PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL FROM WATER MELON,

AND JULIFLORA SEED FOR USING PERFORMANCE

ANALYSIS
 ABSTRACT

In recent years, there has been a steadily increasing in the amount

of solid wastes because of the increasing human population and
urbanization. Solids are includes industrial waste, agricultural waste,
forest waste and waste bio-products.
Bio-energy has been produced total 10% participation of energy of
global energy production, energy produced from the
source of biomass: plants, animal, and organic waste.
In some seed like Juliflora seed, Water melon Seed oil prepared
and blended with together to produce the biodiesel and to check the
performance of the biodiesel.
The study also includes examination of physical and chemical
properties such as pH value, viscosity, density, flash point, fire point and
acid values on the produced biodiesel as well as on the conventional
diesel for comparison. The study revealed that the properties of the bio-
diesel are very close to the conventional diesel.
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

Biodiesel, a diesel fuel substitute that can be made from a variety of oils, fats, and
greases, is of interest to farmers for a number of reasons: It can provide an
additional market for vegetable oils and animal fats; it can allow farmers to grow
the fuel they need for farm machinery; and it can decrease other countries
dependence on imported oil since fuel feedstocks can be grown domestically.

Biodiesel is a renewable source of energy that can help reduce greenhouse gas
emission and minimize the “carbon footprint” of agriculture. It contributes less to
global warming because the carbon in the fuel was removed from the air by the
plant feedstock.

In addition, biodiesel produces less air pollution (exhaust emissions) than diesel
made from fossil fuels. A study to found that using pure biodiesel in urban buses
“results in substantial reductions in life cycle emissions of total particulate matter,
carbon monoxide and sulfur oxides

We are living on twenty first century and already running out of fuel. Inflation in
the market, recent devastating earth-quakes and floods all are playing against the
human civilization. And the main reason for this is global warming. Scientists are
assuming that the rate of earth quake and flood has increased dramatically in the
recent years, which is somehow related to global warming. Global warming is the
biggest and the most devastating man made phenomenon the earth has ever
experienced, and its consequences are far too dangerous than itself. The word itself
says its meaning rise of global temperature of earth‖, and it’s now become a chain
reaction. It all started when we live in the pre industrialised world. with the
beginning of the eighteen century the industrialization started, but then no one
really knew what they are preparing for their children, and it was until late 70’s of
the last century we actually came to know about the effects and causes of the
global warming.

Global warming is now a well accepted phenomenon and we are almost

helpless to stop it. Looking back in the history we can see the inevitable effects of
industrial pollution which shatter the human life in pain. Developing countries like
India, growth of the nation severely affected by increasing the price of petroleum
products due to their demand. Since the last century, researchers were tried to find
the alternate, for replacing the conventional fossil fuels. Properties of the fuel such
as viscosity, flash point and fire point decide the combustion capability. Bio diesel
is the ester based variety oxygenated fuels derived from natural renewable
biological sources such as non edible oils. Biodiesel fuel can be made from new or
used non edible oil and animal fats. Biodiesel is high quality fuel made through a
chemical process called Trans esterification. Needed ingredients are non edible oil,
Methanol and Lye (NaOH).

The chemical reaction that occurs through this process breaks down the oil
into a layer of biodiesel which rises to the top of the reactor, and a layer of
Glycerine which falls to the bottom. The Glycerine is drained is drained off and
used for other purposes, composted or otherwise disposed off. The biodiesel is then
washed, dried and filtered to remove any extra impurities and its ready to be used
as a fuel in diesel engines without any modifications to the engine. Many
researchers conducted experimental investigation on compression ignition engine
by using bio fuel prepared from Jatropha, Mahua, Pinnai oil, Cotton seed oil,
Soybean oil, Rubber seed oil, Karanj oil and Putranjiva after esterification process.
Performance, Combustion and Emission characteristics were studied without major
modification of engine parameter.

This study represents the analysis of production of biodiesel by using

watermelon and juliflora seed. In this article biodiesel is taken as a fuel instead of
diesel and quantity of emitted pollutants HC and CO is evaluated by taking
different quantity of biodiesel at different load. Biodiesel is a diesel fuel that is
made by reacting non edible oil (cooking oil) with other common chemicals.
Soybean oil is currently a major feedstock for production of biodiesel. The most
common method of biodiesel production is a reaction of non edible oils or animal
fats with methanol or ethanol in the presence of sodium hydroxide (which acts as a
catalyst).

The transesterification reaction yields methyl or ethyl esters (biodiesel) and a

byproduct of glycerin. Biodiesel is not straight non edible oil burned in a diesel
engine. Biodiesel has better lubricating properties and much higher cetane rating
than today's low sulfur diesel fuels. Biodiesel addition reduces fuel system wear
and in low levels in high pressure systems increases the life of the fuel injection
equipment that relies on the fuel for its lubrication. Biodiesel may be used in any
diesel automotive engine in its pure form or blended with petroleum based diesel.
No modifications are required, and the result is a less-expensive, renewable, clean
burning fuel. This work shows how use of biodiesel will affect the emission of
pollutants. Diesel Engine is compression ignition engine and use diesel as fuel, in
this engine alternative fuel can be used. One alternate fuel is biodiesel. Biodiesel
can be used in pure form or may be blended with petroleum diesel at any
concentration in most injection pump diesel engines and also can be used in
Vehicle, Railway, and Aircraft as heating oil.
 The raw materials for biodiesel production are non edible oils, animal fats
and short chain alcohols. The oils most used for worldwide biodiesel production
are rapeseed (mainly in the European Union countries), soybean (Argentina and
the United States of America), palm (Asian and Central American countries) and
non edible oils are also used and also animal fats. Methanol is the most frequently
used alcohol although ethanol can also be used. Since cost is the main concern in
biodiesel production and trading (mainly due to oil prices), the use of non-edible
non edible oils has been studied for several years with good results.

Besides its lower cost, another undeniable advantage of non-edible oils for
biodiesel production lies in the fact that no foodstuffs are spent to produce fuel.
These and other reasons have led to medium and large scale biodiesel production
trials in several countries, using non-edible oils such as castor oil tung, juliflora,
Animal fats are also an interesting option, especially in countries with plenty of
live stock resources, although it is necessary to carry out preliminary treatment
since they are solid; furthermore, highly acidic grease from cattle, pork, poultry,
and fish can be used. Microalgae appear to be a very important alternative for
future biodiesel production due to their very high oil yield; however, it must be
taken into account that only some species are useful for bio fuel production.
Although the properties of oils and fats used as raw materials may differ, the
properties of biodiesel must be the same, complying with the requirements set by
international standards.
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE SURVAY
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE SURVAY

Studies on the comparison of performance and emission characteristics of a

diesel engine using three degummed non-edible non edible oils. by: S.K.Haldar,
B.B.Ghosh, A.Nag, IIT kharagpur , India.

This paper investigates non-edible straight non edible oils of Putranjiva,

Jatropha and Karanja to find out the most suitable alternative diesel by a chemical
processing. Degumming is an economical chemical process that is done by
concentrated phosphoric acid. This process is applied to the above-mentioned non-
edible oils to remove the impurities for the improvement of viscosity, cetane
number and better combustion in the diesel engine up to certain blend of diesel and
non-edible non edible oils. Ten percent, 20%, 30% and 40% blends of degummed
non-edible oils and diesel are used in a Ricardo variable compression engine to
study and compare the performance and emission characteristics. It is observed
that the non-edible oil of Jatropha gives the best results related to the performance
and emissions at high loads and 45° b TDC injection timing.

Performance of jatropha oil blends in a diesel engine by: F.K.Forson,

E.K.Oduro, E.Hammound-Donkoh, Kumasi ,Ghana.

Results are presented on tests on a single-cylinder direct-injection engine

operating on diesel fuel, jatropha oil, and blends of diesel and jatropha oil in
proportions of 97.4%/2.6%; 80%/20%; and 50%/50% by volume. The results
covered a range of operating loads on the engine. Values are given for the chemical
and physical properties of the fuels, brake specific fuel consumption, brake power,
brake thermal efficiency, engine torque, and the concentrations of carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxygen in the exhaust gases. Carbon dioxide
emissions were similar for all fuels, the 97.4% diesel/2.6% jatropha fuel blend was
observed to be the lower net contributor to the atmospheric level. The trend of
carbon monoxide emissions was similar for the fuels but diesel fuel showed
slightly lower emissions to the atmosphere. The test showed that jatropha oil could
be conveniently used as a diesel substitute in a diesel engine.

The test further showed increases in brake thermal efficiency, brake power
and reduction of specific fuel consumption for jatropha oil and its blends with
diesel generally, but the most significant conclusion from the study is that the
97.4% diesel/2.6% jatropha fuel blend produced maximum values of the brake
power and brake thermal efficiency as well as minimum values of the specific fuel
consumption. The 97.4%/2.6% fuel blend yielded the highest cetane number and
even better engine performance than the diesel fuel suggesting that jatropha oil can
be used as an ignition-accelerator additive for diesel fuel.

BIODIESEL FROM JATROPHA OIL AS AN ALTERNATIVE FUEL FOR

DIESEL ENGINE. by: K.M. Rahman, M.Mashud, Md.Roknuzzaman,A.Al
Galib, KUET, Bangladesh

The world is getting modernized and industrialized day by day. As a result

vehicles and engines are increasing. But energy sources used in these engines are
limited and decreasing gradually. This situation leads to seek an alternative fuel for
diesel engine. Biodiesel is an alternative fuel for diesel engine. The esters of
vegetables oil animal fats are known as Biodiesel. This paper investigates the
prospect of making of biodiesel from jatropha oil. Jatropha curcas is a renewable
non-edible plant. Jatropha is a wildly growing hardy plant in arid and semi-arid
regions of the country on degraded soils having low fertility and moisture. The
seeds of Jatropha contain 50-60% oil. In this study the oil has been converted to
biodiesel by the well-known transsterification process and used it to diesel engine
for performance evaluation.

Jatropha oil production and an experimental investigation of its use as an

alternative fuel in a DI diesel engine. By: V.chalatlon, M.M. Roy, A.Dutta,
S.Kumar,

In this study, a non-edible non edible oil was produced from Jatropha fruits as a
substitute fuel for diesel engines and its usability was investigated as pure oil and
as a blend with petroleum diesel fuel. A direct injection (DI) diesel engine was
tested using diesel, Jatropha oil, and blends of Jatropha oil and diesel in different
proportions. A wide range of engine loads and Jatropha oil/diesel ratios of 5/95%
(J5), 10/90% (J10), 20/80% (J20), 50/50% (J50), and 80/20% (J80) by volume
were considered. The following performance parameters were measured; brake
thermal efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption and CO and CO2 emissions.
No significant change in brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel
consumption was experienced up to J20 ratios.

However, higher blends suffered from deterioration in efficiency and fuel

consumption about 10 to 25%. At low load operations, CO2 emission with blends
was lower than that of diesel, whereas, at high loads, CO2 emission became higher
with a higher percentage of Jatropha oil in the blends. However, CO emission with
blends was much higher than that of diesel; the higher the percentage of Jatropha
oil in the blend, the higher the CO emission. Biodiesel, a renewable source is able
to cater the needs of people at the same time it is helping towards clean and green
environment. This has been possible by extensive investigations on renewable
energy sources especially on the concept of biodiesel. Many researchers have
carried out many investigations on usage of biodiesel in compression ignition
engines. Problems encountered in usage of biodiesel were identified many possible
solutions have been suggested and published in many journal papers. This proved
to be valuable source for many researchers, laying path for further research. A
thorough reading has been done on sources of biodiesel especially on non-edible
sources, production methods and usage of it as fuel in diesel engines.

Transesterification process and catalytic cracking methods are

implemented based on the literature survey and the biodiesel thus obtained is tested
in diesel engine and results are reported. Out of many journal papers that have been
gone through, few journal papers are quoted. Ayhan Demirbas in his paper detailed
about bio fuel, their sources, their effect on economy and future projections. With
his briefing about bio fuel and different products of bio fuel presented their
environmental effects and also socioeconomic issues related to rural areas. Due to
inherent advantages of bio fuel related to environmental issues, he expressed that it
would occupy a major share of automotive market in next decade and by 2050 he
estimated that modern biomass energy contributes nearly one-half of the total
energy demands of developing countries. B. K. Barnwal et. al expressed about
necessity of alternative fuels.

They proposed two methods for biodiesel production one was

transesterification and other one was super critical methanol transesterification.
Concluded that super critical methanol transesterification method gave good yield
of quality biodiesel with very less conversion time. After economic feasibility
study they expressed that biodiesel from non-edible oils are cheaper when
compared to edible oils and that production of biodiesel from non edible oils will
be economical and technically feasible only if cost of non edible oils was less. S.
Jaichandar et. al expressed their view that high viscosity and low volatility of non
edible oils are the problems to substitute diesel fuel. Biodiesel from non edible oil
can be produced by transesterification process there by reducing viscosity of non
edible oil. They expressed their view that acceptable thermal efficiency of CI
engines can be attained with reduced emissions and more investigations are to be
done to get full potential of biodiesel engines. Agbede investigated extracted oil
from three fruit seeds (mango, tangerine, African star) for their worthiness for
production of bio fuel. It was found that fuel properties were similar to those of
common seed oils which were already being used as biodiesels.

Their low acid value signifies its potential to be used as feed stock in
producing biodiesel. Concluded with need for further investigation of other fuel
properties. S Savariraj worked upon reducing viscosity and increasing calorific
value extracted mango seed oil with 1, 4 dioxane fuel additive.

Transesterification of mango seed oil produced biodiesel that was mixed

with additive in various proportions were tested. Optimal 10% additive added in
biodiesel, fuel properties like viscosity reduced by 0.5% and slight improvement in
calorific value. Further, little increment in brake thermal efficiency and reduction
of 200 ppm in NOx emissions. Silvia Mironeasa et al. studied physico-chemical,
structural characteristics, content and quality of grape seed oil. Concluded that
higher oil concentrations were obtained from the grapes that are grown in warmer
climatic conditions. Oil content varies largely from 6.26 to 9.01% accordingly to
grape variety and cultivation area. EI Diwani et. al proved with results that
ozonated non edible oil(1% by weight) mixed biodiesels in comparison with
biodiesel, contained more saturated carbon bonds in weight than that of
unsaturated carbon bonds. When biodiesel was mixed with ozonated oil, oxygen
content of biodiesel increases and helps in thorough reaction process there by
reducing carbon residue.

Higher combustion efficiency, high heat of enthalpy and reduced emissions

of particulate matter was observed. Finally ozone treated biodiesel showed better
thermal properties and oxidation stability. Murugu Mohan Kumar ET. Al on
analysis concluded that a minimum drop of thermal efficiency, little higher specific
fuel consumption was noticed by using sunflower seed oil esters as fuel in diesel
engine when compared to diesel fuel. This can be attributed to the low calorific
value of sunflower oil ester. Nilaj N. Deshmukh et.al expressed that usage of
biodiesel produced from food grains may lead to hike in food grain prices
 CHAPTER-3

BIODIESEL PROCESS
 CHAPTER-3

BIODIESEL

DIESEL ENGINE & DIESEL CYCLE

A diesel engine (also known as a compression-ignition engine) is an internal

combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to burn the
fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber. This is in contrast to spark-
ignition engines such as a petrol engine (gasoline engine) or gas engine (using a
gaseous fuel as opposed to gasoline), which uses a spark plug to ignite an air-fuel
mixture. The engine was developed by Rudolf Diesel in 1893.

The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency of any regular internal
or external combustion engine due to its very high compression ratio. Low-speed
diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight
is relatively unimportant) can have a thermal efficiency that exceeds 50 percent.
The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline powered Otto
cycle by using highly compressed hot air to ignite the fuel rather than using a spark
plug (compression ignition rather than spark ignition).
 Fig 1: Working of Diesel Engine

In the true diesel engine, only air is initially introduced into the combustion
chamber. The air is then compressed with a compression ratio typically between
15:1 and 22:1 resulting in 40-bar (4.0 MPa; 580 psi) pressure compared to 8 to 14
bars (0.80 to 1.4 MPa) (about 200 psi) in the petrol engine.

This high compression heats the air to 550 °C (1,022 °F). At about the top of
the compression stroke, fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in the
combustion chamber. This may be into a (typically to roidal) void in the top of the
piston or a pre-chamber depending upon the design of the engine. The fuel injector
ensures that the fuel is broken down into small droplets, and that the fuel is
distributed evenly. The heat of the compressed air vaporizes fuel from the surface
of the droplets. The vapour is then ignited by the heat from the compressed air in
the combustion chamber, the droplets continue to vaporise from their surfaces and
burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in the droplets has been burnt. The start of
vaporisation causes a delay period during ignition and the characteristic diesel
knocking sound as the vapour reaches ignition temperature and causes an abrupt
increase in pressure above the piston. The rapid expansion of combustion gases
then drives the piston downward, supplying power to the crankshaft. Engines for
scale-model aeroplanes use a variant of the Diesel principle but premix fuel and air
via a carburation system external to the combustion chambers.

History of biodiesel

Dr. Rudolf Diesel invented the diesel engine to run on a host of fuels including
coal dust suspended in water, heavy mineral oil, and, non edible oils. Dr. Diesel’s
first engine experiments were catastrophic failures, but by the time he showed his
engine at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900, his engine was running on 100%
peanut oil. Dr. Diesel (Fig. 14) was visionary. In 1911 he stated ‘‘the diesel engine
can be fed with non edible oils and would help considerably in the development of
agriculture of the countries, which use it’’. In 1912, Diesel said,’ the use of non
edible oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant today.

But such oils may become in course of time as important as petroleum and
the coal tar products of the present time’’. Since Dr. Diesel’s untimely death in
1913, his engine has been modified to run on the polluting petroleum fuel, now
known as ‘‘diesel’’. Nevertheless, his ideas on agriculture and his invention
provided the foundation for a society fueled with clean, renewable, locally grown
fuel. In the 1930s and 1940s, non edible oils were used as diesel substitutes from
time to time, but usually only in emergency situations. Recently, because of
increase in crude oil prices, limited resources of fossil oil and environmental
concerns, there has been a renewed focus on non edible oils and animal fats to
make biodiesel. Continued and increasing use of petroleum will intensify local air
pollution and magnify the global warming problems caused by carbon dioxide. In a
particular case, such as the emission of pollutants in the closed environment of
underground mines, biodiesel has the potential to reduce the level of pollutants and
the level of potential for probable carcinogens.

ABOUT BIO DIESEL

Biodiesel, a renewable fuel, is produced from non edible oils and animal fats by a
process called transesterification. It breaks down the molecules of non edible oils
into constituent molecules forming biodiesel as the main product and glycerine as
the by-product. Biodiesel is manufactured from the non edible oils like soya,
canola, jatropha, sunflower seed, algae, juliflora and watermelon seed etc. and
animal fats. The chemical name for biodiesel is fatty acid alkyl esters. There are a
few methods for production of biodiesel, but the most commonly used method for
production of biodiesel is known as transesterification. It is the chemical
conversion process of non edible oil or animal fats to biodiesel.

The biodiesel produced by the process of transesterification has much

lower viscosity, which makes it capable of replacing petroleum diesel in diesel
engines. In earlier years when the process of transesterification was not known, the
viscosity of non edible oil was the major hindrance for its use as a fuel for motor
engines. The by product of the transesterification chemical reaction is the glycerin
that originally formed the bond between the chains of fatty acids. Reaction shows
below. Glycerine can be used for various purposes. Thus during transesterification
process nothing goes to waste. All the products and by products are utilized for
various purpose.

In the most general sense, biodiesel refers to any diesel fuel substitute
derived from Renewable biomass. More specifically, biodiesel is defined as an
oxygenated, sulfur-free, biodegradable, non-toxic, and eco-friendly alternative
diesel oil. Chemically, it can be defined as a fuel composed of mono-alkyl esters of
long chain fatty acids derived from renewable sources, such as non edible oil,
animal fat, and used cooking oil designated as B100, and also it must meet the
special requirements such as the ASTM and the European standards.

For these to be considered as viable transportation fuels, they must meet

stringent quality standards. One popular process for producing biodiesel is
transesterification. Biodiesel is made from a variety of natural oils such as
soybeans, rapeseeds, coconuts, and even recycled cooking oil. Rapeseed oil
dominates the growing biodiesel industry in Europe. In the United States, biodiesel
is made from soybean oil because more soybean oil is produced in the United
States than all other sources of fats and oil combined. The injection and
atomization characteristics of the non edible oils are significantly different than
those of petroleum derived diesel fuels, mainly as the result of their high
viscosities. Modern diesel engines have fuel-injection system that is sensitive to
viscosity change.

One way to avoid these problems is to reduce fuel viscosity of non

edible oil in order to improve its performance. The conversion of non edible oils
into biodiesel is an effective way to overcome all the problems associated with the
non edible oils. Dilution, micro emulsification, pyrolysis, and transesterification
are the four techniques applied to solve the problems encountered with the high
fuel viscosity. Transesterification is the most common method and leads to mono
alkyl esters of non edible oils and fats, now called biodiesel when used for fuel
purposes. The methyl ester produced by transesterification of non edible oil has a
high cetane number, low viscosity and improved heating value compared to those
of pure non edible oil which results in shorter ignition delay and longer combustion
duration and hence low particulate emissions.

Bio fuels

Bio fuels are energy carriers that store the energy derived from biomass,
commonly produced from plants, animals and micro-organisms and organic
wastes. Bio fuels may be solid, liquid or gaseous and include all kinds of biomass
and derived products used for energetic purposes. Bio fuels are renewable energy
sources, meaning that fresh supplies can be re grown.

They are a possible substitute product for fossil fuels. Compared with the
latter product there are some advantages to subscribe to bio fuels. Advantages and
benefits of bio fuels, however, depend on the categorization of the specific bio
fuel, type of feedstock used and technology applied to produce it. There are two
global liquid transportation bio fuels that might replace gasoline and diesel fuel;
these are ethanol and biodiesel, respectively. Transport is one of the main energy
consuming sectors. It is assumed that biodiesel is used as a petroleum diesel
replacement and that ethanol is used as a gasoline replacement. Bio ethanol,
followed by biodiesel is the most produced types of bio fuel. Figure 5.1.2 shows
the world’s top ethanol and biodiesel producers in 2008. The United States (US)
and Brazil are currently the leading ethanol producers and the expectations are that
this will at least until 2018 remain so. The European Union (EU) is the world’s
leading producer of biodiesel.
Bio fuel generation

Bio fuels for transport are commonly addressed according to their current or future
availability as first, second or third generation bio fuels (OECD/ IEA 2008).
Second and third generation bio fuels are also called “advanced” bio fuels.

First-generation biofuels are commercially produced using conventional

technology. The basic feed stocks are seeds, grains, or whole plants from crops
such as corn, sugar cane, rapeseed, wheat, sunflower seeds or oil palm. These
plants were originally selected as food or fodder and most are still mainly used to
feed people. The most common first-generation bio fuels are bio ethanol (currently
over 80% of liquid bio fuels production by energy content), Followed by biodiesel,
non edible oil, and biogas.

Second-generation biofuels can be produced from a variety of non-food sources.

These include waste biomass, the stalks of wheat, corn stover, wood, and special
energy or biomass crops (e.g. Miscanthus). Second-generation bio fuels use
biomass to liquid (BtL) technology, by thermo chemical conversion (mainly to
produce biodiesel) or fermentation (e.g. to produce cellulosic ethanol).Many
second-generation bio fuels are under development such as bio hydrogen, bio
methanol, DMF, Bio-DME, Fischer-Tropsch diesel, bio hydrogen diesel, and
mixed alcohols.

Third-generation bio fuel: Algae fuel, also called oil gae, is a bio fuel from algae
and addressed as a third-generation bio fuel (OECD/IEA 2008). Algae are feed
stocks from aquatic cultivation for production of triglycerides (from algal oil) to
produce biodiesel. The processing technology is basically the same as for biodiesel
from second-generation feed stocks. Other third generation bio fuels include
alcohols like bio-propanol or bio-but anol, which due to lack of production
experience are usually not considered to be relevant as fuels on the market before
2050 (OECD/IEA 2008), though increased investment could accelerate their
development. The same feed stocks as for first-generation ethanol can be used, but
using more sophisticated technology. Propane can be derived from chemical
processing such as dehydration followed by hydrogenation. As a transport fuel, but
anol has properties closer to gasoline than bio ethanol. Current use of biofuels for
transport on the global scale is dominated by bio ethanol and biodiesel, whereas
the use of other biofuels for transport like biogas and pure plant oil seem to be
restricted to local and regional pilot cases, and second-generation biofuels are still
in the development stage.

Non edible oils as diesel fuels

The concept of using non edible oil as a transportation fuel dates back to 1893
when Dr. Rudolf Diesel developed the first diesel engine to run on non edible oil.
Non edible oil is one of the renewable fuels. Non edible oils have become more
attractive recently because of its environmental benefits and the fact that it is made
from renewable resources. Non edible oils have the potential to substitute a
fraction of petroleum distillates and petroleum-based petro chemicals in the near
future. The basic constituent of non edible oils is triglyceride. Non edible oils
comprise 90 to 98% triglycerides and small amounts of mono- and diglycerides .

These usually contain free fatty acids (FFAs), water, sterols, phospholipids,
odorants and other impurities. Different types of non edible oils have different
types of fatty acids. The advantages of non edible oils as diesel fuel are their
portability, ready availability, renewability, higher heat content (about 88% of D2
fuel), lower sulfur content, lower aromatic content, and biodegradability. The main
disadvantages of non edible oils as diesel fuel are higher viscosity, lower volatility,
and the reactivity of unsaturated hydrocarbon chains.

The injection and atomization characteristics of the non edible oils are
significantly different than those of petroleum-derived diesel fuels, mainly as the
result of their high viscosities. The non edible oils, as alternative engine fuels, are
all extremely viscous with viscosities ranging from 9 to 17 times greater than that
of petroleum-derived diesel fuel. Modern diesel engines have fuel-injection system
that is sensitive to viscosity change. One way to avoid these problems is to reduce
fuel viscosity of non edible oil in order to improve its performance. The non edible
oils may be blended to reduce the viscosity with diesel in presence of some
additives to improve its properties.

Heating and blending of non edible oils may reduce the viscosity and
improve volatility of non edible oils but its molecular structure remains unchanged
hence polyunsaturated character remains. Blending of non edible oils with diesel,
however, reduces the viscosity drastically and the fuel handling system of the
engine can handle non edible oil–diesel blends without any problems. The
conversion of non edible oils into FAME is an effective way to overcome all the
problems associated with the non edible oils. The most common way of producing
biodiesel is the transesterification of non edible oils. The methyl ester produced by
transesterification of non edible oil has a high cetane number, low viscosity and
improved heating value compared to those of pure non edible oil which results in
shorter ignition delay and longer combustion duration and hence low particulate
emissions. Its use results in the minimization of carbon deposits on injector
nozzles.

TRANSESTERIFICATION OF NON EDIBLE OIL

Transesterification is the process of separating the fatty acids from their glycerol
backbone to form fatty acid esters (FAE) and free glycerol [Meher, et al., 2006;
Morrison and Boyd, 2005; Abhullah, etal, 2007]. Fatty acid esters commonly
known as biodiesel can be produced in batches or continuously by transesterifying
triglycerides such as animal fat or non edible oil with lower molecular weight
alcohols in the presence of a base or an acid catalyst. This reaction occurs
stepwise, with monoglycerides and diglycerides as intermediate products. The
transesterification process of converting non edible oils to biodiesel. The "R"
groups are the fatty acids, which are usually 12 to 22 carbons in length. The large
non edible oil molecule is reduced to about 1/3 its original size, lowering the
viscosity making it similar to diesel fuel. The resulting fuel operates similar to
diesel fuel in an engine. The reaction produces three molecules of an ester fuel
from one molecule of non edible oil. In such reaction known as transesterification,
a triglyceride is allowed to react with a threefold excess of an alcohol such as
ethanol or methanol, and this alcohol takes the place of the ester linkage to
glycerol, yielding three fatty acid esters of the new alcohol and glycerol. Above the
process using methanol.

Here three molecules of one alcohol are replacing glycerol, another

alcohol, in the triglyceride. Non edible oils have to undergo the process of
transesterification to be usable in internal combustion engines. Biodiesel is the
product of the process of transesterification. Biodiesel is biodegradable, non-toxic
and essentially free from sulfur; it is renewable and can be produced from
agriculture and plant resources. Biodiesel is an alternative fuel, which has a
correlation with sustainable development, energy conservation, management,
efficiency and environmental preservation. Transesterification is the reaction of a
fat or oil with an alcohol to form esters and glycerol. Alcohol combines with the
triglycerides to form glycerol and esters.

A catalyst is usually used to improve their action rate and yield. Since the
reaction is reversible, excess alcohol is required to shift the equilibrium to the
product side. Among the alcohols that can be used in the transesterification process
are methanol, ethanol, propanol, but anol and amyl alcohol.

The process of transesterification brings about drastic change in viscosity of

non edible oil. The biodiesel thus produced by this process is totally miscible with
mineral diesel in any proportion. Biodiesel viscosity comes very close to that of
mineral diesel hence no problems in the existing fuel handling system. Flash point
of the biodiesel gets lowered after etherification and the cetane number gets
improved. Even lower concentrations of biodiesel act as cetane number improver
for biodiesel blend. Calorific value of biodiesel is also found to be very close to
mineral diesel. Some typical observations from the engine tests suggested that the
thermal efficiency of the engine generally improves; cooling losses and exhaust
gas temperature increase, smoke opacity generally gets lower for biodiesel blends.
Possible reason may be additional lubricity properties of the biodiesel; hence
reduced frictional losses (FHP). The energy thus saved increases thermal
efficiency, cooling losses and exhaust losses from the engine. The thermal
efficiency starts reducing after a certain concentration of biodiesel. Flash point,
density, pour point, cetane number, calorific value of biodiesel comes in very close
range to that of mineral diesel.

BIODIESEL SEED

JULIFLORA

Prosopis juliflora is one of the most economically and ecologically

important tree species in arid and semi-arid zones of the world. It is an important
species because of its high nitrogen fixing potential in very dry areas and in
drought seasons and also because of it provides shelter and food to many species of
animals on its nectar, pollen, leaves and fruits. The shrubs of Prosopis juliflora are
highly esteemed for windbreaks, soil binders, sand stabilizers, living fences, fuel
wood, bee plants and animal feed. These uses, together with fast growth, drought
resistance and salt tolerance have lead to its introduction in many arid zones. The
genera Prosopis and Acacia contain some of the most widespread and important
tree species in the arid and semi-arid zones of the tropical and subtropical world.
Species of these two genera have been estimated to occupy some 3.1 million
square kilometers.

Prosopis julifera grows abundantly in Indian sub continent and commonly it

is known as Mesquite (English), Algarroba (Spanish), Vilayati babul, Vilayati
khejra, Gando baval, Vilayati kikar (India). The genus Prosopis is thought to be
evolved approximately 70 million years ago, before the African and South-
American continents separated. Prosopis genus cropped up in the American sub-
continent with two centers of diversity, the Texan-Mexican and the Argentinean
center having a large number of sympatric species. Studies using morphological
characters are oenzymes, seed protein electrophoresis and molecular markers have
shown the occurrence of intra- as well as inter-series hybrids in populations of both
sections of Algarobia and Strombocarpa. Pasiecznik et al. suggested the grouping
of species of section Algarobia into ‘complexes’ or ‘species groups’ principally
according to their genetic similarity and geographic distribution, but also to their
habit and resource characters. In India, original introductions are thought to have
been P.juliflora from Mexico or Jamaica. Differences in plant morphology may be
due to further introductions of seed material of various origins and possible
hybridisation between them. Five forms of P. juliflora have been identified in
India. Considerable amount of literature is present on Prosopis juliflora however a
synthesis of this information into comprehensive, concise and authoritative review
is rare. Here is an attempt to synthesize the information available on Prosopis
juliflora.

General tree structure

Prosopis species are all trees or shrubs of varying size (rarely sub-shrubs),
predominantly xerophilous, aculeate, spiny or rarely unarmed.

Tree size and form

Tree size and form vary considerably between species, populations and individuals
both due to genetic and environmental influences. P. juliflora normally reaches a
maximum height of 12 m, but can also reach up to 20 m favourable conditions (e.g.
Singh and Singh. Some also exist as shrubs as low as 3 m high. The trunk is short
and often crooked or twisted, reaching a diameter of 65 cm. The bark is grey
brown, rough and fibrous, varying from finely fissured to furrowed. Tree forms
vary from erect trees to flat topped trees and also trees with decumbent branches
touching the ground. The shrub form can also vary from erect sub-shrub to
prostrate shrub form. Both trees and shrubs are generally multi stemmed, with
much forking beginning low on the trunk, although more erect and less branched
land races are known. In decumbent tree forms, branches are upright at first but
take a horizontal form before becoming pendulous at distal ends, occasionally
touching the ground. Prostrate forms are more common in younger trees, which
develop more upright stems as they mature. Smaller branches are green or greenish
brown and take on a zigzag appearance. Nevertheless, environmental variables
such as thin soils, presence of hard pan or persistent wind are also observed to
induce the formation of Prosopis juliflora.

JULIFLORA SEED

Seeds of P. juliflora are epigeous in germination. The fleshy cotyledons are the
first seed leaves, persisting after the first true leaves have formed, being green or
somewhat pale-green in colour. Once germinated, most energy is expended on
rapidly developing a root system and locating a water source as soon as possible.
In the first months, root length and biomass increases are much greater than shoot
biomass leading to a high root: shoot ratio.
Root system
Roots develop rapidly following germination and can reach a depth of up to 40 cm
in eight weeks there are two distinct root systems formed under normal conditions
of unimpeded root development. These are, characteristically, a deep root system
and a superficial root system, both having different functions during different
seasons. The deep root system is made up of one, two or three (rarely more) main
tap roots, which may divide at lower depths. They have the function of anchoring
the tree but are primarily for sourcing ground water reserves, whether water table
or other subterranean supply. They can become very thick and tens of metres long
until a permanent water source are found. The young roots of P. juliflora are cream
coloured with a translucent cortex, while old roots are pale brown with a semi-
opaque cortex. Root density of P. juliflora is 3 cm of root/cm3 of soil in the upper
15 cm of the soil profile, dropping to less than 0.5 cm root/cm3 of soil at below 45
cm depth, and less than 0.2 cm root/cm3 of soil at 1.8 m depth.
Intravascular pitting is alternate, circular to elliptic with a narrow aperture and
distinctly vestured, similar to vessel-parenchyma pits and ray-parenchyma pits.
Parenchyma cells are often abundant, visible to the naked eye and distinct under a
hand lens as lighter coloured patches or thick sheaths around vessels, sometimes
connected obliquely or tangentially.

They also appear as fine interrupted lines delimiting growth rings, both
abundant and visible to the naked eye, or not abundant and visible only with
difficulty with a 10X lens. Parenchyma cells are paratracheal, vasicentric and
mostly aliform to fluent, enclosing several vessels, particularly in late wood and
delimiting growth rings, also with apotracheal parenchyma present. Parenchyma
cells are fusiform and seriate, in strands of 2-4 Cells (0.2 mm long), frequent and
often subdivided into locules with solitary rhomboidal crystal.

Thorns
Armature consists of cauline, auxiliary spines which are geminate and divergent.
Spines are straight, multi or uninodal, solitary, paired or solitary and paired on the
same branch. Spines are produced on new growth, and tend to be largest on strong
basal shoots and prominent on young branches. They become shorter on older
stems due to incorporation of spines during wood growth and diameter increments
in the stem and branches, and may become absent on older wood. Trees vary in the
number and size of thorns, which may be absent or not on all branches. Thorns can
be rare or profuse, long or short, thin or stout, 0.5-7.5 cm long and 2-5 mm in thorn
Base diameter
Leaves and Flowers
Leaves are bipinnate, with 1-10 leaves per node and petiole plus rachis 5-20 cm
long. Trees are a phyllous or sub-aphyllous, with a rapid turn-over of leaves.
Pubescence varies from entirely glabrous or ciliolate to somewhat pubescent or
pubescent. Leaflets are linear-oblong, elliptic-oblong or ovate in shape, with an
obtuse to mucronulate or minutely pointed apex, nerved below. Leaflets vary
greatly in size, 2.5-23 mm long and 1-7 mm wide. Glands are cupuliform, sessile
with an apical pore, present at the junction of the pinnae, sometimes also at the
junction of the leaflets. While trees are generally evergreen, P. juliflora is
occasionally deciduous, possibly due to drought or cold temperature
Flowers are small, 4-6 mm long, gathered densely together on cylindrical, spike-
like inflorescences known as racemes. They are generally yellow, straw yellow or
yellow-white in colour. Flowers are hermaphrodite, sometimes sterile,
actinomorphic and pentamorous. The calyx is campanulate, green or greenish
yellow, bell shaped and ciliolate outside, 0.5-1.5 mm long. The corolla is 3.0-3.2
mm long, styles 2.0-3.0 mm long, petals 2.5-3.0 mm long, free and villous within
.The five stamens are 4-7 mm long, pistils 4-5 mm long, and the stipitate, villous
ovaries are light green in colour and 1.5-1.8 mm long. Anthers have a glandular
appendage. The pedicel is short, 0.5-3.0 mm long.

Fruit and seed

The fruit is an indehiscent legume, straight with an incurved apex, sometimes
falcate or sub falcate, with or without parallel margins. Pods are stipitate and
acuminate, compressed to sub compressed and sub moniliform. They are flattened,
rectangular to sub-quadrate in section. Immature pods are green in colour,
becoming commonly straw yellow when fully mature. The number of pods
produced per inflorescence varies greatly, with 1-16 fruit per inflorescence. Pods
also vary greatly in size, 8-40 cm long, 9-18 mm wide and 4-10 mm thick. Pods are
made up of an exocarp, a fleshy mesocarp, and end ocarp segments each
containing a single seed, with up to 30 seeds per pod.

Exocarps vary in their thickness, external colour and ease of separation from
the mesocarp but are generally consistent. The relative proportion of mesocarp in
the pod varies greatly, affecting pod thickness and chemical composition, of
particular note being the content of sugars and proteins. The fibrous endocarps
each contain a single compressed, ovoid or oblong seed. Seeds are brown in
colour, shiny and with a horseshoe-shaped fissural line on both surfaces of the
testa, with the arms pointing towards the hilar end. Seeds are up to 6.5 mm long
and weigh approximately 0.25-0.30 g (25000-30000 seeds/kg). Inside the legmen
is the endosperm, which is hard, mucilaginous, corny or vitreous, which surrounds
the yellow cotyledons. The cotyledons are round or elliptical, with a sagitate base
and frequently do not cover the upper part of the radicle.

JULIFLORA PROPERTIES

S.N PROPERTIES STANDARD UNITS

VALUES

1 KINEMATIC 5.9x10^-6
VISCOCITY@40*C

2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 0.828

3 FLASH POINT 177 *C

4 CALORIFIC VALUE 39933 KJ/Kgk

5 FIRE POINT 196 *C

WATERMELON

In Africa, watermelon seeds have been prized for the highly nutritive oil that they
contain. Traditionally, the seeds are removed from the rind and then allowed to dry
outside in the sun. Once dried, the seeds are then pressed to extract the beneficial
oil. Natural Sourcing’s premium quality Watermelon Seed Oil is carefully sourced,
packaged and stored to maintain the purity, freshness and beneficial properties of
this remarkably nutritive, cold pressed and refined oil.

Fig. Watermelon seeds

Uses:

The light texture, moisturization capabilities and stable shelf life of Watermelon
Seed Oil make it a highly suitable emollient in natural baby care formulations and
light body emulsions. Unlike mineral oil that is a common ingredient in
commercial skin care formulations, Watermelon Seed Oil does not clog pores or
prevent the body from naturally eliminating toxins through the skin.
 The composition of fatty acids contained in watermelon seed oil helps to
soothe and maintain healthy, nourished skin. It is recommended for use in skin care
formulations for all skin types, including oily, dry, itchy, damaged and problem
skin. Watermelon Seed Oil is also well suited for inclusion in hair care
formulations as it is non greasy yet highly moisturizing.

WATERMELON PROPERTIES

S.N PROPERTIES STANDARD UNITS

VALUES

1 KINEMATIC 5.82x10^-6
VISCOCITY@40*C

2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 0.78

3 FLASH POINT 168 *C

4 CALORIFIC VALUE 37000 KJ/Kgk

5 FIRE POINT 192 *C

OIL EXTRACTION PROCESS

The oil content of each sample collected during an experiment is obtained by mean
of a refracto metric analysis. This content is used for computation of the
momentary state of oil extraction yield. For each experiment the time tendency of
extraction yield should be directed to final yield resulting after separation of the
Oil from the solvent.

According to shrinking core model, Fig. 1b, the oil extraction consists of three
major steps:
 solubilisation of solute molecules from the liquid-solid interface in the
solvent;
 diffusion of the solute molecules from the solid-liquid interface through the
surface layer to the outer boundary of the surface layer;
  Diffusion of the solute molecules from the outer boundary of the surface
layer to bulk liquid phase.

The shrinking core model parameters are represented by oil saturation

concentration in solvent (CS), effective diffusion coefficient for oil in leached zone
of particle (Deff) and oil diffusion coefficient in the bulk liquid (solvent). Solvent
flow velocity (w) and axial dispersion coefficient (Dl) are the parameters of model
characterizing the fixed bed oil transport

OIL EXPELLER

The oil Expeller can produce oils extracted from a number of fruits, nuts and seeds
for use in cooking and soap making or as an ingredient in other foods such as
baked or fried goods. Oil is a valuable product with universal demand, and the
possible income from oil extraction is therefore often enough to justify the
relatively high cost of setting up and running a small-scale oil milling business. Oil
can be extracted by pressing softer oilseeds and nuts, such as groundnuts and
habattul sawda (black seeds), whereas harder, more fibrous materials such as copra
and sunflower seed are processed using higher compressing forces. Pulped or
ground material is 4 loaded into a manual or hydraulic press to squeeze out the oil-
water emulsion. This is more efficient at removing oil than traditional hand
squeezing, allowing higher production rates.

There are a lot of categories of oil producing crops from seeds, plants and even
nuts. In Malaysia palm oil is the main crop that produces oil for exports and local
demand. It has a lot of usage and commercial value. For small businesses the oil
produce is directly use and also sold for local usage. Let take the coconut as an
example. Coconut oil is extracted from the kernel or meat of matured coconut
harvested from the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). Throughout the tropical world
it has provided the primary source of fat in the diets of millions of people for
generations. It has various applications in food, medicine, and industry. What make
coconut oil different from most other dietary oils are the basic building blocks or
fatty acids making up the oil.

BIO DIESEL PRODUCTION

Flow chat of production of Biodiesel:

The Transesterification process is the reaction of a triglyceride (fat/oil) with an

alcohol to form esters and glycerol. The figure below shows the chemical process
for methyl ester biodiesel. The reaction between the oil and the alcohol is a
reversible reaction and so the alcohol must be added in excess to drive the reaction
towards the right and ensure complete conversion.

Biodiesel is produced from non edible oils or animal fats and an alcohol,
through a transesterification reaction this chemical reaction converts an ester (non
edible oil or animal fat) into a mixture of esters of the fatty acids that makes up the
oil (or fat). Biodiesel is obtained from the purification of the mixture of fatty acid
methyl esters (FAME). A catalyst is used to accelerate the reaction. According to
the catalyst used, transesterification can be basic, acidic or enzymatic, the former
being the most frequently used, as indicated.

Transesterification Reactions for Biodiesel Production

Basic. Most frequently used at all production scales.

Acid. Less frequent in industrial production, sometimes used a first stage with
highly acidic raw materials.

Enzymatic. Less used; the enzymes are usually lipases.

Although transesterification is the most important step in biodiesel production

(since it originates the mixture of esters), additional steps are necessary to obtain a
product that complies with international standards. In consequence, once the
chemical reaction is completed and the two phases (mix of esters and glycerin) are
separated, the mix of methyl esters must be purified to reduce the concentration of
contaminants to acceptable levels. These include remnants of catalyst, water and
methanol; the latter is usually mixed in excess proportion with the raw materials in
order to achieve higher conversion efficiency in the transesterification reaction. In
the following sections the steps of the purification process will be described in
detail.

Treatment of raw materials

The content of free fatty acids, water and non saponificable substances are key
parameters to achieve high conversion efficiency in the transesterification reaction.
The use of basic catalysts in triglycerides with high content of free fatty acids is
not advisable, since part of the latter reacts with the catalyst to form soaps. In
consequence, part of the catalyst is spent, and it is no longer available for
transesterification. In summary the efficiency of the reaction diminishes with the
increase of the acidity of the oil; basic transesterification is viable if the content of
free fatty acids (FFAs) is less than 2%. In the case of highly acidic raw materials

Stages of Biodiesel Production Process

Treatment of raw materials

 Alcohol-catalyst mixing

 Chemical reaction

 Separation of the reaction products

 Purification of the reaction products

Characteristics of alcohols used in biodiesel production

Alcohols that can be used in biodiesel production are those with short chains,
Including methanol, ethanol, and amylic alcohol. The most widely used alcohols
are methanol (CH3OH) and ethanol (C2H5OH) because of their low cost and
properties. Methanol is often preferred to ethanol in spite of its high toxicity
because its use in biodiesel production requires simpler technology; excess alcohol
May be recovered at a low cost and higher reaction speeds are reached. The
comparison between the two alcohols is summarized. It must be remembered that
in order for biodiesel to be a fully renewable fuel, it should be obtained from non
edible oils and animal fats, together with an alcohol that is produced from biomass,
such as bio ethanol, instead of being a petrochemical product.

 Most Important Alcohols Used in Biodiesel Production

 Methanol. Most widely used, in spite of its toxicity. It is a substance of
petrochemical origin.
 Ethanol. Less used, requires more complex production technology and
the reaction speeds are lower. It can be produced from biomass.

Alcohol-Catalyst Mixing

The alcohol used for biodiesel production must be mixed with the catalyst before
adding the oil. The mixture is stirred until the catalyst is completely dissolved in
the alcohol. It must be noted that the alcohol must be water-free (anhydrous) for
the reasons explained in the previous paragraph. Sodium and potassium hydroxides
are among the most widely used basic catalysts. For production on an industrial
scale, sodium or potassium methoxides or methylates are commercially available.
Of course, due caution must be exercised, and all applicable safety regulations
must be followed, when working with methanol, hydroxides and methoxides,
independently of the production scale.

The alcohol-to-oil volume ratio, R, is another key variable of the

transesterification process. The stoichiometric ratio requires 1 mol of oil to react
with 3 mol of alcohol, to obtain 3 mol of fatty acids methyl esters (FAME) and 1
mol of glycerin. However, since the reaction is reversible, excess alcohol as a
reactant will shift the equilibrium to the right side of the equation, increasing the
amount of products (as it may be inferred from Le Chatelier’s principle). Although
a high alcohol-to-oil ratio does not alter the properties of FAME, it will make the
separation of biodiesel from glycerin more difficult, since it will increase the
solubility of the former in the latter. Usually, a 100% alcohol excess is used in
practice, that is, 6 mol of alcohol per mole of oil. This corresponds to a 1:4
alcohol-to-oil volume ratio (R = 0.25). Finally, it must be noted that the necessary
amount of catalyst is determined taking into account the acidity of the oil, by
titration.

Chemical Reaction

The chemical reaction takes place when the oil is mixed with the alkoxide
(alcohol–catalyst mix) described in the previous paragraph. This requires certain
conditions of time, temperature and stirring. Since alcohols and oils do not mix at
room temperature, the chemical reaction is usually carried out at a higher
temperature and under continuous stirring, to increase the mass transfer between
the phases. Usually, emulsions form during the course of the reaction; these are
much easier and quicker to destabilize when methanol is used, in comparison to
ethanol. Due to the greater stability of emulsions formed, difficulties arise in the
phase separation and purification of biodiesel when ethanol is used in the reaction.

The transesterification process may be carried out at different

temperatures. For the same reaction time, the conversion is greater at higher
temperatures. Since the boiling point of methanol is approximately 68LC (341 K),
the temperature for transesterification at atmospheric pressure is usually in the
range between 50 and 60LC.
 It is very useful to know the chemical composition of the mixture during the
reaction; then, if the reaction mechanism and kinetics are known, the process can
be optimized. However, the determination of the mixture composition is not easy,
since more than a hundred substances are known to be present. For instance, for
biodiesel production from rapeseed oil (whose main SFAs are palmitic, oleic,
linoleic and linolenic) and methanol, with potassium hydroxide as a catalyst, it
could be theoretically possible to find 64 isomers of triglycerides, 32 diglycerides,
8 monoglycerides, their methyl esters, potassium salts of the fatty acids, potassium
methoxide, water, etc.

Separation of the Reaction Products

The separation of reaction products takes place by decantation: the mixture of fatty
acids methyl esters (FAME) separates from glycerin forming two phases, since
they have different densities; the two phases begin to form immediately after the
stirring of the mixture is stopped. Due to their different chemical affinities, most of
the catalyst and excess alcohol will concentrate in the lower phase (glycerin), while
most of the mono, di, and triglycerides will concentrate in the upper phase
(FAME). Once the inter phase is clearly and completely defined, the two phases
may be physically separated. It must be noted that if decantation takes place due to
the action of gravity alone, it will take several hours to complete.

This constitutes a ‘bottleneck’’ in the production process, and in

consequence the exit stream from the transesterification reactor is split into several
containers. Centrifugation is a faster, albeit more expensive alternative. After the
separation of glycerin, the FAME mixture contains impurities such as remnants of
alcohol, catalyst and mono-, di-, and triglycerides. These impurities confer
undesirable characteristics to FAME, for instance, increased cloud point and pour
point, lower flash point, etc. In consequence a purification process is necessary for
the final product to comply with standards. This will be discussed in the next
section.

Purification of the Reaction Products

The mixture of fatty acids methyl esters (FAME) obtained from the
transesterification reaction must be purified in order to comply with established
quality standards for biodiesel. Therefore, FAME must be washed, neutralized and
dried. Successive washing steps with water remove the remains of methanol,
catalyst and glycerin, since these contaminants are water-soluble. Care must be
taken to avoid the formation of emulsions during the washing steps, since they
would reduce the efficiency of the process. The first washing step is carried out
with acidified water, to neutralize the mixture of esters. Then, two additional
washing steps are made with water only. Finally the traces of water must be
eliminated by a drying step. After drying, the purified product is ready for
characterization as biodiesel according to international standards.

An alternative to the purification process described above is the use of ion

exchange resins or silicates. Glycerin as obtained from the chemical reaction is not
of high quality and has no commercial value. Therefore, it must be purified after
the phase separation. This is not economically viable in small scale production,
due to the small glycerin yield. However, purification is a very interesting
alternative for large-scale production plants, since, in addition to the high quality
glycerin, part of the methanol is recovered for reutilization in the
transesterification reaction (both from FAME and glycerin), and thus lowering
biodiesel production costs. The steady increase of biodiesel production is fostering
research for novel uses of glycerin in the production of high-value-added products.
It must be noted that the stages of the biodiesel production process (summarized in
are the same for all the production scales (laboratory, pilot plant, small-, medium-,
and large-scale industrial). However, the necessary equipment will be significantly
different.

Glycerin

Glycerin is the usual name of propanetriol; it is also referred to as glycerol,

glycerin or glycyl alcohol. Chemically an alcohol, it is a liquid of high viscosity at
room temperature, odorless, transparent, colorless, of low toxicity and sweet taste.
The boiling point of glycerin is high, 290LC (563 K), and its viscosity increases
noticeably at low temperature, down to its freezing point, 18LC (291 K). It is a
polar substance that can be mixed with water and alcohols, and is also a good
solvent. Glycerin is hygroscopic and has humectant properties.

Until the last years of the nineteenth century, glycerin was a product of
candle manufacturing (from animal fat) and it was used mainly in the production
of nitro-glycerine for explosives. Later, separation processes from soap were
developed and most glycerin was obtained as a sub-product of the soap industry.
Since mid-century, synthetic glycerin can also be obtained using raw materials
from the petrochemical industry.

At present, glycerin is obtained as a sub-product of soap or biodiesel

production, and it is purified to eliminate the contaminants, mainly partially
dissolved soap or salt (for the sub-product of soap production), or catalyst and
methanol (from biodiesel production).
Case study

In the project progress process, for the fulfilment of the purpose of our
project, we have performed some practical work. We have done a no of
experiments on Biodiesel as well as on pure diesel oil comparing the different
performance and characteristics. The experiments were done by using pure diesel
oil and Biodiesel separately and mainly different blending of diesel and Biodiesel
mixture and obviously the load of the diesel engine by changing the load in the
dynamometer. In our practical field, we aimed to do following experiment:

1. Load test with 100% diesel

2. Load test with 95% diesel & 5% biodiesel
3. Load test with 10% biodiesel & 90% diesel
4 . Load test with 15% biodiesel & 85% diesel
5. Load test with 20% biodiesel & 80% diesel

Of the above mentioned four experiments, we have successfully done the first two
experiments in our college laboratory with the set-ups available in a four stroke
diesel engine with 100% pure diesel & Biodiesel separately. The specification of
the engines and other set-ups are given later.

PROCEDURE

 Fill oil in the oil sump of the engine. It should be in between the marks
provided on the oil dipstick. If oil level is reduced, add clean oil (SAE-40) to
the crankcase by the opening of the valve provided , at the top of the engine.
 Fill the diesel in diesel tank.
 Fill the manometer up to half of the manometer with water.
 Fill the burette with diesel by opening of the valve and close it after filling.
 Supply the diesel to the engine by opening the valves provided in the fuel
supply line. Supply the main power.
 Open continuous cold water supply to the engine jacket.
 Start the engine with starting handle and left it run for 15 mins under no load
condition.
 When engine starts running smoothly, firstly load the engine with electrical
loading.
 Run the engine for 15 mins so that it can stabilize.
 Close the diesel supply valve and open the valve of burette.
 Now open the diesel supply valve which refills the burette.
 Close the burette valve and continue the diesel supply.
 Note down the reading of manometer to calculate the air intake by the
engine.
 Note the temperature of inlet and outlet of the help oe water circulating
through the engine jacket from thermometer.
 Measure the flow rate of water with the help of water meter and stop watch
 Note down the reading of spring balance and rpm with the help of 100%
tachometer.
 Repeat the experiment for different electric load.
 Reduce the load on engine and press the liver provided on the right hand
side of the engine to stop the engine.
 Then close the fuel and cooling water supply to the engine.
Brake thermal efficiency

The capacity of mechanical energy conversion by engine from heat released by the
explosion of fuel inside the cylinder volume. BTE is directly proportional to Brake
power developed and inversely proportional to mass of fuel injection and calorific
value. Experimental result shows that BTE increases with increase in the load for
compression ratio selected from 15:1 to 18:1. Results obtained were similar to
results reported by many research.

Because increasing the load on engine increase the brake power output.
When the percentage of blending increased then brake thermal efficiency reduced
for all the compression ratios selected. This is due to increasing density and
viscosity with increase of blending from 25% to 75%. High density of blending
increased the mass of fuel injected for same power output.

At higher load condition 25% blending of juliflora oil (B25) with diesel
having higher BTE among the three different blending for all the compression
ratios selected except CR 17. At the same time, the percentage blending of juliflora
oil increased with diesel results that elevated flash point and fire point of the fuel.
Increasing the compression ratio of the engine produced higher peak pressure and
higher temperature at the end of compression. Such increased peak temperature
helped to achieve improved combustion quality of blended diesel even it has
higher viscosity. At compression ratio of 18, BTE of engine fueled
Mechanical Efficiency
Experimental result shows that Mechanical efficiency increases with increase in
the load for compression ratio selected from 15:1 to 18:1. Results obtained were
similar to results reported by many researchers. Because increasing the load on
engine increase the brake power output. When the percentage of blending
increased then brake Mechanical efficiency reduced for all the compression ratios
selected. This is due to increasing density and viscosity with increase of blending
From 25% to 75%. High density of blending.

Carbon dioxide
The variation of smoke density with brake power for both diesel and biodiesel. It is
observed that the load increases, the carbon dioxide gradually increases in all
Cases. For biodiesel, the carbon dioxide varies from at no load to maximum load,
which is higher than the diesel fuel. However the biodiesel reduces smoke density
with respect to biodiesel for all the loads.

Oxides of nitrogen
The NOx emission with, and without the addition of diesel and biodiesel on WJ25.
It can be seen that NOx gradually increased with addition of biodiesel in all the
cases. NOx emission is mainly depended on temperature, the local concentration of
oxygen and the duration of combustion during different combustion phases on the
different combustion zones. By the addition of biodiesel, which increases the
diffusion controlled combustion duration that increases the NOx emission.
Carbon monoxide

The biodiesel on carbon monoxide emissions. Biodiesel (B25) lead to higher

carbon combustion activation and hence promote complete combustion. The
blended fuels showed accelerated combustion due to the shortened ignition delay.
Due to shortened of ignition delay, the degree of fuel air mixing and uniform
burning could have enhanced Hence, there was an appreciable reduction in carbon
monoxide emissions for blended biodiesel. At the full load, the CO emissions for
WJ25 were 8.079 g/kW h, 3.951 g/kW h and 6.284 g/kW h respectively
TESTING REPORT
TESTING REPORT

DIESEL

SL NO Properties Neat Diesel

1 Density (kg/m3) 870-900

130
2 Flash Point (oC)

3 Fire Point (oC) 58

37-42.5
4 Calorific Value (MJ/kg)

5 Viscosity (cst) 4

6 Water Content (%) 0

7 PH Value 5.6

Bio diesel

SL NO Properties Biodiesel 5%
1 Density (kg/m3)
2 Flash Point (oC)
3 Fire Point (oC)
4 Calorific Value
(MJ/kg)
5 Viscosity (cst)
6 Water Content (%)
7 PH Value
It was found that the mixture of Biodiesel 5% and diesel 95% by volume of
surfactant was found stable and homogeneous for a long period of time (one week).

SL NO Properties Biodiesel 10%

1 Density (kg/m3)

2 Flash Point (oC)

3 Fire Point (oC)
4 Calorific Value (MJ/kg)
5 Viscosity (cst)
6 Water Content (%)
7 PH Value

It was found that the mixture of Biodiesel 10% and diesel 90% by volume of
surfactant was found stable and homogeneous for a long period of time (one week).

SL NO Properties Biodiesel 15%

1 Density (kg/m3)
2 Flash Point (oC)
3 Fire Point (oC)
4 Calorific Value (MJ/kg)

5 Viscosity (cst)
6 Water Content (%)
7 PH Value
It was found that the mixture of Biodiesel 15% and diesel 85% by volume of
surfactant was found stable and homogeneous for a long period of time (one week).

SL NO Properties Biodiesel 20%

1 Density (kg/m3)
2 Flash Point (oC)
3 Fire Point (oC)
4 Calorific Value (MJ/kg)

5 Viscosity (cst)
6 Water Content (%)
7 PH Value

It was found that the mixture of Biodiesel 20% and diesel 80% by volume of
surfactant was found stable and homogeneous for a long period of time (one week).
 ENGINE PERFORMANCE READING AT DIFFERENT LOAD OF BIO
DIESEL
Engine performance reading diesel

Load T1 T2 T3 T4 SPEED TIME VOLTAGE CURRENT

in IN in
(kg) (rpm) (sec) (v) (watts)

2
3

Engine performance reading Biodiesel 5%

Load T1 T2 T3 T4 SPEED TIME VOLTAGE CURRENT

in IN in
(kg) (rpm) (sec) (v) (watts)

1
2
3
Engine performance reading Biodiesel 10%

Load T1 T2 T3 T4 SPEED TIME VOLTAGE CURRENT

in IN in
(kg) (rpm) (sec) (v) (watts)

2
3

Engine performance reading biodiesel 15%

Load T1 T2 T3 T4 SPEED TIME VOLTAGE CURRENT

in IN in
(kg) (rpm) (sec) (v) (watts)

2
3
Engine performance reading biodiesel 20%

Load T1 T2 T3 T4 SPEED TIME VOLTAGE CURRENT

in IN in
(kg) (rpm) (sec) (v) (watts)

2
3

EMISSION STUDIES ON A DIESEL ENGINE USING BIO OIL OBTAINED

FROM PYROLYSIS OF BIODIESEL AS FUEL

This paper aims at investigating the performance and emissions of a diesel engine
using bio oil emulsions obtained from biodiesel as fuel. Emulsions of 5%, 10%,
15%, 20% were prepared by mixing respectively 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% with 95%,
90%, 85%, 80% of diesel by volume. Fuels were tested in a mono cylinder diesel
engine for their performance as fuel. Engine test results showed comparable
performance for all the emulsions of biodiesel with BD (base diesel). There is a
considerable reduction in smoke and NOx emissions with the emulsions of
biodiesel as compared to BD at all power outputs. It was concluded that biodiesel
obtained from can be used up to 20% by volume as partial replacement of diesel by
making emulsions with comparable performance with diesel. To use biodiesel as
soul fuel, the fuel and engine need further modifications.

Particularly in the southern regions of India the availability of seeds is very

high. It finds no useful applications. Producing bio oil from these seeds can offer
production of energy from waste. This method can certainly reduce the waste
disposal. In addition, the environment can be maintained as clean. In view of this
an attempt was made to produce bio oil from seeds by fast pyrolysis process and
testing as fuel in diesel engine. In the first phase of the work bio oil was produced
from pyrolysis of seeds

Emulsions were prepared by varying the diesel and oil in different

proportions to find the homogeneous and stable emulsion. It was found that the
mixture of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% by volume of biodiesel respectively with 95%,
90%, 85%, 80% by volume of diesel and 3% by volume of surfactant were found
stable and homogeneous for a long period of time (one week). Beyond 20%,
separation was noticed and hence the quantity of biodiesel used was limited up to
20%. Experiments were performed on a single cylinder diesel engine using the
emulsions of biodiesel to study the performance, emission and combustion
behavior of the engine. Results were compared with conventional diesel (BD) and
analyzed.

Emission characteristics of diesel engine using biodiesel

From the very beginning, India’s energy scenarios have been characterized by a
mix of non commercial and commercial sources of energy, namely cow dung,
agriculture waste, coal, hydro, oil, gas and now nuclear. The share of oil in the
total energy consumption is about 34%. These vegetable oils from oil seed crops
like soya bean, sunflower, groundnut, mustard etc. and oil seed from tree origin
have got 90 to 95% energy value of diesel on volume basis, comparable cetane
number and can be substituted between 20-100 per cent. Today, applications in the
transport sector are based on liquid fuels. The advantage of liquid fuels is that they
are easy to store. Furthermore, today’s infrastructure for transport is mainly based
on liquid fuels. Gaseous fuels are less utilized in the transport sector. Even less
applications exist for solid fuels.

They were only used in the past e.g. for trains. However, today transport
fuels are classified into two basically different categories: fossil fuels which are
mainly based on crude oil and natural gas, and bio fuels made from renewable
resources. Bio fuels have some common characteristics although processes for bio
fuels can be very different. These common aspects are jointly described in three
chapters of Part A of this handbook: potential of biomass, bio fuel policies and bio
fuel life cycles. The use of bio fuels largely depends on the potential of available
feedstock sources.

The overall bio fuel potential which largely depends on climate, land
availability and the productivity. Biodiesel is methyl or ethyl ester of fatty acid
made from virgin or used vegetable oils (both edible and non-edible) and animal
fat. The world is confronted with the twin crises of fossil fuel depletion and
Environmental degradation.

The main advantages of using Biodiesel are its renewability, better quality
exhaust gas emission, its biodegradability and the organic carbon present in it is
photosynthetic in origin. It does not contribute to a rise in the level of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere and consequently to the greenhouse effect. The bio fuel
was heated to the temperature of around 60ºC. There is the color change from
brown to yellowish brown. An agent of 15gm KOH and 200ml of methanol for
each liter of biodiesel. At 65ºC the methanols complete the process of heavy fatty
oil compositions into low fatty oil. Using the funnel the oil and fatty acids are
separated. The oil was washed for three times by using water and heated up to
100ºC for water removal. Finally we get the methyl ester of seed oil and the
density of the biodiesel near to the diesel.

EMISION TEST

TEST CO% HC (PPM) CO2 O2 Level

biodiesel

PURE
DIESEL
 COMPARISION OF BIO DIESEL VS DIESEL

Biodiesel is better for the environment because it is made from renewable

resources and has lower emissions compared to diesel. It is less toxic and

biodegradable as fast. Its use decreases dependence on foreign oil and contributes

to one’s own country's economy.

 BENEFITS OF BIODIESEL

 Biodiesel is a good lubricant about 66% better than petro diesel

 Biodiesel produce less smoke and particulate maters as it is free of sulphur

and aromatics.

 Biodiesel has higher cetane number having well anti knocking property.

 Produce lower carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions.

 Bio-diesel is renewable, biodegradable and non-toxic.

CONCLUSION
 CONCLUSION

During this study we find that use of Biodiesel in diesel engine reduces the
percentage of emitted pollutants, hence with increasing quantity of biodiesel
Emission of HC and CO decreases. In this experiment juliflora and watermelon oil
is taken as non edible oil and mixed with methanol makes Biodiesel and this
biodiesel used in diesel engine instead of diesel to get the results about
performance and emission of HC (hydrocarbons) & CO (carbon monoxide). So we
find quantity of HC & CO reduced with increasing quantity of biodiesel. But this
quantity of pollutants increases with load increasing.
REFERENCE
 REFERENCE

1) “Annual Report, Mop & NG” 2002, Plubished by Ministry of Petroleum

and Natural Gas, Government of India.
2) Bersce G.B, Fey J.P, “Compatibility of Elastomers and Metals in Bio-
Diesel Fuel Blends”, SAE Paper No. 971190, 1997, pp. 651-659
3) Aggarwal A.K, Das L.M. “Biodiesel Development and Characterization
for use as a fuel in Compression Ignition Engine”, ASME Journal of
Engineering for Gas turbine & Power, Vol.123, April 2001, pp.440-447.
4) Beggs R.E “ Renewwable Oil Fuels & Diesel Engines as components of
sustainable system design”
5) “Development of Bio Fuels” 2003 Publised by Planning Commission,
Govt of India, New Delhi.
6) “Annual Report, MoP & NG”, 2002, Published by Ministry of Petroleum
& Natural Gas, Govt. of India.
7) Ann-Marie, Williamsons, Badr O, “Assessing The Viability of Using Rape
Methyl Ester (RME) as an Alternative to Mineral Diesel Fuel for Powering
Road Vehicles in U.K”, Applied Energy Vol. 59 No.2-3 1998, pp. 187-
214.
8) “kools , saxena Rc,kumar,A neggi,Ms,bhatnagar,AK goyal HB,guptaak
(2007) corrosion behaviour of bio-diesel from seed oils of indian origin on
diesel engine parts , fuel processing techniques.
9) Bersce G.B, Fey J.P, “Compatibility of Elastomers and Metals in Bio-
Diesel Fuel Blends”, SAE Paper No. 971190, 1997, pp. 651-659
10) Pasiecznik, N. M., Felker, P., Harris, P.J.C., Harsh, L. N., Cruz, G.,
Tewari, J. C., Cadoret, K and Maldonado, L. J. (2001). The Prosopis
juliflora – Prosopis pallida Complex: A monograph. HDRA, Coventry,
UK.Pasiecznik, Nick (1999). Prosopis ‐ pest or providence, weed or
wonder tree? European Tropical Forest Research Network newsletter.
28:12‐14.
11) Katende AB et al. 1995. Useful trees and shrubs for Uganda.
Identification, Propagation and Management for Agricultural and Pastoral
Communities. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Swedish
International Development Authority (SIDA).