - ,1001 - ,2251 + ,0446 +.1447 315.3 - ,1499 + ,2251 + ,0590 + ,2089
140- - .O935 - ,2046 + ,0428 + .1363 320' -.I843 + ,2046 + ,0625 + ,2468
145.3 - ,0854 - . I 826 + ,0399 + ,1253 3250 - ,2202 + ,1826 + ,0641 + ,2843
150' - ,0758 -.1592 + ,0361 +.I120 330° - .2575 +.I592 + .O636 + ,3210
1559 - ,0651 -.1345 + ,0345 + ,0966 3350 - ,2960 +.I345 + ,0606 + ,3566
160" - ,0533 -.lo89 + ,0261 + ,0794 340' - ,3356 +.lo89 + ,0549 + ,3904
165O - ,0407 - ,0824 + ,0201 + ,0608 3450 - ,3759 + ,0829 + ,0462 + ,4221
170' - ,0275 - ,0553 + ,0137 + ,0442 350° - ,4169 + ,0533 + ,0343 + ,4512
175' - ,0139 - ,0277 + .O069 + .O208 3550 - ,4584 + ,0277 + ,0190 + ,4773
Reprinted by permission R. I. ISakOWBr, Machine Design, Mar 4, 1965

Table 5-5
Values of Coefficient K, Due to Outward Radial Load, P,
8 K. R K. E K. 8 K. E K. 8 K.
0-360° - ,2387 14-346 -.1251 28-332 - ,0314 42-318 + ,0381 56-304 + ,0819 70-290 +.IO08
1-359 - ,2340 15-345 -.1174 29-331 - ,0256 43-317 + ,0421 57-303 + ,0841 71-289 +.lo14
2-358 -.2217 16-344 -.1103 30-330 - ,0197 44-316 + ,0460 58-302 + ,0861 72-288 +.lo18
3-357 - ,2132 17-343 - ,1031 31-329 - ,0144 45-315 + ,0497 59-301 + ,0880 73-287 +.lo19
4-356 - ,2047 18-342 - ,0960 32-328 - ,0089 46-314 + ,0533 60-300 + ,0897 74-286 + ,1020
5-355 -.I961 19-341 - ,0890 33-327 - ,0037 47-313 + ,0567 61-299 + ,0914 75-285 +.IO20
6-354 -.I880 20-340 - ,0819 34-326 + ,0015 48-312 + ,0601 62-298 + ,0940 76-284 +.IO20
7-353 - .1 798 21-339 - ,0754 35-325 + ,0067 49-31 1 + ,0632 63-297 + ,0944 77-283 +.IO19
8-352 -.1717 22-338 - ,0687 36-324 +.O115 50-310 + ,0663 64-296 + ,0957 78-282 +.lo17
9-351 - ,1637 23-337 - ,0622 37-323 + .O162 51-309 + ,0692 65-295 + ,0967 79-281 +.lo13
10-350 - ,1555 24-336 - ,0558 38-322 + ,0209 52-308 + ,0720 66-294 + ,0979 80-280 + ,1006
11-349 - ,1480 25-335 - ,0493 39-321 + ,0254 53-307 + ,0747 67-293 + ,0988 81-279 + ,1003
12-348 - ,1 402 26-334 - ,0433 40-320 + ,0299 54-306 + ,0773 68-292 + ,0997 82-278 + ,0997
13-347 -.I326 27-333 - .O373 41-319 + .O340 55-305 + ,0796 69-291 +.I004 83-277 + ,0989
(table continued)
 Local Loads 165

Table 5-5
Values of Coefficient K, Due to Outward Radial Load, P,
B K, 8 K, 8 K. 8 K, 8 K. B K.
____
84-276 + ,0981 101-259 + ,0719 118-242 + ,0309 135-225 - .O145 152-208 - ,0517 169-191 - ,0746
85-275 + ,0968 102-258 + ,0698 119-241 + ,0283 136-224 - ,0163 153-207 - ,0535 170-190 - .O760
86-274 + ,0961 103-257 + ,0677 120-240 + ,0250 137-223 - ,0188 154-206 - ,0553 171-189 - ,0764
87-273 + ,0950 104-256 + ,0655 121-239 + ,0230 138-222 - ,0212 1555205 - ,0577 172-188 - ,0768
88-272 + ,0938 105-255 + .O627 122-238 + ,0203 139-221 - ,0237 156-204 - ,0586 173-187 - ,0772
89-271 + ,0926 106-254 + ,0609 123-237 + ,0176 140-220 - ,0268 1577203 - ,0602 174-186 - ,0776
90-270 + ,0909 107-253 + ,0586 124-236 + .O145 141-219 - ,0284 158-202 - ,0617 175-185 - ,0787
91-269 + ,0898 108-252 + ,0562 125-235 +.O116 142-21 8 - ,0307 159-201 - ,0633 176-184 - ,0789
92-268 + ,0883 109-251 + ,0538 126-234 + ,0090 143-217 - ,0330 160-200 - .O654 177-183 - ,0791
93-267 + ,0868 110-250 + ,0508 127-233 + ,0070 144-216 - ,0353 161-199 - ,0660 178-182 - ,0793
94-266 + ,0851 1 1 1-249 + ,0489 128-232 + ,0044 145-215 - ,0382 162-198 - ,0673 179-181 - .O795
95-265 + ,0830 112-248 + ,0464 129-231 + ,0017 146-214 - ,0396 163-197 - ,0686 180 - .O796
96-264 +.O817 113-247 + ,0439 130-230 - ,0016 147-213 - ,0418 164-196 - ,0697
97-263 + ,0798 114-246 + ,0431 131-229 - ,0035 148-212 - ,0438 165-195 - ,0715
98-262 + ,0780 115-245 + ,0381 132-228 - ,0061 149-211 - ,0459 166-194 - ,0719
99-261 + ,0760 116-244 + ,0361 133-227 - ,0087 150-210 - ,0486 167-193 - .O728
100-260 + ,0736 1 17-243 + ,0335 134-226 - .O113 151-209 - ,0498 168-192 - ,0737

Table 5-6
Values of Coefficient C. Due to Radial Load. P.
~

fl C. 8 C. B C. B C. 8 C, 8 C.
_____ _____
0-360' + ,2387 31-329 +.4175 62-298 + ,4010 93-267 + ,2280 124-236 - ,0040 155-205 -.I870
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

1-359 + ,2460 32-328 + ,4200 63-297 + ,3975 94-266 + ,2225 125-235 -.O018 156-204 -.I915
2-358 + ,2555 33-327 + ,4225 64-296 + ,3945 95-265 + ,2144 126-234 -.O175 157-203 -.I945
3-357 + ,2650 34-326 + ,4250 65-295 + ,3904 96-264 + ,2075 127-233 - ,0250 158-202 -.I985
4-356 + ,2775 35-325 + ,4266 66-294 + ,3875 97-263 + ,2000 128-232 - ,0325 159-201 - ,2025
5-355 + ,2802 36-324 + ,4280 67-293 + ,3830 98-262 +.1925 129-231 - ,0400 160-200 - ,2053
6-354 + ,2870 37-323 + ,4300 68-292 + .3790 99-261 +.le50 130-230 - ,0471 161-199 - ,2075
7-353 + ,2960 38-322 +.4315 69-291 + ,3740 100-260 +.1774 131-229 - ,0550 162-198 -.2110
8-352 + ,3040 39-321 + ,4325 70-290 + ,3688 1 O1 -259 +.1700 132-228 - ,0620 163-197 - ,2140
9-351 + ,3100 40-320 + ,4328 71-289 + ,3625 102-258 +.I625 133-227 - ,0675 164-196 - ,2170
10-350 + ,3171 41-319 + ,4330 72-288 + ,3600 103-257 +.I550 134-226 - ,0750 165-195 - ,2198
1 1-349 + ,3240 42-318 + ,4332 73-287 + ,3540 104-256 +.I480 135-225 - ,0804 166-194 - ,2220
12-348 + ,3310 43-317 + ,4335 74-286 + ,3490 105-255 +.I394 136-224 - ,0870 167-193 - ,2240
13-347 + .3375 44-316 + ,4337 75-285 + ,3435 106-254 + ,1400 137-223 - ,0940 168-192 - ,2260
14-346 + ,3435 45-315 + ,4340 76-284 + ,3381 107-253 + ,1300 138-222 -.IO00 169-191 - ,2280
15-345 + ,3492 46-314 + ,4332 77-283 + ,3325 108-252 +.I150 139-221 -.IO50 170-190 - ,2303
16-344 + ,3550 47-313 + ,4324 78-282 + ,3270 109-251 +.I075 140-220 -.I115 171-189 - 2315
17-343 + ,3600 48-312 + ,4318 79-281 + ,3200 1 10-250 +.IO11 141 -219 -.I170 172-188 - ,2325
18-342 + ,3655 49-31 1 + ,4308 80-280 + ,3150 11 1-249 + ,0925 142-218 - ,1230 173-187 - ,2345
19-341 + ,3720 50-310 + ,4301 81-279 + ,3090 1 12-248 + ,0840 143-217 - ,1280 174-186 - ,2351
20-340 + ,3783 51-309 + ,4283 82-278 + ,3025 113-247 + ,0760 144-216 - ,1350 175-185 - ,2366
21-339 + ,3810 52-308 + ,4268 83-277 + ,2960 114-246 + .O700 145-215 - .1398 176-184 - 2370
22-338 + ,3855 53-307 + ,4248 84-276 + ,2900 115-245 + ,0627 146-214 - .1450 177-183 - ,2375
23-337 + .3900 54-306 + ,4231 85-275 + ,2837 116-244 + ,0550 147-213 -.1500 178-182 - ,2380
24-336 + ,3940 55-305 + ,4214 86-274 + ,2775 1 1 7-243 + ,0490 148-212 -.1550 179-181 - 2384
25-335 + ,3983 56-304 + ,4180 87-273 + ,2710 118-242 + ,0400 149-211 -.1605 180 - ,2387
26-334 + ,4025 57-303 + ,4160 88-272 + ,2650 119-241 + ,0335 150-210 -.1651
27-333 + ,4060 58-302 + ,4130 89-271 + ,2560 120-240 + ,0250 151-209 -.1690
28-332 + ,4100 59-301 + .41O0 90-270 + ,2500 121 -239 +.O175 152-208 - .1 745
29-331 + ,4125 60-300 + .4080 91-269 + ,2430 122-238 + ,0105 153-207 -.1780
30-330 +.4151 61-299 +.4040 92-268 +.2360 123-237 +.O025 154-206 -.le25
__
166 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

At loads Between loads At loads Between loads At loads Between loads

K, + ,3183 K, - ,1817 K, + ,1888 K, - .1 K, + ,1366 K, - ,0705
c, .l. o c, - .5 C, - ,2887 C, - ,5773 c, - .5 C, - ,707
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Uniform
For any number of equally spaced loads
4 = 112 angle between loads, radians

p,

Between loads: K, = - .5

I .

At loads Between loads Tension force, T T=

K, + ,0889 K, -
,045
C, - ,866 C, - 1.0
Case 4 Case 5 Case 6

f 1 f f

f f f f

P, = f cos + P, = f cos 4
K, is at loads K. is at loads
C, is between loads C; is between loads i f

4 K, C. 4 K. C, 4 K. C. 6 K, C,
10 ,6185 - 1.0 100 ,4656 - ,985 10 ,2540 - 1.411 100 ,1302 - 1.393
20 ,6011 - ,999 150 ,3866 - ,966 20 ,2375 - 1.410 15' ,0902 - 1.366
30 ,5836 - .998 200 ,3152 - ,940 30 ,2214 - 1.409 20.3 ,0688 - 1.329
40 ,5663 - ,997 2S0 ,2536 - ,906 49 ,2062 - 1.408 25' ,0688 - 1.282
50 ,5498 - ,996 3O0 ,2036 - ,866 50 ,1918 - 1.407 30" .0902 - 1.225
'
6 ,5319 - ,995 35 0 ,1668 - .819 6' ,1780 - 1.406 350 ,1324 - 1.158
79 ,5150 - ,992 40' .1441 - ,766 70 ,1649 - 1.405 40° ,1939 - 1.083
80 ,4980 - ,990 450 ,1366 - ,707 80 ,1525 - 1.404 450 ,2732 - 1.00
99 ,4813 - ,986 90 ,1409 - 1.397

Case 7 Case 8

Figure 5-4. Values of coefficients K, and C, for various loadings.

 Local Loads 167

L"91P. I
degire*

Figure 5-5. Graph of internal moment coefficients K

,, K,, and KT.

Annie. B
degree*

Figure 5-6. Graph of circumferential tensionlcompression coefficients C, C,, and CT.

168 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

coefficient may be reverscd for loads in the opposite

Notes direction.
3. The maximum moment normally occurs ai the point
1 , Sign conuention: It is mandatory that sign convention
of the largest load; however, for unevenly spaced or
he strictly followed to determine both the magnitude
mixed loadings, moments or tension should be inves-
of the internal forces and tension or compression at
tigated at each load, ¡.e., five loads require five anal-
any point.
yses.
4. This procedure uses strain-energy concepts.
a. Coefficients in Tables 5-4, 5-5, and 5-6 are for an-
gular distance 0 measured between the point on
5. The following is assumcd.
ring under consideration and loads. Signs shown
are for 0 measured in the clockwise direction only a. Rings are of uniform cross section
b. Signs of coefficients in Tables 5-4, 5-5, and 5-6 h. Material is elastic, but is not stressed beyond elas-
are for outward radial loads and clockwise tan- tic limit.
gential forces and moments. For loads and mo- c. Deformation is caused mainly by bending.
ments in the opposite direction either the sign of
d. All loads are in same plane.
thc load or the sign of the coefficient must he re-
versed. e. The ring is not restrained and is supported along
its circumference by a number of equidistant sim-
2. In Table 5-7 the coefficients have already been com- ple supports (therefore conservative for use on
bined for the loadings shown. The loads must be of cylinders).
equal magnitude and equally spaced. Signs of coeffi- f. The ring is of such large radius in comparison
cients K, and C, are given for loads in the direction with its radial thickness that the deflection theory
shown. Either the sign of the load or the sign of the for straight beams is applicable.

PROCEDURE 5-2
DESIGN OF PARTIAL RING STIFFENERS 171

x = distance between loads, in.

Notation p = damping factor, dimensionless
P, = radial load, Ib
M L = longitudinal moment, in.-lb
M = internal bending moment, shell, in:lb
Fb = allowable bending stress, psi
fb = bending stress, psi
f o r f, = concentrated loads on stiffener due to radial
or moment load on clip, lb Table 5-7
Values of Function F,
F, = function or moment coefficient (see Table
5-7) BX F. BX F.
= e-ox(cos px - sin Ox) O 1.0 .55 ,1903
E, = modulus of elasticity of vessel shell at design .5 ,9025 .6 ,1431
temperature, psi .1 ,8100 .65 ,0997
.15 ,7224 .7 ,0599
E, = modulus of elasticity of stiffener at design ,6398 .75 ,0237
.2
temperature, psi .25 ,5619 .8 ( - ).O093
e = log base 2.71 .3 ,4888 .85 ( - ).O390
I = moment of inertia of stiffener, .35 ,4203 .9 ( - ).O657
Z = section modulus of stiffener, in.? .4 ,3564 .95 -
( ).O896
.45 ,2968 1.o ( - ).1108
K = “spring constant” or “foundation modulus,” .5 ,2415
dimensionless
 Local Loads 169

P, = f

Single load on Radial load Moment load

single stiffener
P
f=L f = ML
2 a

. "M" is bending moment

Single load Two loads in the stiffener
Figure 5-7. Dimensions, forces, and loadings for partial ring stiffeners

Formulas I = -bh3
12
1. Single load. Determine concentrated load on each
stiffener depending on whether there is a radial load
or moment loading, single or double stiffener.
z=-
bh2
6

f= p based on proposed stiffener

li"
Calculate damping factor
size.
Calculate foundation modulus, K.
= 4E,I

Assume stiffener size and calculate Z and I. Calculate internal bending moment in stijj'jner, M

Proposed size:
170 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Calculate bendinp- stresc, j'i

M
fb = -
Z

If bending stress cxcecds allowable (Fb = .6F,), in-

crease size of stiffener and recalculate I, Z, 0,M
and fb. Figure 5-8. Dimensions and loading diagram for beam on elas-
:ic foundation analysis.
2. Multiple loads. Determine concentrated loads on stiff-
ener(s). Loads must be of equal magnitude.

f = fl = f2 = ... f,, 0x0 = o Fl = 1

0i. = F2 =
0x2 = FS =
Calculate foundntion modulus, K. ox. = F, =
CF, =

f
M = - (CF,)
40
Assume a stffener size and calculate I and Z.
Calculate bendinp- stress, fa
Proposed size:
M
fb = -
I = -bh3 Z
12

bh2
Z=-
6
Notes
1. This procedure is based on the beam-on-elastic-foun-
Calculate damping factor 0 based on proposed stiffener
dation thcory. The elastic foundation is the vesscl
size.
shell and the beam is the partial ring stiffener. The
stiffener must be designed to be stiff enough to trans-
mit the load(s) uniformly over its full lenzth. The
flexibility of the vessel shell is taken into account.
T h e lensth of the vessel must be at least 4.9
to qualify for the infinitely long beam theory.
Calculate internal bending moment in stij'ner.
2. The case of multiple loads uses the principle of super-
Step 1: Determine ox for each load (ox is in ra- position. That is, each successivc load has an influ-
ence upon each of the other loads.
dians).
Step 2: Determine F, for each load from Table 3. This procedure determines the bending stress in the
5-7 or calculated as follows: stiffener only The stresses in the vessel shell should
be checked by an appropriate local load procedure.
F, = e-B"(cos ox - sin Bx) These local stresses are secondary bending stresses
and should be combined with primary membrane and
Step 3: Calculate bending moment M bending stresses.
 Local Loads 171

PROCEDURE 5-3
LOCAL STRESSES IN CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

$I- F

c, =
c, =
R, =
C, = t=
c, =
R, =
t =

K, = from Figure 5-13 = K, = from Figure 5-13 =

K, = from Figure 5.12 = K, =from Figure 5-12 =

See Note 7 See Note 7 See Note 7

Figure 5-9. Radial load for shell attach- Figure 5-10. Longitudinal moment load Figure 5-11. Circumferential moment
ments. for shell attachments. load for shell attachments.
Pressure Vessel Design Manual

2.2

2.1

2.0

1.9

1.8

1.7
1.6

1.5
1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1
1.o

.9

.8

KO .7

.6

.5

.4

.3

.2

O
.05 .I .I5 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0

CJR,
Figure 5-12. Values of coefficient K, for circumferential stress
 Local Loads 173

1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6

- 1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2

1.1
1 .o

.9
.8

.7

KX .6

.5

.4

.3

.2

.05 .I .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0

CJR,

Figure 5-13. Values of coefficient K, for longitudinal stress.

174 Pressure Vessel Design Manual
Notes
1. This procedure is for uniformly distributed loads
over square or rectangular areas.
2. This procedure is based on solid attachments. For
nonuniform or hollow attachments see Procedurc
5-4.
3 . For circular attachments; C, = C, = .875r,,.
4. For clips assume 2C = t, + 2t, + 2t where t, is the
thickness of the clip, and ,t is the fillet weld size at-
taching the clip.
PROCEDURE -5-4
ATTACHMENT PARAMETERS
This procedure is for use in converting the area of at-
tachments into shapcs that can readily be applied in de-
s i p procedurcs. Irregular attachments (not round,
square, or rectangular) can he converted into a rectan-
gle which has:
The same moment of inertia
The same ratio of length to yidth of the original at-
tachment.
In addition, a rectangular load area may be reduced to
an “equivalent” square area.
Bijlaard recommends for non-rectangular attach-
ments, the loaded rectangle can be assumed to hc that
which has the same moment of inertia with respect to
the moment axis as the plan of the actual attachment.
Further, it should be assumed that the dimensions of the
rectangle in the longitudinal and circumferential direc-
tions have the same ratio as the two dimensions of the
attachment in these directions.
DodSe comments on this method in WRC Bulletin
198: “Although the ‘equivalent moment of incrtia pro-
cedure’ is simple and direct, it was not derived by any
Figure 5-14. Attachment parameters for solid attachments.
5. When calculating stresses assume thc thickness of the
shell as half corroded.
6. In general, combine stresses due to local loads with
those due to internal pressure. Limit the combined
stresses to between 1.25 to 1.75 times ASME Code
allowable.
7. When C,/R,, is greatcr than .05, the maximum
stress should be computed as follows:
mathematical or logical reasoning which would allow
the designer to ratiónalize the accuracy of the results.”
. Dodge goes on to recommend an alternative proce-
dure based on the principle of superposition. This
method would divide irregular attachments into a com-
posite of one or more rectangular sub-areas.
Neither method is entirely satisfactory and each ig-
nores the effect of local stiffness provided by the attach-
ments’ shape. An empirical method should take into
consideration the “area of influence” of the attachment
which would account for the attenuation length or decay
length of the stress in question.
Studies by Roark would indicate short zones of influ-
ence in the longitudinal direction (quick decay) and a
much broader area of influence in the circumferential
direction (slow decay, larger attenuation) this would also
seem to account for the attachment and shell acting as a
unit, which they of course do.
Since no hard and fast rules have yet been deter-
mined, it would seem reasonable to apply the factors as
outlined in this procedure for general applications. Very
large or critical loads should, however, he examined in
depth.
 Local Loads 175

Convert all attachments to rectangles 2C, x 2C2

I
I
-
I 1
~~~~ ~

c,
~~

.
.5b .3b .25b .3b
c2 I .4h .4h
, .
.4h .r . .4h . .

. e . .
1 . . I .

I I I
1
~ ~~~~~

c, .4b .5b .3b .2b

c2 I .5h .5h .5h
I .4h

Figure 5-15. Attachment parameters for nonsolid attachments.

Notes 2. Clips must be closer than if running circumfer-

entially or closer than 6 in. if running longitudinally
1. b = t, +
2t, + 2t, where t, = fillet weld size and to be considered as a single attachment.
t, = thickness of shell.

PROCEDURE 5-5
STRESSES IN CYLINDRICAL SHELLS FROM EXTERNAL
LOCAL LOADS [7,9,10,111

M, = external circumferential moment,

Notation
in.-lb
M.,. = external torsional moment, in.-lb
P, = radial load, lb M, = internal longitudinal moment, in:
P = internal design pressure, psi Ib/in.
M,, = external longitudinal moment, in: M, = internal circumfercntial moment,
lb in.-lbh.
176 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

VL =
longitudinal shear force, Ib C = one-half width of squarc attach-
V, =
circumferential shear force, Ib ment, in.
mean radius of shell, in.
R, = C,,CL = multiplication factors for rectangular
outside radius of circular attach-
r, = attachments
ment, in. C , = one-half circumferential width of a
r = corner radius of attachment, in. rectangular attachment, in.
K,,KI, = stress concentration factors C 2 = one-half longitudinal length of a rec-
KL,K~,K,,K2= coefficients to determine P for rec- tangular attachment, in.
tangular attachments h = thickness of attachment, in.
N, = membrane force in shell, longitudi- d, = outside diameter of circular attach-
nal, Ib/in. ment, in.
N, = membrane force in shed, circumfer- te = equivalent thickness of shell and re-
ential, Ib/in. pad, in.
. 71.= torsional shear stress, psi tp = thickness of reinforcing pad, in.
T~ = direct shear strep, psi t = shell thickness, in.
U, = longitudinal normal stress, psi y,P,Pi,P2 = ratios ba5ed on vesscl and attach-
U, = circumferential normal stress, psi * ment geometry

.
M

Radial load-membrane S ~ S is S compressive lor inward ra-

dial load and IenSlle lor outward load Longitudinal mamen1

Figure 5-16. Loadings and forces at local attachments in cylindrical shells

.875r,
Geometric Parameters ~

R,,
For rectangular attachments:

or for circular attachments:

 e
Local Loads 177

*
EL@&

-t-
-~~
/.-rCzc,
1800

Figure 5-17. Stress indices of local attachments. Figure 5-18. Load areas of local attachments For circular at-
tachments use C = 875 ro

26, = h + 2w + 2t 2C2 = h + 2w + 2t
w = leg of fillet weld Note: Only ratios of C,/C2 between .25 and 4 may be computed
h = thickness of attachment by this procedure.
Figure 5-19. Dimensions for clips and attachments.

Scale B
K, = membrane factor
Kb = bending factor
-
L
O
m
0

Nozzle
VI
VI
ai
5

Scale A Clip
Ratio fillet weld radius to thickness of shell, attachment, or di-
2r 2r
ameter of nozzle,
t ' D,' h
Figure 5-20. Stress concentration factors. (Reprinted by permission of the Welding Research Council.)
178 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

C
Procedure p =-
R,,,
To calculate stresses due to radial load P,, longitudi- c. Rectangular attachments:
nal moment MI,, and circumferential moment M,, on a R,,,
cylindrical vessel, follow the following steps: y=-
t
Step 1: Calculate geometric parameters: fl values for radial load, longitudinal moment and
circumferential moment vary based on ratios of
a. Round attachments:
piIp2. Follow procedures that follow these steps to
R, find 0 values.
y=- Step 2.:Using y and 0 values from Step 1, enter applica-
t
ble graphs, Figures 5-22 through 5-27 to find dimen-
sionless membrane forces and bending moments in
shell.
Step 3: Enter values obtained from Figures 5-22 through
b. Square attachments: 5-27 into Table 5-11 and compute stresses.
Step 4: Enter stresses computed in Table 5-1 1 for various
load conditions in Table 5-12. Combine stresses in ac-
cordance with sign convention of Tablc 5-12.

COMPUTING GEOMETRIC PARAMETEF FOR LOADS ON ATTACHMENTS WITH

REINFOR NG PADS
CIRCUMFERENTIAL MOMENT LONGITUDINAL MOMENT
413 c,

IJ
I 11800
2 c,
^. Assumed Load
nrcn

I I
I
AI Edge 01 Allachmenl AI Edge o1 Pad A I Edge of Allachmenl AI Edge of Pad
1.0. + t + I
m=___o
2
I
IR,=-

I
m--
I.D. ++ II
2 I
I
n = +2 + tp

I
IR,=-

I
1.0.+ t
2 I
I
t t
=Jt"io

for N,

for Md
for M. p for M, for M y
I I
 Local Loads 179

Computing p Values for Rectangular I Values for Longitudinal Moment

Attachments
From Table 5-9 select values of C,, and KL and corn-
bute values of as follows:

:or N, and N,, P =

:or M,, P = KL

Tor M,, B = K~ 3733

Load
area

Figure 5-21. Dimensions of load areas

3 Values for Circumferential Moment

Values for Radial Load
From Table 5-10 select values of C , and K, and com-
From Table 5-8 select values of KI and K2 and com- pute values of 0 as follows:
pute four P values as follows:
For N, and N,, P =
I fB2 2 1 , t h e n o =
P2
For M,, P = K,
I fBL < l , t h e n o =
02 For M,, P = K, -@%

Table 5-8
0 Values for Radial Loads
I I K. I K. I 8 I
N* .91 1.48

N, 1.68 1.2

M, 1.76 .88

M, 1.2 1.25
I I I I
Reprinted by permission o1 the Welding Rasearch Council.
180 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Table 5-9
Coefficients for Longitudinal Moment, ML
0, 1 0 2 Y CL for N, CL for N, K, for M, KL for M,
15 .75 .43 1 .80 1.24
50 .77 .33 1.65 1.16
25 1 O0 .80 24 1.59 1.11
200 .85 .IO 1.58 1.11
300 .90 .O7 1.56 1.11
15 .90 .76 1 .O8 1 .O4
50 .93 .73 1 .O7 1 .O3
.5 100 .97 .68 1 .O6 1 .o2
200 .99 .64 1 .O5 1 .O2
300 1.10 .60 1 .O5 1 .o2
15 .89 1 .o0 1 .o1 1 .O8
50 .89 .96 1 .o0 1 .O7
1 100 .89 .92 .98 1 .O5
200 .89 .99 .95 1 .o1
300 .95 1 .O5 .92 .96
15 .87 1.30 .94 1.12
50 .84 1.23 .92 1.10
2 1 O0 .81 1.15 .89 1 .O7
200 .80 1.33 .84 .99
300 .80 1.50 .79 .91
15 .68 1.20 .90 1.24
50 51 1.13 .86 1.19
4 1 O0 .51 1 .O3 .81 1.12
200 50 1.18 .73 .98
300 .so 1.33 64 .83
Reprinted by permission al the Welding Research Council.

Table 5-10
Coefficients for Circumferential Moment, M.
04 1 8 2 Y C, for N, C, for N, K, for M, K, for M.
15 .31 .49 1.31 1.84
50 2 1 .46 1.24 1.62
25 100 .15 .44 1.16 1.45
200 .12 .45 1 .o9 1.31
300 .o9 .46 1 .O2 1.17
15 .64 .75 1 .o9 1.36
50 57 .75 1 .O8 1.31
.5 1 O0 .51 .76 1 .O4 1.26
200 .45 .76 1 .o2 1.20
300 .39 .77 .99 1.13
15 1.17 1.08 1.15 1.17
50 1 .o9 1 .O3 1.12 1.14
1 100 .97 .94 1 .O7 1.10
200 .91 .91 1 .O4 1 .O6
300 .85 .89 .99 1 .O2
15 1.70 1.30 1.20 .97
50 1.59 1.23 1.16 .96
2 1 O0 1.43 1.12 1.10 .95
200 1.37 1.06 1 .o5 .93
300 1.30 1.00 1 .o0 .90
15 1.75 1.31 1.47 1 .O8
50 1.64 1.11 1.43 1 .O7
4 1 O0 1.49 .81 1.38 1 .O6
200 1.42 .78 1.33 1 .o2
300 1.36 .74 1.27 .98
Reprinted by peimiSSion o1 the Welding Research Council.
 Local Loads 181

Table 5-11
Computing Stresses
Forces and Moments Stress

I
Radial Load

Membrane 5-22A
o* = -
KnN,
t

=-
KnN,
5-228
O,
t

Bending 5Q3A

5-238

Longitudinal Moment

KnN,
o* = -
Membrane 5-24A t

5-248
cx = -
K.N,
t

ending 5-25A

5-258

I
Circumferential Moment

Membrane 5-26A

5-268

Bending 5-27A

5-278
182 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Table 5-12
Combinina Stresses

Shear Stresses vc
r3= -
4Ct
Stress due to shear loads, VL or Vc
Rectangular attachments:
Round attachments:

rs = -VL
VI.
7 = _ 4C,t
ar,t

rs = -vc
vc
7 =- 4C,t
mot
Stress due to torsional moment, MT.
Square attachments: Round attachments only!

VI.
rs = -
4Ct
 Local Loads 183

70

50

30

20
15

10
8
6

1 .o
.8
.6
.5
A

40
50

30

20
15

10 I

-7 =5
1-

.O5
184 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

.6
.4

.2

.1
.oe
.O€

.O4

.oí

.o1
.ooe
.OOE

.O04

,002
A

Figure 5-23. Bending moment in a cylinder due to radial load on an external attachment. (Reprinted by permission from the Weld.
ing Research Council.)
 Local Loads 185

40 I
30

20
15

1C
9
8
7
6
5
4
3

2
1.5

1 .o

.7
.5
.4
.3

.2
.15
A 05 1 15 2 25 3 35 4 45 5
P

10
8
6

1
8
.6

.4
.3

.2
.15

.1

.O8
06 I I I / I I I I I I I
B 05 1 15 2 25 3 35 4 45 5
,i

Figure 5-24. Membrane force in a cylinder due to longitudinal moment on an external attachment. (Reprinted by permission from
the Welding Research Council.)
186 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

.I
.O8
.O6

.O4

.o2
,015

.o1
,008
,006

.O04

,002

,001
.O008

A .a5 .1 .15 2 .25 .3 35 .4 .45 5

P

Figure 5-25. Bending moment in a cylinder due to longitudinal moment on an external attachment. (Reprinted by permission from
the Welding Research Council.)
 Local Loads 187

8
6

2
15

1
8
6

15

1
O8

25
20
15

10
8
6

1
8
6

2
15

1
0 05 1 15 2 25 3 35 4 45 5
B

Figure 5-26. Membrane force in a cylinder due to circumferential moment on an external attachment. (Reprinted by permission
from the Welding Research Council.)
188 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

.2
.I5

.1
Q
E .08
.06

.04
.03
A .05 .I .I5 .2 .25 .3 .35 .4 .45 .5
0

I I I I I t
I I I I I
-w=s I i I I

j .04

.03

.02
,015

I I I I I I I
.01
B .05 .1 .I5 .2 .25 .3 .35 .4 .45 .5
P
Figure 5-27. Bending moment in a cylinder due to circumferential moment on an external attachment. (Reprinted by permission
from the Welding Research Council.)

5. See Procedure 5-4 to convert irregular attachment

Notes
1. Figure 5-20 should bc used if the vessel is in brittle
(low temperature) or fatigue service. For brittle
fracture the maximum tensile stress is governing.
The stress concentration factor is applied to the
stresses which arc perpendicular to the change in
section.
2. Subscripts 0 and C indicate circumferential direc-
tion, X and L indicate longitudinal direction.
3. Only rectangular shapes where cI/c2is between '14
and 4 can be computed by this procedure. The
charts and graphs are not valid for lesser or greater
ratios.
4. Methods of reducing stresses from local loads:
a. Add reinforcing pad.
b. Increase shell thickness.
c. Add partial ring stiffcncr.
d. Add Circumferential ring stiffencr(s)
c. Kneebracc to reduce moment loads.
f. Increase attachment size.
shapes into suitable shapes for design procedure.
6. For radial loads the stress on the circumferential
axis will always govern.
7. The maximum stress due to a circumferential mo-
ment is 2-5 times larger than the stress due to a lon-
gitudinal moment of the same magnitude.
8. The maximum stress from a longitudinal moment
is not locatcd on the longitudinal axis of the vessel
and may be 6Oo-7O0 off the longitudinal axis. The
rcason for the high stresses on or adjacent to the cir-
cumferential axis is that, on thin shells, the longitu-
dinal axis is relatively flexible and free to deform
and that the loads are thereby transferred toward
the circumferential axis which is less free to deform.
Figurcs 5-23, 5-24, and 5-25 do not show maximum
stresses since their location is unknown. Instead the
stress on the longitudinal axis is given.
9. For attachments with reinjorcins pa&: This applies only
to attachments that are welded to a reinforcing plate
that is subsequently welded to the vessel shell. At-
tachments that arc welded through the pad (like
nozzles) can be considered as integral with the shell.
 Local Loads 189

Moment loadings for nonintegral attachments For circumferential moment:

must be converted into radial loads. This will
more closely approximate the manner in which the
loads are distributed in shell and plate. Stresses
should be checked at the edge of attachment and Moments can be converted as follows:
edge of reinforcing plate. The maximum height of ~ M L
P, = -
reinforcing pad to he considered is given by: 4C2
or
For radial load: P, =
3Mc
-
4 c1
10. This procedure is based on the principle of “flexible
For longitudinal moment: load surfaces.” Attachments larger than one half the
vessel diameter (0 > .5) cannot be determined by
this procedure. For attachments which exceed these
parameters see Procedure 4-1.

PROCEDURE 5-6
STRESSES IN SPHERICAL SHELLS FROM EXTERNAL
LOCAL LOADS [ 11- 131

Notation
P, = external radial load, Ib
M = external moment, in.-lb
R,, = mean radius of sphere, crown radius of F &
D, dished or ellipsoidal head, in.
r,, = outside radius of cylindrical attachment, in.
C = half side of square attachment, in.
N, = membrane force in shell, meridional, Ib/in.
N, = membrane force in shell, latitudinal, lb/in.
M, = internal bending moment, meridional, in:
Ih/in.
M, = internal bendingmoment, latitudinal, in,-lh/
in.
K,,Kb = stress concentration factors (See Note 3)
U,S = coefficients
0; = meridional stress, psi
u+ = latitudinal stress, psi
T, = thickness of reinforcing pad, in.
7 = shear stress, psi
M.r = torsional moment, in:lb
Figure 5-28. Loadings and forces at local attachments in
V = shear load, lb spherical shells.
190 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

B General stress equation.

Procedure
Ni 6Mi
o=-+-
T - T2
To calculate stress due to radial load (Pr), and/or mo-
ment (M), on a spherical shell or head:
B For attachments with reinforcins pads

1. Calculate value “S” to find stresses at distance x

from centerline or value “U” at edge of attach- T at edge of attachment =
ment. Note: At edge of attachment, S = U. Nor-
mally stress there will govern. T at edge of pad = T

2. From Figures 5-30-5-33 determine coefficients for Shear stresses.

membrane and bending forces and enter values in
Table 5-13. Due to shear load

V
3. Compute stresses in Table 5-13. These stresses are 7=-
entered into Table 5-14 based on the type of stress nr,T
(membrane or bending) and the type of load that
produced ,that stress (radial load or moment). Due to torsional moment, MT

4. Stresses in Table 5-14 are added vertically to total

at bottom.

Formulas Stress Indices, Loads and Geometric

Parameters
For square attachment.
r, =

r,, = C R,, =
T=
For rectangular attachments.
K, =

r,, = a Kb
P, =
=

For multiple moments.

M=

M = a
s=-1 . 8 2 ~
For multiple shear forces.
m
V = m
 Local Loads 191

Table 5-13
Comoutina Stresses
Figure Value from Figure stresses

Membrane 5-30A

5-300

Bending 5-31A

5-318

900
Membrane 5-32A

5-328

1,800 Bending 5-33A

Stress indices
5-338
Figure 5-29. Dimensions and stress indices of local attach-
ments.

Table 5-14

L
Combining Stresses
i
Stress Due To

Radial load, P,
(sign is ( + ) for out-
ward radial load.
( - ) l o r inward load)

Moment, M

Total E

Note: Only absolute value of quantities are used. Combine stresses utilizing- sign convention of table.
192 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Hoop force No

Figure 5-30. Membrane force due to P,. (Extracts from BS 5500:1985 are reproduced by permission of the British Standards Insti-
tution, 2 Park Street, London, W l A 2BS, England. Complete copies can be obtained from national standards bodies.)
 Local Loads 193

0.4

Meridional moment M,

s=- 1.82X
0.3 J m
u = -1.82r,
JR,T
0.2

- 0.1

0.1
O 0.5 1.o 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
S

+ .2

+ .I5
!&
p,

+ .IO

+ .O5

O
B O 0.5 1.o 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 O
S

Figure 5-31. Bending moment due to P,. (Extracts from BS 5500:1985 are reproduced by permission of the British Standards
Institution, 2 Park Street, London, W I A 285, England. Complete copies can be obtained from national standards bodies.)
194 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

- .25
Hoop membrane force N,

- .2

- .15

N ~ T K T
M
-.I

- .O5

O
B O 0.5 , 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
S

Figure 5-32. Membrane force due to M. (Extracts from BS 5500:1985 are reproduced by permission of the British Standards Insti-
tution, 2 Park Street, London, W I A 25% England. Complete copies can be obtained from national standards bodies.)
 Local Loads 195

+ 3.0 i l l i i i l i i l i
Meridional moment M,

+ .$

+ .E

+ .;
~
M,JRJ
M
+ .I

+ .!

+ .'

+.

+.

B 0.5 1.o 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

S

Figure 5-33.Bending moment due to M. (Extracts from BS 5500:1985 are reproduced by permission of the British Standards
Institution, 2 Park Street, London, W I A ZBS, England. Complete copies can be obtained from national standards bodies.)
196 Pressure Vessel Design Manual
Notes
1. This procedure is based on the “Theory of Shallow
Spherical Shells.”
2. Because stresses are local and die out rapidly with in-
creasing distance from point of application, this pro-
cedure can be applied to the spherical portion of the
vessel heads as well as to complete spheres.
3. For “Stress Concentration Factors” see “Stresses in
Cylindrical Shells from External Local Loads,” Pro-
cedure 5-5.
4. For convenience, the loads are considered as acting
on a rigid cylindrical attachment of radius r,. This
REFERENCES
1 . Roark, R. J., Formulas f o r Stress and Strain, 5th Edi-
tion, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1975.
2. Isakower, R . I., “Ring Redundants,” Machine De-
sign, March 1965.
3 . Blake, A., “Stresses in Flanges and Support
Rings,” Machine Desip, September 1974.
4. Samoiloff, A,, “Investigation of Stress in Circular
Rings,” Petroleum Refiner, July 1947.
5 . Blake, A., “Rings and Arcuate Beams,” Product En-
gineering, January 1963.
6. Blodgett, O. W., Design of Welded Structures, The
James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, 1966,
Section 6.6-4.
7. Harvey, J . F., Theory and Design of Modern Pressure
Essels, 2nd Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,
1974.
8. Roark, R . J., “Stresses and Deflections in Thin
Shells and Curved Plates Due to Concentrated and
Variously Distributed Loading,” Technical Note
806, National Advisory Committee on Aeronau-
tics, 1941.
w yield approximate results for hollow attach-
ments. For more accurate results for hollow attach-
ments, consult WRC Bulletin 107 [ l l ] .
5. The stresses found from these charts will be reduced
by the effect of internal pressure, but this reduction
is small and can usually be neglected in practice,
Bijlaard found that for a spherical shell with
R,/T = 100, and internal pressure causing mem-
brane stress of 13,000 psi, the maximum deflection
was decreased by only 4%-5% and bending mo-
ment by 2 %. In a cylinder with the same R,/T ratio,
these reductions were about 10 times greater. This
small reduction for spherical shells is caused by the
smaller and more localized curvatures caused by lo-
cal loading of spherical shells.
9. “Tentative Structural Design Basis for Reactor
Pressure Vessels and Directly Associated Compo-
nents,” PB 151987, United States Dept. of Com-
merce, December 1958, pp. 62-81.
10. Dodge, W. G., “Secondary Stress Indices for Inte-
gral Structural Attachments to Straight Pipe,”
Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 198, Sep-
tember 1974.
11. Wichman, K. R., Hopper, A. G., and Mershon,
J. L., “Local Stresses in Spherical and Cylindrical
Shells Due to External Loadings,” Welding Re-
search Council Bulletin No. 107, April 1972.
12. Bijlaard, P. P., “Computation of the Stresses from
Local Loads in Spherical Pressure Vessels or Pres-
sure Vessel Heads,” Welding Research Council Bul-
letin No. 34, 1957.
13. BS 5500: Specificationfor Unfired Fusion Welded Pressure
Vessels, British Standards Institute, London, 1985.
Related Equipment
PROCEDURE 6-1
DESIGN OF DAVITS T1,21

Notation
I M2 = maximum bending moment in curved davit,
in.-lb
MS = bending moment in boom, in.-lb
C, = vertical impact factor, 1.5-1.8 M, = longitudinal moment, in.-lb
Ch = horizontal impact factor, .2-.5 M, = circumferential moment, in:lb
fa = axial stress, psi W1 = weight of boom and brace, Ib
fb = bending stress, psi WD = total weight of davit, Ib
6,= horizontal force, Ib W,, = maximum rated capacity, Ib
f, = vertical force, lb or,P,K = stress coefficients
Fa = allowable axial stress, psi P = axial load, Ib
Fh = allowable bending stress, psi I = moment of inertia, in.4
F, = radial load, Ib A = cross-scctional area, in.2
F,, = equivalent radial load, lb Z = section modulus,
F, = minimum specified yield stress, psi r = least radius of gyration, in.
M, = bending moment in mast at top guide or sup- t,, = wail thickness of pipe davit, in.
port, in.-lb a = outside radius of pipc, in.

r t
f" f"
t
f"

T-
c
I

Dimensions typical
$ One part line, winch to load Chain or ratchet hoist One part line, snatch block on mast

Figure 6-1. Types of rigging,

197
198 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

F, is maximum when davit rotation 6 is at O o , for

Moments and Forces in Davit and Vessel other rotations:
Loads on davit,
F, = F, cos 6
f" = GWl. Circumferential moment at guide and support, M,.
fh = ChWI. M, = F,L,

Bending moment in davit mast, M,. M, is maximum when davit rotation 6 is at 90°, for
other rotations:
Type 1: MI = 2f,L, + .5WIL1+ fhL2
M, = F,L4 sin 6
Type 2: MI = fvLl + .5WlLI + fhL7
Axial load on davit mast, P
Type 3 : MI = f@LI + L5 - L2) + .5W1Lf + fhLi
Type 1 or 3 : P = 2f, + WD
Radial force at suide and support, F,. Type 2: P = f" + WD

LonEitudinal moment at support, M,.

M
F =>
' L3 M, = PL+

Boom Length, LI (ft)

Figure 6-2. Davit selection guide

tp =
Stresses in Davit
a =
Mast Properties
Slenderness ratio:
I = 2.1 L,
~=

A = r

Z= F, =

r = Fb = .6F,
 P
Related Equipment 199

Type A Davit Coefficients

o=- 6
5 + 6u2

9
K=1-
10+ iza2
Mi
I

Figure 6-3.Type A davit.

I Figure 6-4. Type 6 davit

Axial stress-mast
I Combined stress

Bending stress-mast.
Mi
I
I
fi, = -
Z Finding Equivalent Radial Load, F,,
Combined stress-mast

Bending stress- boom

T y p e 1: fb = 2 f " L
~

Z
f"L5
T y p e 2 or 3: fi, = -
Z
f
f I
Load due to F. cos m

Load due 10 F. sin m

Figure 6-5. Forces in davit guide
Type B Davit

Axial stress
Combined stress

Bending moment, M2.

Mi(L2 - R)
M2 =
L2
Bending stress

At MI, fi, MI
=-
Z
I Figure 6-6. Graph of combined stress for various davit rota-
tion.
200 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Equivalent unit load, w,lb/in

W =
F, cos q5
+ 6Fr sin q5 L4
B R2

Equivalent radial load, F,<, lb

wB
F,, =-
2

Calculate F,#for various an& of davit rotation

Shell Stresses (See Note 1)
At Support: Utilizing the area of loading as illustrated
in Figure 6-8, find shell stresses due to loads M,, M,,
and F, by an appropriate local load procedure such as
Procedure 5-3.
At Guide: Utilizing the area of loading as illustratcd in
Figure 6-9, find shell stresses due to loads Me and F,
by an appropriate local load procedure such as Proce-
dure 5 - 3 .
NOTE: F,, may be substituted for M, and F, as an
equivalent radial load for any rotation of davit other
than O0 or 90’.

Figure 6-7. Dimensions of forces at davit support and guide.

Area for guide

may be increased
by adding gussets

ZC, = t, + ztw + t,

Figure 6-8. Area of loading at davit support. Figure 6-9. Area of loading at davit guide
 Related Equipment 201

equivalent radial load, F,, must be calculated for var-

Notes
1. Figure 6-6 illustrates the change in the total com-
bined stress as the davit is rotated between O" and
90'. As can be seen from the graph the stress due to
M, is constant for any degree of davit rotation. This
stress occurs only at the support. The stress due to F,
varies from a maximum at 0' to O at 90". The stress
due to M, is O at 0' and increases to a maximum at
90'. To find the worst combination of stress, the
ious degrees of davit rotation, 6.At the guide shell
stresses should be checked by an appropriate local
load procedure for the maximum equivalent radial
load. At the support shell stresses should be checked
for both F,, and M,. Stresses from applicable exter-
nal loads shall be combined. Remember the force F,,
is a combination of loads F, and M, at a given davit
orientation. F, and M, are maximum values that do
not occur simultaneously.
2. Impact factors account for bouncing, jerking, and
swinging of loads.

PROCEDURE 6-2
DESIGN OF CIRCULAR PLATFORMS
Table 6-1
Notation
Diameter (ft) a
2 23O
(R2 - r2)v$ 4 17O
Area = 6 14O
360
8 11.5O
10 100
?rR@ 12 90
Arc length, 1 = -
180 14 80
16 70
18 6O
180 1
Angle, 0 = 20 5.50
TR
~

Note: Values in table are approximate only for estimating use.

f = dead load + live load, psf

fb = bending stress, beam, psi
fa = axial stress, psi
fx,y,r = bolt loads, Ib
F= total load on bracket, Ib
A = load area, ft2
Figure 6-10. Dimensions of a typical circular platform
A' = cross-sectional area of kneebrace, in.2
MI = moment at shell, ft-lb
M2 = moment at bolts, ft-lb
C = distance to C.G. of area, ft Platform b R r Area
K = end connection coefficient, use 1.0
r' = radius of gyration, in.
P = axial load on kneebrace, lb
Z = section modulus of beam, in.3
202 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

F-applied eC G

CL Bracket

Figure 6-11. Dimensions, force, and local area for circular platforms.

COMPUTING MOMENTS IN SHELL AND BOLT LOADS

MOMENTS IN SHELL: TYPE BOLT LOADS
Plaitorm 1 0 1 ~ l A I Fr I G I I, I le I MI CLIP Mi I I, I fv I I.
I I I I I I I I

Formulas for Chart

(R2- r2)?r8
A=
360
F fA
=

38.197(R3 - 9)sin 0/2

C= f, = . I M2 f, = .O66 M2 f, = ,049MZ
(R2 - r2)8/2
l1 = C - i,
12 = 11 - d
Mi = IIF

@,
M2 = 12F
F
f, =
Table 6-2
Allowable Loads in Bolts fY f,

Size
(kips)
Worst case is f,=m
corner bolt
Material (in.) 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 l-%
A-307 3.07 4.42 6.01 7.85 9.94
Figure 6-12. Bolt load formulas for various platform Support
A-325 4.60 6.63 9.02 11.78 14.91
clips.
 Related Equipment 203

Design of Kneebrace
Line 01 action

*lr"C,"ral tee may

he used $0gel mom
bolls in a rmailei clip
!or high loads.
-Beam

Use K i 1.7

n = number 01 bolls

-= WP gauge Of angle ~
Figure 6-13. Dimensions, forces and reactions of kneebrace
support.

Reaction, R,

XMRj = 1lF - lSRl = 0 .'.R, 1iF

=-
13 Rs = radial load on shell

Shear load on boltdradial load on shell.

R2 = RJ = R, tan 0
Bendinf stress in beam.

11, - l3 I F
fb =
Z

Axial load in kneebrace.

p = - R1
cos p
t-This type 01 clip will tend
10 cause rotation due ID!he
Axial stress. eCCentrlCily 01 the ,,ne O!
action IDthe centerline 01
,he CIID.

Slenderness ratio/allowable stress. - Parllal or ""9 rll!leners

may be used lox large loads

-K14
_ Fa = See Table 6-5 Figure 6-14. Typical bolted connections for kneebrace sup-
r' ports.
~
204 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

/
/

m
LD
N N
\
in\
- \ - LD
O
 Related Equipment 205

Table 6-3
Grating: Allowable Live Load Based on Fiber Stress of 18,000 psi
Bearing Bars at 1318 Center to Center-Cross Bars at 4 in.
Main Span (ft-in.)
Bar Sec. Mod./ Weight
Size ft width Ib/sa ft TVDe. 1-0 1-6 2-0 2-6 3-0 3-6 4-0 4-6 5-0 5-6 6-0
-_ _ _
U 4562 2029 1142 731 506 372 286 224
,380 9.0
C 2283 1522 1142 912 762 653 571 508
11.9
U 5687 2529 1423 910 633 465 355 282
,474
C 2845 1898 1423 1139 947 812 712 633
U 7128 3169 1782 1141 793 583 446 353 286 238 196
594 10.9
C 3564 2378 1782 1426 1186 1019 892 792 713 648 595
,741 14.3
U 8888 3948 2221 1423 986 726 555 438 355 295 246
C 4445 2963 2221 1778 1482 1268 1112 986 889 808 742

,856 12.9
U 10265 4564 2567 1641 1142 836 641 506 412 339 286
C 5132 3423 2587 2052 1712 1468 1282 1140 1027 932 856
U 12796 5689 3198 2048 1423 1045 798 632 512 422 355
1.066 16.7
C 8396 4266 3198 2558 2133 1826 1599 1422 1279 1163 1066
U 15312 6806 3829 2451 1702 1251 958 758 613 506 425
1.276 19.6
C 7654 5105 3829 3063 2553 2188 1914 1702 1532 1393 1276
U 13963 6206 3492 2233 1553 1140 875 691 559 483 386
1.164 14.8
C 6981 4656 3492 2792 2326 1996 1745 1552 1398 1270 1165
U 17411 7738 4352 2788 1936 1422 1087 861 696 576 484
1.451 19.1
C 8708 5805 4352 3483 2903 2488 2176 1935 1742 1583 1452
U 20842 9262 5210 3336 2315 1702 1302 1029 834 688 579
1.737 22.5
C 10420 6949 5210 4169 3473 2978 2604 2315 2085 1895 1738
U 18242 8107 4562 2918 2028 1489 1141 902 730 604 507
1.520 16.7
C 9121 6082 4562 3648 3040 2808 2281 2027 1825 1858 1521
1.895 21.5
U 22740 10102 5686 3637 2526 1858 1422 1123 910 753 633
C 11371 7581 5686 4547 3791 3248 2842 2529 2275 2067 1895

2.269 25.4
U 27224 12098 6808 4356 3026 2223 1702 1344 1 O88 900 758
C 13613 9073 6808 5446 4536 3888 3401 3026 2723 2476 2269
* U-uniform
C-concentrated
206 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Table 6-4
Floor Plate: Allowable Live Load Based on Fiber Stress of 20.000 D S ~
Nominal Short Span (ft-in.)
Long Span Thickness
(ft-in.) 1in.i 2-6 3-0 3-6 4-0 4-6 5-0 5-6 6-0
Supports on Four Sides

2-6 656
1026

3-0 514 452

806 708
441 366 328
3-6
691 573 515
393 316 274 249
4-0
617 496 431 391
366 284 239 210 195
4-6
575 446 376 331 307
350 262 215 185 167 156
5-0
550 41 1 338 291 264 246
340 248 198 168 148 135 126
5-6
532 391 312 265 234 214 201
330 240 187 154 134 120 111 104
6-0
51 7 377 293 244 213 191 173 166
178 145 124 1 o9 96 93
6-6
281 230 197 174 158 140
173 138 116 1 o1 91 63
7-0 273 218 184 162 145 135
170 133 111 95 84 76
7-6
268 210 175 152 135 122
106 90 79 71
8-0 168 143 127 114
102 86 75 67
8-6
163 137 120 106
72 63
9-0
114 1 o1
Supports on Two Sides
-
m 114 255 174 125 93 71 55
_ m SI?6 402 275 198 148 114 90 72 58
 Related Equipment 207

Table 6-5
Main and Secondary Members Notes
Kllr not over 120
1. Dead loads: 30 psf. Platform steel weight. This in-
KI
- F. KI
- Fa KI
- F. cludes grating or floor plate, structural framing, sup-
r (ksi) r (ksi) r (ksi)
ports, toe angle or plate, and handrailing. To find
1 21.56 41 19.11 81 15.24 weight of steel, multiply area of platforms by 30 psf.
2 21.52 42 19.03 82 15.13
3 21.48 43 18.95 83 15.02
2. Live loads:
4 21.44 44 18.86 84 14.90 Operating: Approximately 25-30 psf. Live load is
5 21.39 45 18.78 85 14.79 small because it is assumed there are not a lot of
people or equipment on the platform while vessel is
6 21.35 46 18.70 86 14.67
7 21.30 47 18.61 87 14.56 operating. Combine effects with shell stress due to
8 21.25 48 18.53 88 14.44 design pressure.
9 21.21 49 18.44 89 14.32 Maintenance/construction: 50-75 psf. Live load is
10 21.16 50 18.35 90 14.20 large because there could be numerous persons,
11 21.10 51 18.26 91 14.09 tools, and equipment on platforms; however there
12 21.05 52 18.17 92 13.97 would be no internal pressure on vessel.
13 21.00 53 18.08 93 13.84 3. Assume each bracket shares one half of the area be-
14 20.95 54 17.99 94 13.72 tween each of the adjoining brackets. Limit bracket
15 20.89 55 17.90 95 13.60
spacing to 6 ft-0 in. arc distance and overhangs to 2
16 20.83 56 17.81 96 13.48 ft-0 in. For stability, bracket spacing should not ex-
17 20.78 57 17.71 97 13.35 ceed 60°.
18
19
20.72
20.66
58
59
17.62
17.53
98
99
13.23
13.10
4. Knee braces should be 45’ wherever possible. Al-
20 20.60 60 17.43 100 12.98 ways dimension to bolt holes, not to edge of brackets
or top of clips.
21 20.54 61 17.33 101 12.85
5. Bracket spacing is governed by one of the following
22 20.48 62 17.24 102 12.72
23 20.41 63 17.14 103 12.59 conditions:
24 20.35 64 17.04 104 12.47 Shell stress: Based on dead-load and live-load in-
25 20.28 65 16.94 105 12.33 duced stress from platform support brackets. Shell
26 20.22 66 16.84 106 12.20 stresses may be reduced by using a longer clip or
27 20.15 67 16.74 107 12.07 reducing the angle between brackets.
28 20.08 68 16.64 108 11.94 Bolt shear stress: A-307 or A-325 in single or double
29 20.01 69 16.53 109 11.81 shear. Bolt shear stresses may be reduced by in-
30 19.94 70 16.43 110 11.67
creasing the size or number of bolts or increasing
31 19.87 71 16.33 111 11.54 the distance between bolts.
32 19.80 72 16.22 112 11.40 Maximum arc distance: Measured at the outside of
33 19.73 73 16.12 113 11.26
the platform. Based on the ability of the toe angle
34 19.65 74 16.01 114 11.13
35 19.58 75 15.90 115 10.99
to transmit loads to brackets. Affects “stability” of
platform.
36 19.50 76 15.79 116 10.85 Stress/deflection offloor plate or gratinp-: Allowable live
37 19.42 77 15.69 117 10.71
load affects “springiness of platforms.” Use Tables
38 19.35 78 15.58 118 10.57
39 19.27 79 15.47 119 10.43 6-3 and 6-4 and assume “allowable live load” of
40 19.19 80 15.36 120 10.28 150-200 psf.
-
Fv = 3 6 ksi 6. Shell stresses should be checked by an appropriate
Reprinted by permission of the AISC. “local load” procedure.
208 Pressure Vessel Design Manual
I
PROCEDURE 6-3
SHEAR LOADS IN BOLTED CONNECTIONS
Table 6-6 I
Allowable Loads in Kips 1

Values from AISC.

Case 1
Cases of Bolted Connections
Case 2

f =-
F1
e
5.
e

n = no. of fasteners in a vertical row f =-

F
y 2
m = no. of fasteners in a horizontal row = 2

I, = polar moment of inertia about c.g. of fastener f, = Figure 6-17. Longitudinal clip with
two bolts 191.
group: I, + I,

nb2(n2 1) ~

mD2(m2- 1)

2% 6 min

F F1,D Vz cp min
f =-+-
Y
mn 21,

Figure 6-16. Longitudinal clip with Figure 6-18. Circumferential clip

,1
fr = &q double row of n bolts 191. with two bolts. ~
 Related Equipment 209

Case 4 Case 5

I 1
F
F F1
f, x.
=
2(x? + x;F1+ .... xi) f, =

f =-
F I Fld
Y fy =
n
2(h2 + d2)

f, = fr =
f

f,

Figure 6-19. Longitudinal clip Figure 6-20. Circumferential

with single row of n bolts. clip with four bolts [SI.

PROCEDURE 6-4
DESIGN OF BINS AND ELEVATED TANKS 13-91
The definition of a “bulk storage container” can be
quite subjective. The terms “bunkers,” “hoppers,” and
“bins” are commonly used. This procedure is written
specifically for cylindrical containers of liquid or bulk
material with or without small internal pressures.
There is no set of standards that primarily applies to
bins and since they are rarely designed for pressures
greater than 15 psi, they do not require code stamps.
They can, however, be designed, constructed, and in-
spected in accordance with certain sections of the ASME
Codc or combinations of codes.
When determining the structural requirements for
bins, the horizontal and vertical force components on
the bin walls must be computed. A simple but generally
incorrect design method is to assume that the bin is
filled with a fluid of the same dcnsity as the actual con-
tents and then calculate the “equivalent” hydrostatic
pressures. While this is correct for liquids, it is wrong for
solid materials. All solid materials tend to bridge or
arch, and this arch creates two force components on the
bin walls.
The vertical component on the bin wall reduces the
weight load on the material below, and pressures do not
build up with the depth as much as in the case ofliquids.
Consequently, the hoop stresses caused by granular or
powdered solids are much lower than for liquids of the
same density. However, friction between the shell wall
and the granular material can cause high longitudinal
loads and even longitudinal buckling. Thcse loads must
be carefully considered in the case of a “deep bin.”
In a “shallow bin,” the contents will be entirely sup-
ported by the bin bottom. In a “deep bin” or “silo,” thc
support will be shared, partly by the bottom and partly
by the bin walls due to friction and arching of material.
Notation
A = cross-sectional area of bin, ft2
A, = area of reinforcement required, in.?
A, = area of reinforcement available, in.’
A, = cross-sectional area of strut, in.‘
e = common log 2.7183
C.A. = corrosion allowance, in.
E =joint efficiency, .35-1.0
F = summation of all vertical downward forces, lb
Fa = allowable compressive stress, psi
f = vertical reactions at support points, lb
h, = depth of contents to point of evaluation, ft
K,,K2 = rankines factors, ratio of lateral to vertical
pressure
M = overturning moment, ft-lb
N = number of supports
P = internal pressure, psi
p,, = pressure normal to surface of cone, psf
210 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

pv = vertical pressure of contents, psf t- O

ph = horizontal pressure on bin walls, psf

Q = total circumferential force, Ib
R,, = hydraulic radius of bin, ft
S = allowable tension stress, psi
T,,T,, = longitudinal force, lb/ft
T2,T2,= circumferential force, lb/ft
G = specific gravity of contents
0 = angle of repose of contents, degrees
+
= angle of filling, angle of surcharge, friction
angle. Equal to 0 for free filling or O if filled
flush, degrees
p = angle of rupture, degrees
p = friction coefficient, material on material
p' = friction coefficient, material on bin wall
Ah = height of filling peak, depth of emptying cra-
ter, ft
C , = a function of the area of shell that acts with
strut to A,

Weiehts
W = total weight of bin contents, lb
w = density of contents, lb/cu ft
WT = total weight of bin and contents, Ib
W, = weight of cone and lining below elevation under
consideration, Ib
Wn = D.L. + L.L. of roof plus applied loads, lb (in-
clude weight of any installed plant equipment)
W, = weight of shell and lining (cylindrical portion
only), lb Filling peak

w1 w + w,
=

W2 = weight of contents in cylindrical portion of bin,

lb, = TR'Hw
Ws = load caused by vertical pressure of contents, lb,
= p,rR2

W+ = portion of bin contents carried by bin walls due to

friction, Ib, = W, - W3
w5 = WR + w4 + w,
ws WT - w, - w,,
=
H
W7 = weight of bin below point of supports plus total Emptying crater

weight of contents, lb
Figure 6-21. Dimensional data and forces of bin or elevated
W,, = weight of contents in bottom, lb tank.
 Related Equipment 211

Bins Liquid-Filled Elevated Tanks

1. Determine $Bin ir “Deep” or “Shallow.”The distinctioi
between deep and shallow bins is as follows:

In a shallow bin the plane of rupture emerges fron

the top of the bin.
In a deep bin the plane of rupture intersects the op
posite bin wall below both the top of the bin and/o
the maximum depth of contents.

@
. @--
Figure 6-23. Dimensions and loads for a liquid-filled, elevated
tank.

Plane Of Shell (API 650 @ AWWA 0100).

,“pl“,e
(also called “plane

t = 2’6DHG + C.A.
of sliding wedge”)

SE
Shallow

For A-36 material:

Deep
API 650: S = 21,000 psi
Figure 6-22. Examples illustrating the shallow vs. deep bin. AWWA D100: S = 15,000 psi

Conical bottom (Wozniak).

2. Determzne angle 0.
At spring line

)
T,=-(H+
wR R tan a
2 sin 01

If and p‘ are unknown, co pute 0 as follows: wRH

TT
~

=
sin a
~

fl=- 90 + 8
2 At any elevation below spring line

and h = D tan 0 T, =
W
(R -
2h, R
+- + tan a
2 sin a tan a 3 3
~

If h is smaller than the straib t side < :he bin an

below the design depth of the contents, the bin is a:
sumed to he “deep” and the silo theory applies. If
T2=- whi
sin a
(. -) -
tan a
is larger than the straight side of the bin or greatí
than the design depth of the contents, then the bi
should be designed as “shallow.” This design procí
dure is also known as the “sliding wedge” method
212 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Spherical bottom (Wozniak). K = K, or K2

At spring line Ph = PvK cos 4

TI = compression only-from weight of shell, roof,

and wind loads

Hoop tension, Ti, will govern design of shell for shallow

bins

Tz = PhR
At bottom (max. stress)

whiR3 t=-- T2 + C.A.

TI = T2 = i2SE
2
~

Conical bottom (Ketchum).

p,. = whi

Rins compression al junction (Wozniak) Maximum at depth H =

pv sin2(a: + O )
R2w R tan
)

e$&---
CY
p.

[
=
Q==(H+ 3
sin 3a: i + sin 0 2

sin a]
~

Shallow, Granular or Powder-Filled Bin w1 = w + w,

TI = w1
27rR1 sin CY
Fill height

TI or T2
tc = +C.A.
12SE

Spherical bottom (Ketchum).

Strip
Note. At a:’ = 90°, sin2a:’ = 1

t, = +C.A
Figure 6-24. Dimensions and forces for a shallow bin. 12SE
~

Cylindrical Shell (Lambert). Ring compression (Wozniak)

p\, = whi
= maximum at depth H Q = TIR COS a:
 Related Equipment 213

1 Maximum allowable compressive stress (Boardmanformula).

DeeD Bins (Silo)-GranularlPowder Filled
Shell (Lamberl).

Hydraulic radius
F,=2x10G
();[
- 1--
")
F, = 10,000 psi maximum
R
Rh=- B Thickness required shell, t.
2

t = - TI
Pressures on bin walls, and PA. 12F,

K = K, or K2 8 Conical bottom (Ketchum).

Note: Design bottoms to support full load of contents.

I)*(
Vibration will cause lack of side-wall friction.
e = common log 2.7183

P" =
[
wRI, 1 - e R~
At spring line

pv = WH
PK
pv sin2(a + O )
P" =

[
sin O 2
sin30i 1 + ~

sin oil
w, = w + w,

TI = wi
27rR sin oi

Spherical bottom (Ketchum).

At spring line

TI=TI=--
wi
2?rR3

Note: For thin circular steel bins longitudinal compres-

sion will govern. The shell will fail by buckling from Ring compression (Wozniak).
vertical drag rather than bursting duc to hoop ten-
sion. Q = T,R cos 01
214 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Ring compression at spring line, Q (API 620).

Bins and Tanks with Small Internal
Pressures
Wh = .6 JR,(t, - C.A.)
Pressures.

PI = pressure due to gas pressure W, = .6 J R ( t - C.A.)

P2 = pressure due to static head of liquid Q = T2Wh + T,,W, - T,R? COS O(

WH
P2 = -
144
Design of Compression Ring
P3 = pressure due to solid material
Per API 620 the horizontal projection of the compres-
WHK cos 6 sion ring juncture shall have a width in a radial direc-
P3 = tion not less than .O15 R . The compression ring may be
144
used as a balcony girder (walkway) providing it is at
least 3 ft-0 in. wide.
P = total pressure

P = PI + P2
or
P, + P3 =
Shell (API 620).
Tank
F = WT

Wh = W.p ~ Wc - Wd

A rR2

)
=
Figure 6-25. Dimensions at junction of cone and cylinder.
A+F
T , , = R ( P + -We
2 R
R2 =
sin o(
~

Tis = PR

W,, = .6 JRZ(t, - C.A.)

W, = .6 J R ( t - C.A.)
Conical bottom (API 620)

‘rl=-(P+
R
2 cos 01
- WA, + F ) Q = from applicable case

A, =-
Q
=

S
A, = W,t + Whtc

Additional area required.

A, ~ A, =
 Related Equipment 215

4
Struts
Struts are utilized to offset unfavorable high local
stresses in the shell immediately above lugs when either 3
lugs or rings are used to support the bin. These high lo- C S
calized stresses may cause local buckling or deformation
2
if struts are not used.

.. 1
.2 .4 .6 .8 1 .o

tL*
-
A5

Figure 6-27. Graph of function C,

Heip-ht of struts required, q.

TR
q=-
N
I

Strut cross-sectional area required, A,.

W7Rf+ 2M
where f =
NRf

W7 = weight of bin below point of supports

L LS L plus total weight of contents, Ib
r

The total cross-sectional area of single or double struts

may be computed by this procedure. To determine C ,
assume a value of A, and a corresponding value of C,
from Figure 6-27. Substitute this value of C , into the
Single strut area equation and compute the area required. Repeat
this procedure until the proposed A, and calculated A,
are in agreement.

Supports

Bins may be supported in a variety of ways. Since the

bottom cone-cylinder intersection normally requires a
Double strut compression ring, it is common practice to combine the
Figure 6-26. Dimensions and arrangement of single and dou- supports with this ring. This will take advantage of the
ble struts. local stiffness and is convenient for the support design.
216 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

3 x hole @

Struts

-
5.0

Align
columns
N / shell
' Small bins
only
Stub columns Lugs Skirt

8 \nf
I

A thicker shell
course may be
used in this area Rings Ring girder

l r s t r u t s optional

Continuous ring

iwww-

Brackets
Figure 6-28. Typical support arrangemenis for bins and elevated tanks.
 Related Equipment 217

Table 6-6
Material ProDerties
Coefficients of Friction
Angle Contents
Of on p' - Contents on Wall

* *
Density Repose Contents On Steel On Concrete
Material W 0 u s' k'

Portland cement 90 390 .32 .93 .54

Coal (bituminous) 45-55 350 .70 59 25 .70 35
Coal (anthracite) 52 27O .51 .45 22 51 27
Coke (dry) 28 30° .58 .55 20 .84 20
Sand 90-110 30-35' .67 .60 20 .58 30
Wheat 50-53 25O-28O .47 .41 .44
Ash 45 40' .84 .70 25 .70 35
Clay-dry, fines 100-120 350 .70 .70
Stone, crushed 100-110 32O-39' .70 60
Bauxite ore 85 350 .70 .70
Corn 44 27.5' 52 .37 .42
Peas 50 25' .47 .37 .44
-

.
If u' is unknown it may be estimated as follows:
Mean particle diameter < .o02in., tan-' p' = B
Mean particle diameter > .O08in., tan-' p' = .758.

Table 6-7
Rankine Factors K, and K2
Values of K, for angles d
0 K, 100 150 200 25' 30' 350 40' 450
~ ___
100 ,7041 1.0000
120 6558 ,7919
15' ,5888 ,6738 1 .o000
17O ,5475 ,6144 ,7532
200 ,4903 ,5394 ,6241 1 .o000
220 ,4549 ,4958 ,5620 ,7203
25' ,4059 ,4376 ,4860 ,5820 1 .o000
27' ,3755 ,4195 -4428 ,5178 ,6906
30° ,3333 ,3549 ,3743 ,4408 ,5446 1 .o000
350 ,2709 .2861 ,3073 ,3423 ,4007 ,5099 1 .o000
40' .2174 ,2282 ,2429 ,2665 ,3034 .3638 ,4549 1 .o000
450 .I716 ,1792 ,1896 ,2058 ,2304 ,2679 ,3291 ,4444 1 .o000
K,. no surcharge Ka with Surcharge

ph
K,=---r 1 - sin R
p" 1 +sin P

2. Supports for bins should be designed by an appropri-

Notes
1. Rankines factors K, and K2 are ratios of horizontal
to vertical pressures. These factors take into account
the distribution of forces based on thc filling and
emptying properties of the material. If the filling an-
sle is different from the angle of repose, then K2 is
used. Remember, even if the material is not heaped
to begin with, a crater will develop when emptying.
The heaping, filling peak, and emptying crater all
affect the distribution of forces.
ate design procedure. See Chapter 3 .
3 . In order to assist in the flow ofmaterial, the cone an-
gle should be as steep as possible. An angle of 45O
can be considered as minimum, 50°-60' preferred.
4. While roofs are not addrcssed in this procedure, their
design loads must be considered since they are
translated to the shell and supports. As a minimum,
allow 25 psf dead load and 50-75 psf live load plus
218 Pressure Vessel Design Manual
the weight of any installed plant equipment (mixers,
conveyors, etc.).
5. Purging, fluidizing techniques, and general vibra-
tion can cause loss of friction between bin wall and
contents. Therefore its effect must he considered or
ignored in accordance with the worst situation. In
general, added to longitudinal loads and ignored for
circumferential loads.
REFERENCES
1. Magnusson, I., “Design of Davits,” Fluor Engi-
neers, Inc., Irvine, Ca.
2. Roark, R. J., Formulasfor Stress and Strain, 3rd Edi-
tion, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1954, Article 44, p.
146.
3 . Naberhaus, E. Paul, “Structural Design of Bins,”
Chemical EngineerinE, February 15, 1965, pp. 183-
186.
4. Lambert, F. W., “The Theory and Practical Design
of Bunkers,” British Constructional Steelwork Asso-
ciation, Ltd., London.
6. Surcharge: Most hunkers will he surcharged as a re-
sult of the normal filling process. If the surcharge is
taken into account, the horizontal pressures will be
overestimated for average bins. It is therefore more
economical to assume the material to be flat and
level at the mean height of the surcharge and to de-
sign accordingly Where the bin is very wide in rela-
tion to the depth of contents the effects of surcharging
need to be considered.
5. API-620, Recommended Rules for Design and Con-
struction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage
Tanks, 7th Edition, September 1982.
6. AWWA D100-73, Welded Steel Tanks for Water
Storage.
7. API 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, 7th
Edition, November 1980.
8. Gaylord, E. H., and Gaylord, C . N. (Eds.), “Steel
Tanks,” from Structural Engineering Handbook, Mc-
Graw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1968, section 23.
9. Ketchum, M . S., Walls, Bins, and Grain Eleuators, 3rd
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Go., New York, 1929.
Appendixes
APPENDIX A
GUIDE TO ASME SECTION VIII, DIVISION 1

uipm continued on next pafe)

219
 .
220 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

1 7 A B L t S N F V ,"BU Ni.5 "CL.21

The purpose of this guide is to illustrate some of thc typcs of pres-
sure vessel construction which are provided Cor under Section VIII,
Division 1, of the ASME Code issued in July, 1983, and to furnish
dircct reference to thc applicable rule in the Code. In the event of a
I
discrepancy, the rules in thc current edition of the Code shall gov-
ern. Courtesy Missouri Bailcr and Tank Co., Div. of Nooter Corp.,
Si. Louis, Mo.

APPENDIX B
DESIGN DATA SHEET FOR VESSELS

I I
I I
 Appendixes 221

APPENDIX C
JOINT EFFICIENCIES (ASME CODE) [3]

Miter

Elbow or

S.O. flange

Category 6-butt
?e

Extent
weld,
~~~

Case 1
Butt
Category C Joints

Fillet Groove
Category D-corner
or groove joint

Figure C-l. Categories of welded joints in a pressure vessel.

Table C-1
Values of Joint Efficiency, E, and Allowable Stress, C
Case 2 Case 3
* Category D-butt
joint

Case 4

Of Seamless Seamless Seamless Welded Welded Seamless Welded Welded

Radiography Head Shell Head Shell Head Shell Head Shell
E S E S E S E S E S E c E S E S
Full (RT-I) 1.0 100% 1.0 100% 1.0 100% 1.0 100% 1.0 100% 1.0 100% 1.0 100% 1.0 100%
Spot (FIT-3) 1.0 85% 1.0 85% 1.0 85% .85 100% .85 100% 1.0 85% .85 100% .85 100%
Combination' 1.0 100% 1.0 100% 1.0 100% .85 100% 1.0 100% 1.0 100% 1.0 100% .85 100%
None 1.0 80% 1.0 80% 1.0 80% .7 100% .7 100% 1.0 80% .7 100% .7 100%
* See Note 2.
222 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Table C-2 are assumed as Type 1 only! Where combination ra-

Joint Efficiencies diography is shown it is .assumed that all require-
X-Ray ments for full radiography have been met for head,
Types of Joints Full spot None and shell is spot R.T.
Single and
1 doub;;tutt 1.o .e5 .7
2. Combination radiography: Applies to vessels not fully ra-
Single butt diographed where the designer wishes to apply a
2 joint with back- .9 .8 .65 joint efficiency of 1.0 per ASME Code, Table UW-
ing strip 12, for only a specific part of a vessel. Specifically for
any part to meet this requirement, you must perform
- .6 the following:
Double full
fillet lap - - .55 0 (ASME Code, Section U W l l ( 5 ) ) : Fully X-ray any 4
joint
Cat. A or D butt welds
Single full (ASME Code, Section UW-l1(5)(b)): Spot X-ray any
-
0
fillet lap .5
Category B or C butt welds attaching the part
I

with plugs
(ASME Code, Section UW-l1(5)(a)): All butt joints
Single full
- must be Type 1
fillet lap - .45
joint

3. Any Category B or C butt weld in a nozzle or com-

Notes
1 . In Table C-1 joint efficiencies and allowable stresses
for shells are for longitudinal seams only! All joints
municating chamber of a vessel or vessel part which
is to have a joint efficiency of 1.O and exceeds either
10 in. nominal pipe size or i % in.~ in wail thickness
shall be fully radiographed. See ASME Code, Sec-
tions UW-ll(a)(4).

APPENDIX D
PROPERTIES OF HEADS
e _-
I
X

L.

Figure D-l. Dimensions of heads.

 Formulas Volume
Vi (frustum) .333b ír(e* + ea + a*)
a=- D - 2r
= =

2
V2 = (spherical segment) = ?rc*(L - c/3)

p=9o-a: V3 = (solid of revolution)

b = cos a: r
c = L - coso( L -
i20r3?rsin q5 cos q5 + aq5r2r2
e = sin o( L 90
q 5 = -R
2 Total volume: V, + V2 + V3
Table D-1
Partial Volumes
Type Volume to H, Volume to Hb Volume to h

Hemi s h2(l.5D - h)
6

2 : l S.E. s h2(i .5D - h)

12

Table D-2
General Data
C.G. -m Depth Of Points on Heads
Tvoe Surface Area Volume Emotv Full Head. d X= Y=
Hemi r D2/Z ,,~3112 .2878D 375D .5D JR2-yz JR"->ii
2 1 S.E. 1.084 D2 r DV24 .1439D .1875D .25D .5 J D-~16Yz .25

100%-6%
F&D ,9286 Dz .0847D3 .100D ,169 D
D IS in 11

3. Conversion factors
Notes
Multiply ft3 x 7.48 to get gallons
1. Developed length of flat plate (diameter)
Multiply ft3 x 62.39 to %etIb-water

(18,) +
~~

Multiply gallons x 8.33 to get lb-water

D.L. = 2 - m 2 - ÍTL + 2f
(1;o)
4. Depth of bead
2. For 2:i S.E. heads the crown and knuckle radius
A = L - r
may be approximated as follows:

L = ,9045 D B=R-r

r = ,1727 D d=L-JA'TB"
224 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

APPENDIX E
VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREAS OF VESSEL SECTIONS

Table E-1
Notation Volumes and Surface Areas of Vessel SeCtiOnS
Cec Iion
~

Volume Surface Area

t = height of cone, depth of head, or length of cyl-
inder sphere li D3
-
01 = one-half apex angle of cone 6
D = large diameter of cone, diameter of head or cyl- iemi-head iD3
-
i T D2
-
inder 12 2
R = radius 21 S.E. head iD3 1.084 D2
-
i
r = knuckle radius of F & D head 24
L = crown radius of F & D head 2 = e 2 In- l + e
-
Ellipsoidal iD2P
-
i li R 2 +
h = partial depth of horizontal cylinder head e I-e
6
K, C = coefficients
d = small diameter of truncated cone 100-6% ,08467 D3 ,9286 D2
F & D head
V = volume
= & D head 2 7 R3K
3
~

zone 7 DzP
- iiDP

2 cos a
~

12

Truncated li f(D2 + Dd + dz)

e = E cone 12

30° Truncated .227(D3 - d7 1.57 (D2- d2)

cone
Cylinder 7 D2P
- aDY
4

Table E-2
Values of c for Partial Volumes of a Horizontal Cylinder
hlD C
.1 ,0524
.15 ,0941
.2 .1424
R-h 25 ,1955
8 = arc cos .3 ,2523
R
~

.35 ,3119
.4 ,3735
.45 ,4364
.5 .5
.55 5636
.6 ,6265
or .65 .6881
.7 ,7477
.75 ,8045
V = ?rR2tc .E576
.8
.85 ,9059
.9 ,9480
Figure E-1. Formulas for partial volumes of a horizontal cylin-
.95 ,9813
der.
 Appendixes 225

APPENDIX F
MAXIMUM LENGTH OF UNSTIFFENED SHELLS
Thickness
(in.)
. .
Diameter
(in.)
204
36
m

188 280 Notes:

-
42 I.All values ate in in.
313 m
2. Values are for temperatures up lo SOOOF.
142 235 358 3. Top value is lar full vacuum. lower value is half vacuum.
48
264 437 4. Values are for carbon or low alloy steel (F" > 30,000 psi)
based on Figure UCS 28.2 al ASME Code, Section VIII. Diu
122 203 306 437 1
54
228 377 m
104 178 268 381
60
200 330 499 m

91 157 238 336 458

66 174 293 442 626 m

79 138 213 302 408 537

72
152 263 396 561 m
70 124 193 273 369 483 616
78
136 237 359 508 686 m
63 110 175 249 336 438 559
84
123 212 327 462 625 816 m

57 99 157 228 308 402 510 637

90
112 190 300 424 573 748 m
52 90 143 210 284 370 470 585 715
96 528 689 875 m
103 173 274 391
48 82 130 190 263 343 435 540 661 795
1o2 94 160 249 363 490 639 810 1,005 m

44 76 118 176 245 320 405 502 613 738 875

108 594 754 935 m
87 148 228 337 456
42 70 109 162 223 299 379 469 571 687 816
114 874 1,064
79 138 211 311 426 555 705 m

39 65 101 149 209 280 355 440 536 642 762 894
120 660 819 997
74 128 197 287 400 521 m

37 61 95 138 195 263 334 414 504 803 715 839 974
126 621 770 938 1,124
69 120 184 266 374 490 m

35 57 88 129 181 242 315 391 475 589 673 789 916 1,053
132 462 586 727 884 1,060 1,253 m
65 113 173 248 348
33 54 83 121 169 228 297 369 449 538 636 744 664 994
138 437 555 687 836 1,002 1,185 m
62 106 163 234 325
31 51 78 114 158 214 275 350 426 510 603 705 817 940 1,073
144 652 793 950 1,123 1,312
59 98 154 221 304 411 526 m

49 74 107 148 201 261 332 405 485 573 669 774 891 1,017 1,152
150 499 619 753 902 1,066 1,246 1,442 m
92 146 209 286 385
46 70 101 140 189 248 309 385 462 546 637 737 846 966 1,095
156 590 717 859 1,015 1,186 1,373
87 138 199 271 363 475 m

162
..
dd fi7
-. .- 133
9fi 178 233
~~~
294 367 440 520 608 703 806 919 1,042
83 131 189 258 342 448 582 684 819 968 1,131 1,309 1,509 m
'Id 5/16 3/8 71% 112 9lw 5/, illis % W 6 718 '5lm 1 I'hs 1% 13/16
226 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

APPENDIX G
USEFUL FORMULAS FOR VESSELS [ 1, 21
1. Properties o f a circle. (See Figure G-1.)

C. G. of area

c
3
el =
12Al
~

12oc
e2 = ~

ff7r

38.197(R3- r3)sin 412

e3 =
(R' - r2)q5/2
Chord, C.

C = 2R sin O12
Figure G-I. Dimensions and areas of circular sections.

c=2J2bR-b2 Section modulus, Z

Rise, b Z = TRkt
- xD?,,t
-~
b = .5C tan 814
4
- r(D4 - d4)
b = R - .5 J4R"-c2 -
32d
An&, O
Moment of inertia, I.

O = 2 arc sin
. c I = nRmt
2R
~

=~
nDkt
Area of sections 8
- T(D' - d4)
OnR' - 180C(R - b) -
A, = 64
360
TR2ff 3, Radial displacements due to internal pressure.
A2 =
360
~

Cylinder
(R2 - r2)n4
AS =
360

2 . Properties of a Gylinder
Cone.
Cross-sectional metal area, A
6= PR' (1 - .5v)
A = 27rR,,t Et cos 01
 Appendixes 227

Sphere/hemisphere. 7 . Bending ratio formed plates.

where Rf = finished radius, in.

Torispherical/ellzpsoidal
R, = starting radius, in. (o3 for flat plates)
R t = thickness, in.
6 = - (u,$- vux)
E 8. Stress in nozzle neck subjected to external loads
where P = internal pressure, psi
PR,
R = inside radius, in. u,=- + -F+ - MR,
t = thickness, in. 2t,, A I
v = Poisson's ratio (.3 for steel) where R, = nozzle mean radius, in.
E = modulus of elasticity, psi t, = nozzle neck thickness, in.
a = 112 apex angle of cone, degrees A = metal cross-sectional area, in.'
u, = circumferential stress, psi i = moment of inertia, in.4
ux = meridional stress, psi F = radial load, Ib
M = moment, in.-lb
4. Longitudinal stress in a cylinder due to longitudinal bending
P = internal pressure, psi
moment, ML.
Tension. 9. Circumfrential bending stress for out of round shells [Z].

Di - D2 > l%Dn,,,

RI = Di + Dz
Compression. 2

ux = ( - ) ML
rR2t
~

where E = joint efficiency

R = inside radius, in. 1.5PRlt(D, - D2)
ML = bending moment, in.-lb Ub =
In\
t = thickness, in. t3 + 3 - RIRd
5. T l i ~ k n ewquired
~ ~ far heah due to exiernal firessure.
where DI = maximum inside diameter, in.
L D2 = minimum inside diameter, in.
P = internal pressure, psi
E = modulus of elasticity, psi
t = thickness, in.
where L = crown radius, in.
P, = external pressure, psi 10. Equivalent static force from dynamic flow.
E = modulus of elasticity, psi

6. Equivalent pressure of flanged connection under external

loah.
16M 4F
P, = ~ +-+P
rG" ?rG2

wherc P = internal pressure, psi

F = radial load, Ib Nozzle) ''I

M = bending moment, in.-lb

G = gasket reaction diameter, in Figure G-2. Typical nozzle configuration with internal baffle.
228 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

F = -V2Ad
S
where F = equivalent static force, Ib
I R L
If-560, Y = l

(k]
L 21,600
V = velocity, ftlsec If - > 60, Y =
A cross-sectional area of nozzle, ft2 R
18,000 +
=
d = density, Ib/ft3
g = acceleration due to gravity, 3 2 . 2 ft/
sec2 Fa = Q
- = XY
A
11, Allowable romfiressiue stress in cylinders [l].
where t = thickness, in.

R
t
If-5.015, X=-
10%
R
2--
( ") R =
L =
Q=
outside radius, in.
length of column, in.
allowable load, Ib
t
If-> ,015, X = 15,000 A = metal cross-sectional area, in.'
R F, = allowable compressive stress, psi

APPENDIX H
MATERIAL SELECTION GUIDE

Design
Temperature, O F Material Plate Forgings
I
I SA-240- SA-312- SA-182-
-425 to -321
Stainless steel 304, 304L, 347, 304,304L, 347, 304, 304L, 347,
316. 316L 316. 316L 316, 316L with SA-194-8

9 nickel SA-353 SA-333-8 SA-522-1

31h nickel SA-203-D
SA-333-3 SA-350-LF63
-75 to -51 2% nickel SA-203-A With SA-194-4
o SA-516.55, 60 to
SA-20 SA-333-6
SA-350-LF2 SA-420-WPL6
-20 to 4 SA-516-All SA-333-1 or 6
J
Carbon
5 to 32 steel SA-285-C
SA-53-0 SA-105
SA-516-All
33 to 60 SA-515-All SA-106-0 SA-181-60,70 SA-234-WPB SA-193-87
SA-455.11 with SA-194-2H
61 to 775
776 to 875 C-ihMo SA-204-0 SA-335-P1 SA-l82-F1
876 to 1000 ICr-VzMo SA.387-12-1 SA-335-Pl2 SA-182-Fl2
1V~Cr-V~Mo SA-387-11-2 SA-335-P11 SA-18BF11
1001 to 1100 2ihCr-1Ma SA-387-22.1 SA-335-P22 SA-182-F22
SA-194-3
Stainless steel SA-240-347H SA-312-347H SA-182-347H
lncoloy 80-424 SE-423 88-425 SA-193-88
Above with SA-194-8
1500 lnconel SE-443 SE-444 SB-440
___
,111 Bednar, H. H., Pressure ;el Design Handba Van Nosfrand Rein Id Co.. 1981.
 Appendixes 229

APPENDIX I
SUMMARY OF REQUIREMENTS FOR 100% X-RAY AND
PWHT”

P GRP. Temperature 100%

No. No. Material Description PWHT ‘F R.T.

1 1 Carbon steel : SA-36, SA-285-C, SA-515/-516 > 1.5” 1100~ > 1.25”
Grades 55, 60, 65

2 Carbon steel : SA-515/-516 Grade 70, > 1.5” 1100~ > 1.25”
SA-455-1or II

3 1 Low alloy : C-V2Mo(SA-204-6) > ,625‘’ 1100~ > .75”

2 Low alloy : VsCr-VzMo (SA-387-2-2) > ,825’’ 1100~ > .75”
3 Low alloy : Mn-Mo (SA-302.6) All 11000 > .75”

4 1 Low alloy : 1Cr-rhMo (SA-387-12-2) (1) 11000 > ,625”

1%Cr-lhMo (SA-387.1 1-2)

5 1 Low alloy : 21hCr-1Mo (SA-387-22-2) All 1250° All

3Cr-1Mo (SA-387-21-2)
2 Low alloy : 5,7,9Cr-V2Mo All 1250’ All

6 1 13Cr (410) Martensitic SST (2) 1250° (2)

7 1 13Cr (405,410s) Martensitic SST

2 17Cr (430) Ferritic SST

8 1 (304,316,321,347) Austenitic SSl - 1950’ > 1.5”

2 (309,310) Austenitic SST - 1950° > 1.5”

9A 1 Low alloy : 2ihNi (SA-203-A,6) > 625” 1100~ > ,625

96 1 Low alloy : 3V2Ni (SA-203-D,E) > ,625” 1100~ > ,625

41 - Nickel 200 - - > 1.5”

42 - Monel400 - - > 1.5”

43 - lnconel 600.625 - - > ,375’’

45 - incoloy 800, 825 - - > ,375’’

Per ASME Code, Section VIII, Div. 1 for commonly used materials.
Notes:
1. See ACME Code, Section VIII, Div. 1, Table UCS-56. for co~ceCsionslrestrictions.
2. PWHT or radiography depends upon carbon content, grade of material, type of welding, thickness, preheat and interpass temperatures, and types o1 electrodes. See
ASME Code, Section VIII, Div. 1, Table UHA-32, and paragraphs UHA 32 and 33 for concessionslrestrictions.
3. Radiography shall be performed alter PWHT when required. 100% R.T. is required for all vessels in lethal service (ACME Code UW-Z(a)). Materials requiring impact
testing for low temperature service Shall be PWHT (ASME Code, UCS-67(c)).
4. Radiography applies to category A and B, type 1 or 2 joints only. Thicknesses refer to thinner Of two materials being joined.
230 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

APPENDIX "T
COMPARISON OF 1.5 S AND .9 F, FOR CARBON STEELS

200 400 600 800 1000

Temperalure ( O F ) Temperature ("F)
55,000U.T.S. 60.000 U.T.S.
30,000Y.S. 32.000Y.S.

30

25

ar 20
VI

L
Yj 15

10

200 400 600 800 1000

Temperature (-F) Temperature (OF)
65,000U.T.S. 70 000 U T S
35,000Y.S. 36 O00 Y S
- ~

Note: Yield strength values, F,, are taken from ASME Section VIII, Division 2. Allowable Stress, S , is taken from
ASME Section VIII, Division 1.

REFERENCES
1 . Roark, R . J., Formulasfor Stress and Strain, 5th Edi- 2. ASME Code, Section VIII, Div. 2, Para. AF712.
tion, McGraw-Hill Book Go., 1975. 3 . National Board Bulletin, Vol. 3 2 , No. 4, April 1975.

I
Index
A Brackets, 216
Brittle fracture, 6
ANSI A58.1, 64-65, 108, 134 Brittle material, 3, 15
API 620, 214, 218 Buckling, 5, 19, 25, 161, 209, 213, 215
API 650, 211, 218
ASME Code
Section VIII, Div. 1, I-3ff. C
Section VIII, Div. 2, 4, 1 1 , 15-16, 43, 63
AWWA #D-100, 211, 218 Center of gravity (c.g.), 72, 77, 80, 86, 91-92, 116,
Ambient temperature, 17 202, 223, 226
American Welding Society, 108 Centroid, 80, 137-138, 144-145, 160
Anchor bolts, 75, 124-133 Chairs, 125, 129, 132
Angle of repose, 210, 217 Chord, 77, 226
Angle of rupture, 210 Circular girder, 157
Angle of surcharge, 210 Circular ring, 160
Area, 201 Clip, 174, 177, 202-203, 207, 209
Attachment parameter, 174-175 Coefficients, 17ff.
Attenuation length, 174 Compression plate, 85, 89, 121, 123, 130-131
Autofrettage, 11 Compression ring, 130-132
Concrete compressive stress, 119, 124. 126-128
Cone (conicalj, 18, 24, 125,' 1401143,' 209-213, 219,
B 224. 226
Cone cylinder intersection, 9, 25, 139-140, 147
Base plate, 79, 113, 119-122, 127-129, 132-133, 154, Conical transition, 22-24, 213-214
157 Constant, 126
Base shear. 67. 71. 73-74. 77. 79. 96-97
I , ,
Corrosion, 6, 219
Beam, 52-56, 72, 95, 112, 130, 153, 156, 168, 170, Corrosion allowance, 21, 27-31, 53-54, 59, 209, 220
201, 203 Critical wind velocity, 12
on elastic foundation, 123, 138, 159, 170 Cross bracing, 14, 68, 75, 78-80
Beam seat, 52, 55-56 Crown radius, 17, 19-20, 224, 227
Bearing Cyclic service, 7, 15-16, 25, 75. See Fatigue,
area, 84, 117 Cylinder, 25, 183-188, 196, 224, 226, 228
plate, 84, 85, 124
pressure, 80, 117, 119-120, 124, 132-133, 154, 157
Bijlaard, P. P., 85, 96, 134, 159, 174, 196 D
Bins, 153, 157, 209-218
Bolt load, 26, 42-43, 201, 202 Damping factor, 13, 120, 147, 168-170
Bolt torque, 42 Davit, 197-199, 201
Bolted connections, 208 Deflections, 56, 67, 71, 73, 77, 79, 150, 168, 196
Bolted joints, 42-43 radial, 147, 150
Bolting, 26-31, 39, 42, 55, 78-79, 117, 124-126, static, 152
132-133, 207-209, 219, 228 of tall towers, 12, 150, 158

231
 232 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Deformation, 168, 215 Forces, 77, 79, 98, 124, 140, 198, 213, 217, 227-228
Design loads. See Loadings. axial, 45, 75, 124, 147
Design pressure, 25, 27-31, 40-41, 43 bending, 91, 93, 95, 190-191
Design temperature, 17, 24, 27-28, 31, 40-41, 43 circumferential moment, 175
Displacement, 149, 226 circumferential shear, 176
method, 15 circumferential, 210
Ductile materials, 3 compressive, 146, 160, 162
Dynamic analysis, 13, 67 discontinuity, 147-148
Dynamic stability, 104 friction, 91, 96
hoop membrane, 194
hoop moment, 193, 195
E hoop tension, 212
hoop, 192
Earthquake, 147. See Seismic. horizontal, 73-74, 82, 87, 197, 209
Elastic instability, 67 lateral, 67, 96
Elevated tanks, 209, 211, 216 longitudinal moment, 175
End connection coefficient, 71, 73, 77, 201 longitudinal shear, 176
Exposure categories, 64 longitudinal, 105, 113, 115, 131-134, 139, 210
membrane, 91, 93, 95, 176, 178, 181, 183-187,
190-192
meridional membrane, 194
F meridional moment, 193, 195
meridional, 192
Factor “A,” 20, 22, 24, 50, 75, 96, 103, 133ff.
panel, 153
Factor of safety, 2, 3
resisting, 153, 155
Factors, 17, 20, 45, 61-64, 77, 133, 139, 176, 217
saddle reaction, 109
bending, 177
seismic, 71, 77, 80, 86, 91, 96-97, 105, 108, 113,
flange, 25-32, 37-38, 61
115, 153-157
friction, 43, 119
shear, 45, 97, 101-102, 190
impact, 197, 201
tangential, 160-161, 168
membrane, 177
tension, 45, 78, 133, 160, 162
Failures, 5, 16, 25
transverse, 105, 109, 115
categories of, 5
vertical, 79, 82, 153, 197, 209
types of, 5
wind, 64, 66, 108, 113, 115, 153-157
Failure theories, 3
Foundation modulus, 168- 170
comparison of, 4
Freese method, 13
maximum shear stress theory, 3
Friction angle, 210
maximum stress theory, 3
Friction coefficient, 113, 210, 217
Fatiguc, 5 , 16, 188
Friction, 209-210, 213
analysis, 15
Function, 126, 168, 215
Fillet welds, 55, 75, 174-175, 177, 219, 221
Flanges, 25
blind, 41
G
facings, 27-32, 40-41
flat face, 219 Gasket width, 33, 42
integral, 25-27, 39, 219 Gasket, 25-31, 40-41
IOOSC,25-26, 28, 39, 319 design seating stress, 26, 32
optional, 39, 219 factors, 25, 42-43
reverse, 26, 30 materials, 32
ring, 29, 39 seating, 27-31, 40-41, 44
slip-on, 28, 31, 221 Geometric parameters, 92, 94, 178, 190
weld neck, 27, 39, 221 Girder, 153, 155, 157, 214, 216
Fluid velociiy, 228 Gussets, 55-56, 82, 85-86, 89-91, 120-125, 129,
Force method, 15 131, 200
 Index 233

H dead, 201, 207, 210, 217

eccentric, 98
Heads, 190, 196, 222-224, 227 gcncral, 7
dished only, 21 horizontal, 153
ellipsoidal, 17-20, 58, 106, 219, 221, 223-224, 227 live, 201, 205-207, 210, 217
flanged and dished, 19-20, 59, 106, 221, 223-224 local, 7, 75, 159, 174-175, 196, 201, 209
flat, 44-49, 57, 61, 63, 106, 219, 221 longitudinal, 104, 124, 139, 209, 218
hemispherical, 17-18, 20, 59, 106, 219, 221, moment, 96, 120, 153, 163, 168-169, 171, 189-190
223-224, 227 nonsteady, 7
intermediate, 20-21 radial, 39-43, 80, 82ff.
torispherical, 17-20, 58, 219, 227 shear, 22, 75, 87, 91-92, 189-190, 203, 208
H u b factors, 25 steady, 7
Hubs, 39 tangential, 153, 160, 163
Hydraulic radius, 210, 213 tensionlcompression, 83, 124, 127-128, 141, 146
Hydrostatic end force, 20, 22, 25, 42, 44, 61-62 types, 7
vcrtical, 154
1
7
wind, 212
Logarithmic decrement, 13
Integral opening, 61-63 Lugs. See also Supports.
Internal support beds, 52 designs, 120-124
dimensions, 124
J
Joint diagram, 43 M
Joint efficiency, 20, 22, 44, 86, 96, 103, 105, 124,
132, 139 Map
basic wind speed, 65
seismic risk, 69
K Modulus of elasticity, 14, 20, 24, 42-43ff.
Moment
Kneebrace, 188, 201, 203, 207 bending, 198-201, 204, 227
Knuckle, 23-25 circumferential, 91 -93, 160- 161, 174- 181,
Knuckle radius, 19, 219, 224 187-188, 197
external, 22, 39, 42-44ff.
internal, 25-31, 40, 49ff.
L local, 162
longitudinal, 91-93, 105, 139, 147, 160ff.
Large openings, 61, 136, 138
overturning, 64, 71-80, 96, 124, 133, 153-154,
Legs. See also Supports.
209
braced, 68, 77
torsional, 153-154, 175, 182, 189-190
cross braced, 67-68, 79
of inertia, 50ff.
dimensions, 76, 79
polar, 154, 156, 208
unbraced, 71-72, 76, 80
Monobloc, 11
Ligaments, 58
Multilayer, 11
Loads (loadings), 1, 27-31, 39-41, 80-82, 91, 105ff.
Multiple openings, 58, 219
external, 160, 175
Multiwall. 11
lateral, 71, 74, 80, 152
area, 84, 94, 178-179, 200-202
axial, 71, 74, 79, 118, 120, 132, 139, 148-149,
197-203
N
bearing, 129 Neutral axis, 50, 86, 88, 92, 127-128
categories, 6 Nozzle, 9, 57-61, 136, 138, 177, 227-228
circumferential, 139, 166, 218 reinforcement, 57-59
concentrated, 150- 152, 168- 170 Nuts, 42
234 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

O joint, 42-43
shear, 125
Oscillations, wind-induced, 13-14, 152 stiffening, 50, 91, 105ff.
Roof, 212, 217

P
Partial ring stiffeners, 159-160, 169-170, 188, 203
S
Partial volumes Saddle. See also Supports
of cylinders, 224 dimensions, 112
of head, 223 splitting forces, 113, 116-117
Pcriod of vibration, 12-13, 64, 67, 70-78, 96-100, Safety, factor, 2, 3
104 Section modulus, 52-56, 80, 83, 113, 120, 124, 160,
Pier, 68, 115, 119 168, 197, 201, 226
Pipe (piping), 12, 65, 97, 160, 228 Sector, 226
Plane of rupture, 21 1 Segment, 226
Plane of sliding wedge, 211 Seismic analogy method, 14
Platforms, 12, 65, 97, 201-204, 207 Seismic design, 67ff.
Poisson's ratio, 14, 25, 45, 124, 147, 227 Seismic factors, 67, 71, 77, 80, 86, 91, 96, 105, 108,
Polar moment of inertia, 154, 156, 208 113
Post weld heat treatment, 229 Seismic risk, map of, 69
Pressure, 209, 220 Self limiting, 9-10, 15
differential, 20, 52-54 Service, 5
equivalent, 22, 39, 42, 44, 139, 144-145, 227 Shear
external, 22, 24, 50, 58, 80ff. horizontal, 153
horizontal, 210, 217-218 tangential, 153- 155
internal, 2, 8-12, 19ff. Shell, 132, 149, 153. 159, 169-170, 188-189, 204ff.
vertical, 210, 217 cylindrical, 12, 17, 63, 70, 104, 136, 138, 171, 175,
196. 212
spherical, 12, 17, 189-190, 196
R Silo, 209, 213
Slenderness ratio, 77-80, 118, 198, 203
Radial displacement, 148 Slot dimensions, 112
Radial thrust, 139 Sphere (spherical), 12, 68, 210, 212, 223-224
Radiography, 220-222, 229 Spherically dished cover, 40, 219
Radius o f gyration, 71, 77, 113, 118, 197, 201 Spring line, 211-214
Rankine factors, 209, 217 Stress
Reactions, 25, 52-55, 64, 116, 131, 155, 157, 203, allowable, 20, 25-31, 40-44, 51, 71ff.
209, 227 axial, 8-10, 49, 71, 74, 77-80, 113, 120, 197-203
Redistribution of stress, 2, 14 hearing, 8, 124
Reinforcement, 25, 41, 51, 57-58, 139, 144-146, 209 bending, 2, 8-10, 15, 71, 74, 80, 84, 91, 113ff.
Reinforcing pads, 57-58, 91, 94-96, 160, 188-190, biaxial, 2-3
219 categories of, 8, 10-1 1
Reinforcing plate, 2 1, 189 circumferential bending, 106-110, 113, 227
Reinforcing rings, 25, 160 circumferential buckling, 162
Ribs, 113-114, 118-119 circumferential compression, 23, 106-110, 162
Ring stiffening, 50, 91, 105-109, 113, 147-150, circumferential membrane, 22
159-160, 170, 188, 203, 219 circumferential tension, 162, 213
Ring, 48, 88, 91, 125, 129-130, 139, 144-150, 156, circumferential, 2, 8, 11-12, 17, 23, 80, 84, 86, 91,
159, 161, 168, 215 103, 139, 141, 143, 147, 161, 172, 176, 227
analysis, 85 classes of, 8, 10
beam, 153, 155, 157 cornpression/compressive, 2-3, 8, 12, 15, 23, 25ff.
compression, 212-216, 219 concentration, 10, 159
girder, 153, 157 factors of, 91, 176-177, 188-189, 196
 Index 235

direct shear, 176 Surcharge, 21 7-218

direct, 2, 176 Surfacc area, 223-224
discontinuity, 8 , 10, 15, 25, 91, 160 Sway bracing, 78, 155
flexural, 85
indices, 177, 190-191, 196
intensity, 5
latitudinal, 2, 19, 105, 189 T
local, 134, 159-160, 170-171, 215
Tank, 153, 157, 214
longitudinal, 2, 8-9, 17, 91, 96, 103-106, 131ff.
Temperature, 43, 112, 147, 220, 228-229
bending, 106-110, 150
high, 5, 25
compressive, 139, 162, 213, 227
low, 5, 25, 188, 220, 229
hub, 26-39, 61
Thermal expansion, 147-148
tension, 150, 162, 227 Thermal gradient, 14-15
maximum principal, 3 Thermal stress ratcheting, 14
maximum shear, 3, 12 Thickness, 15, 55, 84, 124, 152
membrane, 2, 8-10, 15, 88, 136, 138, 159, 176,
attachment, 176- 177
182, 190, 196
base plate, 117, 119, 122-123, 129, 133-134
mcridional, 2, 19, 189, 227
cone, 18, 23-24, 139
normal, 3, 8 , 176
flange, 27-31, 40-41, 45
peak, 9-11
head, 18-21, 40, 44-45, 59, 105, 107, 227
primary, 8-10
nozzle, 59, 136
bending, 1, 8, 49, 170
pipe, 197
general, 9
reinforcing pad, 91, 176
general bending, 8-10
ring, 130
general membrane, 8-10
shell, 18, 45, 59, 86, 91, 96, 104-107, 136ff.
local membrane, 9
skirt, 125, 131-132, 134
local, 8-10
wear plate, 105
membrane, 8-9, 15, 138, 170
Toriconical transition, 25
principal, 2, 4, 8
Torque, 44
radial, 2, 8 , 11, 61
Torsion, 153, 156
radial flange, 26-31
Torsional resistance factor, 153, 155
redistribution of, 2, 14
Towers, vibration of, 12, 67, 71, 104, 152
secondary, 7, 9-11, 15
Triaxial stress. 2-4
bending, 9-10, 16, 138, 170
membrane, 9-10
shear, 8, 20, 22, 52, 55, 107, 156, 182, 189-190,
207 U
tangential flange, 26-31, 61
tangential shear, 106-107, 109-110 Uniaxial, 3-4
tensiou/tensile, 3, 8, 12, 15, 49, 78, 88, IOGff, 141, Uniform Building Code (UBC), 69, 77, 79, 96, 108,
188 134
thermal, 8, 10, 160
torsional shear, 154, 156, 176
triaxial, 2 V
types of, 8
yield, 77, 105, 119, 132, 197 Vessels
Strut, 155, 209, 215-216 flexible, 66-67
Studding outlets, 51 heavy-wall, 132
Supports, 9, 217 horizontal, 66-68, 104, 108, 111-115, 119
legs, 64, 66-67, 71-80 nonuniform, 97-98, 104, 150, 152
lugs, 64, 66-67, 85-96, 120-124, 215-216, 219 thick-wall, 11-12, 113
rings, 66, 80-85, 216 thin-wall, 11-12, 112
saddle, 105-119 uniform, 96-97, 104, 150, 152
skirt, 68, 96, 98, 124, 131-134, 151, 153, 216, 219 vertical, 12, 66, 68, 97, 124
236 Pressure Vessel Design Manual

Vibration, 13, 213, 218 oscillations and, 13-14, 152

analysis, 13 pressure, 64, 152
of tall towers, 12, 67, 71, 104, 152 speed, basic, map of, 65
wind-induced, 12 vibrations and, 12
Volume, 223-224 Wolosewick, 85, 134
Vortex shedding, 12-13

Y
w Yield, 11, 14, 25
Yield criteria, 3
Wear plate, 105, 107-108, 110, 113, 116, 119 Yield strength, 14, 52, 124, 136
Web, 114, 116, 118-119
Weight, 22, 64, 67ff.
Welding, 21, 55, 78, 85 L
Wind
design and, 64, 147 Zorrilla method, 13