A Textbook of AUT@MOBILE ENGINEERINGPublished by : LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD 118, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 Phone : 011-43 53 25 00 Fax : 011-43 53 25 28 wwwlaxmipublications.com info@laxmipublications.com Compiled by : Smt. Ramesh Rajput ©All rights reserved with the Author and Publishers. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Price: Re. 350.00 Only. First Edition USA © Boston © Chennai (Phone :044-24 34 47 26) 11, Leavitt Street, Hingham, © Cochin (Phone : 0484-239 70 04) MA 02043, USA © Guwahati (Phones : 0361-254 36 69, 251 38 81) Phone : 781-740-4487 @ Hyderabad (Phone : 040-24 75 02 47) e Jalandhar City (Phone : 0181-222 12 72) © Kolkata (Phones ; 033-22 27 37 73, 22 27 52 47) © Lucknow (Phone : 0522-220 95 78) @ Mumbai (Phones : 022-24 91 54 15, 24 92 78 69) @ Ranchi (Phone : 0651-230 77 64) EAE-0697-350-AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING (C—13047/06/08 ‘Typeset at : Goswami Printers, Delhi. Printed at : Mehra Offset Press, Delhi.ConTEeNTS Chapter 1 DUCTION Brief History of Automobile Te eaaist es buena 15, Description of an Automobile ‘L6.__ Performance of an Automobile “Short Answer Questions — 1, Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines 2.1, Heat Eny 2.2. Development of LC. Engines 2.3. Classification of L.C. Engines 2.4. Application of LC. 8 2.5. Engine Cycle-Energy Balance 26. — Basic Idea of LC. Engines: 2.7. Different Parta of 1.C. Engines 2.8, ‘Terms Connected with LC. Engines . 2.9. Working Cycles - 2.1 Indicator Diagram Py S11 Soar Sirske Cycle Engines 2. ‘Two Stroke Cycle Engines 2.13. Intake for Compression Ignition Engines 2.14. Comparison of Four Stroke and Two Stroke Cycle Engines 2.15. Comparison of Spark Ignition (8) and Compression Ignition (C.L.) 2.16. Comparison between # Petrol Engine and a Diesel Engine & 2.17. How to Tell a Two Stroke Cycle Engine from a Four Stroke Cycle Engine ? HL. Combustion in S.I. Engines 2.18. Introduction to Combustion in S.I. Engines 0 2R B BE BRREEBBSBEBRRE f HH wmmnn E f aterial(ii) Chapter 2.20. Bffeet of Engine Variables on Ignition Lag 2.21, Spark Advance and Factora Affecting Ignition Timing 2.22. Pre-ignition Foes peeenua 2.24. Performance Number (PN) 2.25. Highest Useful Compression Ratio (HUCR) 2.26. Combustion Chamber Desiga—-S.l. Engines 2.27. Some Types of Combustion Chambers IL. Combustion in C.1. Engines 2.28. Introduction to Combustion in C.I. Engines 2.29, Combustion Phenomenon in C.J. Engines 2.30. Fundamentals of the Combustion Process in Diesel Engines 2.81, Delay Period (or Ignition Lag) in C.L. Engines 2.32 Diesel Knock 2. C.1. Engine Combustion Chambers 2.34. Cold Starting of C.I. Engines IV. Two Stroke Engines 2.35._General Aspects 2.26. Intake for Two stroke Cycle Engines 2.37, Scavenging Process 2.38, Scavenging Parameters 2.39, Scavenging Systems 2.40. Grankcase Scavenging 2.41. Scavenging Pumps and Blowers V. Fuels for LC Engines 2.42. Conventional Fuels (for 1.C. Engines) 2.43, Alternative Fuels for 1.0. Engines VI. Supercharging of LC. Engines 2.44, Purpose of Supercharging 2.45, Supereharging of 8.1. Engines 2.46, Supercharging of C.I. Engines 2.4%, Modification of an Enginc for Supercharging 2.48. Superchargers 2.49 Supercharging Arrangements 2.50. Turbochargers ‘VHL Testing and Performance of LC. Engines 2.61, Introdustion to Testing and Performance of LC. Engines 52. formance Parameters 2.63. Basic Measurements 2.54, Engine Performance Curves 2.55. Comparison of Petrol and Diesel Engines—Fuel Consumption, ‘Load Outputs and Exhaust Composition bd B BERR EEEBEEE SE EEEREBR Eeeesas cesecenn f 2.56. Governing of LC. Engines 184. 2.57 Noise Abatement 185(viii) ‘VIII. Miscellaneous Engine 2.58. Dual-fuol and Multi-fuol Engines 2.59. Stratified Charge Engine 2.60. Stirling Engine 2.61, The Wankel Rotary Combustion (RC) Engine 2.62. Veriable Compression Ratio (VOR) Engines 2.63. Free-Piston Engine Plant ; IX. Air Pollution from LC. Engines and its Control 2.64, Introduction to Air Pollution from ILC. Engines 2.65, Pollutants 2.66. Spark Ignition (S.1.) Engine Emissions 2.67. 8.1. Engine Emission Control 2.68. Diesel Engine Emissions 2.69. Dissel Smoke and Control 2.70, Comparison of Gasoline and Diesel Emissions ‘201. Zero Emission 2.73. Effects of Engine Emissions on Human Health 2.74. Comparative Data of Constructional Features of Engines of Some India Vehicles Short Answer Questions Highlights Objective Type Questions Theoretical Questions Unsolved Examples 4.__FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM 8.1. Air, Fuel and Exhaust Gases Cireuits of Petrol and Diesel Engines 1 SL Engines 24 i c e c 8.8. Induction System 3.4, Factors Influencing Carburetion 3.6. Mixture Requirements 3.6. Distribution ; 3.7, Transient Mixture Requirements * 3.8. A Simple or Elemes Carburetor 8.9. Complete Carburetor 8.10._Carhurettors - 3.11. Petrol Injection 3.12. Theory of Simple Carburetor IL CL. Engines 3.18. Introduction to Fuel Injection Systems for C.1. Engines ES 315 3.14, Functionel Requirements of an Injection System a 316 "8.15. Functions of a Fuel Injection Syatem 316(in) ter 3.16. Fuel Injection Systems 3.17. Fuel Pump and Fuel Injector (Atomiser) 3.18. Types of Nozzles and Fuel Spray Patterns 3.19, Engine Starting Systems 3.20. Fuel Injection Computation in C.I. Engines 3.21, Troubleshooting of a Fuel System 3.22, Troubleshooting of Carburetior 3.23, Comparative Diesel Engine Fuel System Data of a 4 Short Answer Questions Highlights Objective Type Questions Theoretical Questions Unsolved Examples ENGINE FRICTION AND LUBRICATION SYSTEMS 4.1, Introduction 42. Total Engine Friction 4.3. Effect of Engine Parameters on Engine Friction 4.4. Determination of Engine Friction 45 Lubrication 4.6.__Lubrication Syste 4.2 Crankcase Ventilation 4.8, Lubrication System of Some Indian Vehicles Short Answer Questions Highlights Objective Type Questions Theoretical Questions COOLING SYSTEMS 5.1. Necessity of Engine Cooling 5.2. Areas of Heat Flow in Engines 5.3. Gas Temperature Variation 5.4, Heat Transfer, Temperature Distribution and Temperature Profiles 5.5, Effects of Operating Variables on Engine Heat Transfer 5.6. Cooling Air and Water Requirements 5.7. Cooling Systems 5.8. Components of Water Cooling System 5.9. tifications for the Cooling stem of an Engine 5.10, Troubleshooting of Cooling System 5.11. Cooling System Data of Some Indian Vehicles Short Answer Questions Highlights Objective Type Questions Theoretical Questions EEE E 2B BBS EB BEE 5 BEEBE ie im SBSSRERE i BEBEREEEEREES ES(x) 6.4. Body a 413 6.6. Introduction to Suspension System es us 8.7. Functions/Objecta of a Suspension System i 416 6.8. Requirements of a Suspension System 416 6.9. Elements of a Suspension System 417 6.10. Springs ‘ 418 6.11. Dampers (or Shock Absorbers) 5 422 6.12. Suspension Systeme 425 6.13. Wheels and Tyres 439 Short Answer Questions 452 Highlights z 457 Objective Type Queatione : 457 Theoretical Questions ie 459 7.1,__Introduction to Transmission System ES 462 1.2.__Cintch sat 2.8. Geer Box (Transmission) : 479 1.4. Propeller Shaft Ee 500 ‘LS. Universal Joints (\|°|°|°|— L7__Rear Axles oe Sil Short Answer Questions 516 Highlights 521 Objective Type Questions 522 Theoretical Questions 825 _ A. Steering System Bl. se of a Steering System x 528 82, Functions of a Steering System ‘i 528 83. Requirements of a Good Steering System ag 529 8.4, General arrangement of a Steering System b 529 85. Steering Gears a 581 8.6. Steering Ratio 534 8.7. Reversibility : 538 8.8. Steering Geometry - 585 8.9. Wheel Alignment. 536tai) Chapter Pages 8.10. Steering Mechanisms 539 8.11. Understeering and Oversteering 542 8.12. Steering Linkages 543 8.13. Steering Wheel and Column 545 8.14. Steering Arm 545 8.15. Drag link 546 8.16. Steering Stope 546 8.17. Power-Steering 546 8.18. Adjustment of Steering Geometry 550 8.19. Steering Troubleshooting ‘551 8.20. Comparative Steering Data of Some Indian Automobiles 551 B. Front Axle 8.21, Introduction to Front Axle 552 8.22. Construction of Front Axle 552 8.23. Types of Front Azles 553 8.24. Stub Axles es Short Answer Questions 854 Highlights 556 Objective Type Questions 557 Theoretical Questions 857 9. BRAKING SYSTEM 559-588 9.1. Introduction to Braking System 559 9.2. Necessity of a Braking System 559 9.3, Functions of Brakes 560 9.4. Requirements of a Good Braking System 560 9.5. Classification of Brakes 560 9.6. Mechanical Brakes 561 9.7. Hydraulic Brakes 568 9.8, Power Brakes = 569 29. Brake Effectiveness a 576 9.10. Factore Controlling the Stop of an Automobile 876 9.11. Arrangement of Brakes in Different Vehicles 577 9.12. Brake Shoes end Linings 877 9.13. Brake Drum 578 9.14, Brake Shoe Holding Down Arrangements 578 9.15. Brake Testers 579 9.16 Brake Service PO 9.17. Troubleshooting Chart of Hydraulic Brakes System 581 9.18. Troubleshooting Chart of Air Brakes 581 9.19. Troubleshooting Chart of Brake Shoes and Drums 582 9.20, Comparative Brake Data of Some Indian Vehicles 583 Short Answer Questions 583 Highlights 585 Objective Type Questions 586 Theoretical Questions 5871 (ait) Pages 10.1. Introduction to Electrical System 589 I. Starting System Introduction to starting System 501 The Battery 591 Starting Motor (or Self-startor) 608 ‘TL, Charging system 10.8. Introduction to Charging System 618, 10.6. Generator (Dynamo) 615 10.7, Alternator (A.C. generator) 621 IIL Ignition System Introduction to Ignition System 626 Purpose of Ignition System 627 ). Requirements of an Ignition System 627 |. Basie Ignition Systems 627 . Battery (or coil) Ignition System 628 . Magneto Ignition System 635 . Firing Order 637 . Ignition Timing 638 3. Spark Plugs 641 . Limitations of Conventional Ignition 643 . Electronic Ignition Systems 644 ). Troubleshooting of Ignition System 647 IV. Lighting and Accessory System 10.20. Introduction to Lighting and Accessory System e419 10.21. Main Circuita of the Automobile Electrical System 649 10.22. Lighting System 653 10.23. Accessories 661 Short Answer Questions 676 Highlights 681 Objective Type Questions 683 Theoretical Questions 688 MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING OF AUTOMOBILE 691-744 11.1, Maintenance a1 11.2, Troubleshooting 728 Short Answer Questions m1 Highlights 2 Objective Type Questions 743 i 43 MISCELLANY 745 B83Chapter 12.3. 12.4. 12.5. 12.6, 12.7. (iii) Automobile Body and Safety Considerations Car Driving Fuel Saving Garage Tools and Equipment Technical Specifications of Automotive Vehicles Short Answer Questions Highlights Objective Type Questions Theoretical Questions ADDITIONAL OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS’ BANK APPENDICES. INDEX Pages ma. 786 790 801 804 825 859 859 3621 Introduction 1.1. Introduction to an automobile. 1.2, Brief history of automobile. 1.3, Classification of automobiles. 1.4. Parts of an automobile—mechanical portion—chassia and transmiasion—the engine—electrical system—body or carriage portion. 1.5. Description of an automobile. 1.6. Performance of an automobile—Short Answer Questions—Highlights—Objective Type Questions—Theoretical Questions. 1.1. INTRODUCTION TO AN AUTOMOBILE Automobile. An “automobile” is a self-propelled vehicle driven by an internal combustion engine and is used for transportation of passengers and goods on ground. Examples : Bus, car, jeep, truck, tractor, scooter, motor eycle, The modern automobile, in general, is essentially a transportation equipment unit. It con- sists of a “frame” supporting the “body” and certain ‘power developing and transmitting units” which are further supported by “tyres and wheels” through “springs and axles ‘An “engine” supplies the power, which is delivered by the “transmission aystem” to the wheels through the clutch or fluid coupling. Automobile engineering. Automobile (or automotive) engineering is a branch of engineer- ing in which we study all about the automobiles and have practice to propel them. — Mobile or motive means one which can move. Automobile or automotive means one which itself can move. The different names for the automobile are : @ Auto © Automobile @ Autocar © Autobuggy @ Car @ Motor @ Motor car Motor vehicle @ Motorcoach @ Motor wagon © Horseless coach. 1.2, BRIEF HISTORY OF AUTOMOBILE ‘The famous years in early automobile history are as follows : Year Event © 1769 French engineer Captain Nicholas Cugnot of France built the first road vehicle propelled by its own power (Attained a speed of about 2.5. m.ph. in 15 minutes). 1801 First steam carriage built by Richard Trevithick in England. € 1804 Oliver Evans built the finest American self-propelled steam vehicle. 1827 Onesiphare Pacqueur of France invented first differential. 1832 First 3-speed Transmission patented by W.H. James in England. 1880 German and French efforts developed an internal combustion engine vehicle (which was used to carry fruits). The present day automobile is the develop- ment of this vehicle. erece2 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING @ 1885 Benz in Germany developed tricycle propelled by an internal combustion engine. © 1886 One of the first gasoline engine powered automobiles by Gottlieb Daimler of Germany. @ 1894 Panhard and Levassor in France developed a car which incorporated the chief features of the modern automobile. © 1895 First motor car race held. © 1897 First car arrived in India. © 1900 ‘The design of the automobile was so improved that it awakened the public to the fact that this new form of transportation was really practical for use. 1902 _ First volume of production car “The Curved Dash Oldsmobile” in America. © 1906 The production and sale of these vehicles became a business. 1908 Ford "T’ model ear produced in America by Ford Motor Company (Ford started his model with an initial run of 20000 vehicles, an output unheard at that time). © 1911 First electric self-starter installed in the automobile. © 1920 There was a gradual change and refinement in automobile design ....... The design development of recent years has provided the owners with cars that are : — Sefer ; — Easier to drive ; — Comfortable ; — More reliable. “Germany ia the birth place of the automobile. It was invented there, it went through ite first paces there and it was developed there to a high level of technical maturity. The list of German automobile pioneers is a long one. Starting with Nicholas Cugnot, August Otto, Carl Benz, Gottlieb Deimler, Wilhelm Maybach and Rudolf Diesel and going all the way upto Ferdinand Posche and Felin Wankel.” «= From SCALA INTERNATIONAL Automobile in India : — In India the first motor car appeared in 1897. For about 50 years from 1897, India was an importer of automobiles. — The late Bharat Ratna Sir M. Vivesvaraya made an automobile industry in India, but the government did not approve the plan. — In 1948 and 1944 two automobile factories namely, Hindustan Motors Limited, Celeutta and premier Automobiles Limited, Bombay were set up in India. At present, several automobile companies are manufacturing automobiles. ‘Use of Diesel engines in cars : Following are the advantages of using Diesel engines in cars : 1. Diesel fuel is much cheaper than petrol. 2. The diesel engine uses 60 per cent less fuel in heavy traffic than does the available spark- ignition engine. — One reason for extra economy is that diesel's good low-speed torque makes it possible to drive at low speeds in a higher gear. 8. The high thermal efficiency of the diesel engine, reflected in low specific fuel consumption gives its high advantages in the matter of range. 4. The crankshaft speed of about 5000 r.p.m. enables the diesel engine to propel the cars at high speeds, with acceleration comparable to that of SI. engine.INTRODUCTION 3 5. The use of diesel engine eliminates the complication of spark-ignition with its spark plugs, breaker points, condenser, ignition cables, distributor rotor and other components that may have to be replaced several times during the life of engine. 6. Operating tests are further reduced by having no carburettor to service periodically. 7. Owing to the absence of electrical ignition equipment, non-volatile fuel and lower exhaust temperature, the diesel engine is a much smaller fire risk than the petrol engine when working in closed places and in the neighbourhood of inflammable material. 8. The special feature of diesel engines ealled “torque back up” (an inbuilt performance fea- ture) makes it convenient for the vehicle to climb a steep incline (such as ghats) with low consump- tion at high load. Under these conditions diesel engines run comparatively cold than an equivalent petrol engine under the similar load conditions. Inspite of all the above mentioned advantages upiill now, diesel engines for cars were re- jected from majority of customers, due to their heavy weight and size, high noise, vibration and ‘smoke levels, These problems finally led to the development of compact, light weight and fuel effi- cient passenger car diesel engines, In this connection, the reference needs to be mentioned to : — Over-square bore-stroke ratio ; — Fast responding value gear trains ; — Cold starting equipments ; — Combustion chamber design ; — Fuel injection equipment ; — Solution of metellurgical problems to ensure satisfactory working life of aluminium alloy components, crankshaft journals, bearings, cylinder bores and other highly stressed components. @ The sacrifice of German engineer Rudolf Diesel is memorable in Automobile and LC. engine history. He got very seriously injured when he successfully exploded coal dust as fuel. And in 1913 although he invented Diesel engine using liquid fuel ‘Diesel’ but he committed suicide as he could not get financial co-operation from his friend for his research and development. 1.8. CLASSIFICATION OF AUTOMOBILES Automobiles can be classified with different regards which are as under : 1. Purpose : (i) Passenger carriers — Car, Jeep, Bus ete. (ii) Goods carriers — Truck ete, 2. Fuel used : G) Petrol vehicle — Motor eyeles, Scooters, Cars, Station wagons Gi) Diesel vehicle — Trucks, Buses ete. (ii) Gas vehicle — Coal gas turbine (iv) Electric — Using storage batteries (v) Steam — Using steam engine (obsolete). 3, Capacity : (® HTV (Heavy Transport Vehicles) — Trucks, Buses, Dumpers ete. or HMV (Heavy Motor Vehicles) Gi) LTV (Light Transport Vehicles) — Pick up, Station wagon (iii) LMV (Light Motor Vehicles) — Jeep, Cars (iv) Medium vehicle — Station wagon, Tempo, Minibus and small trucks.