Building Bricks –

Standard fired clay unit, UBC 24-1, ASTM C62.

1) Physical characteristics –
a) Colour:
i) Depends on the chemical composition, intensity of burning and method of burning control.
ii) Iron oxide has a great effect on colour:
(1) Red when oxidised
(2) Under burning produces light colour (Salaman brick).
(3) Over burning produces clinker brick (dark red to black colour).
iii) It is not correct to correlate the colour of the brick to its other physical properties. For example, higher
burning causes darker tone/colour and results in increased compressive strength and reduction in water
absorption qualities. But certain chemical compositions produce darker colour without significant effect
on strength and absorption.
b) Texture:
i) Surface effect or appearance apart from its colour, resulting from the way the units are
made/manufactured.
ii) Matt face, rug face & wire cut face are some examples.
c) Form, size and dimensional stability:
i) Specified sizes are less than nominal dimension to allow for thickness of mortar joints.
ii) Even dimensional modular bricks have specified dimensions.
iii) Max. permissible variation in dimension of individual units are given in ASTM C62.
2) Engineering properties –
a) Durability (Weathering resistance):
i) For durability classification purposes, building bricks are classified into:
(1) SW (severe weathering): Offer high degree of resistance to both frost action and general
disintegration by weathering. Also have high compressive strength.
(2) MW (moderate weathering): Specified where moderate degree of weathering occurs and where
unit is not likely to be permeated with water, when exposed to freezing temperatures.
(3) NW (No weathering): Acceptable only as backup material for exterior masonry, since it would
rapidly disintegrate if subjected to freezing and thawing cycles. Used in interior walls and partitions.
ii) Weathering Index: The effect of weather on brick is related to weathering index, which is for any
locality, the product of average annual of freezing cycle days and the average annual rainfall in inches.
iii) Saturation coefficient (C/B ratio): The ratio of absorption of brick during 24-hour submersion in cold
water to absorption after 5-hour submersion in boiling water. It is also defined as the ratio of easily filled
pores to the total fillable pore spaces. It's an indicator of brick's resistance to freezing and thawing. If the
saturation coefficient is low, the bricks generally have good freeze/thaw resistance, because they
contain enough void spaces that provide relief for freezing water. Water is driven into these void spaces
only by boiling water or by freezing water.
b) Water absorption:
i) It is a quality to measure the ability of bricks to form a good bond with mortar.
ii) It is taken as a part of the acceptance criteria of the durability of units (ASTM C67).
iii) Method to obtain water absorption (%):
(1) Immerse the sample in cold water for 24 hours
(2) Record the cold water absorbed as a % of the total dry weight of unit
(3) Immerse the same sample in boiling water for 5 hours
(4) Record the hot water absorbed as a % of total dry weight of unit
(5) Calculate C/B ratio.
iv) Initial Rate of absorption (IRA):
(1) Property describing the absorption of a brick, in a limited time, of water primarily through the bed
face of the brick unit. It is also known as suction value.
(2) IRA denotes a time related function while water absorption is concerned with total quantity of water
absorbed.
(3) There is no consistent relationship b/w IRA and water absorption.
(4) Salient features of IRA –
 (a) If IRA is too high, it is difficult to lay bricks in wall because water is removed too rapidly from
mortar bed, causing it to lose workability even before brick units are laid on it.
(b) It disrupts the bond b/w brick and mortar.
(c) It tends to dry out the mortar so quickly that the mortar will not be able to retain proper amount
of water need to attain high strength and adequate bond.
(d) Since suction has a bearing on water tightness of wall, it also becomes another measure of
weather resistance and wall durability.
(5) Computation of IRA: Partial immersion of a unit in water to a depth of 1/8 inch for 1 minute,
following which it is removed, weighed, and final weight is compared with dry weight. This factor
must not exceed 0.025 oz/inch2 during 1-minute period.
c) Compressive Strength:
i) Compressive strength of building bricks may be defined as the max. stress to which the unit can be
subjected by a gradually increasing load parallel to the bedding plane (ASTM C67).
ii) It is affected by:
(1) Physical properties of clay.
(2) Method of manufacturing.
(3) Degree of burning.
iii) Compressive strength of mortar, grout, and unit together help in finding out compressive strength of
wall assemblage/prism.
iv) Design allowable stresses are also important parameters.
v) As per ASTM, 5 brick specimens must be tested and yield ultimate compressive strength should be found
out. Its value varies from 20 to 145 MPa.
vi) Stiffness and modulus of elasticity:
(1) An adjacent to compressive strength is modulus of elasticity, a stiffness index. In general, as far as
concrete, the modulus of elasticity of individual clay unit increases with compressive strength up to
about 34. 5 MPa (500 psi), after which a very little change is noted.
(2) Further as with compressive strength, the modulus of elasticity of a composite prism (Em) is
somewhat less than that of clay unit itself.
(3) Few test results are available for validating values of Em for clay masonry.
(4) Attinson and Kingley (Based on experimental results):
(a) Em = 360 f’m for ungrouted masonry specimen
(b) Em = 525 f’m for grouted masonry specimen
(5) UBC:
(a) Em = 750 f’m regardless of type of masonry unit for making prism.
(b) Em = 1000 f’m (1985)
(6) Another stiffness index is expressed in terms of poisson’s ratio:
(a) 0.4 (at 50% f’m) for grouted masonry
(b) 0.23 (at 50% f’m) for ungrouted clay masonry.
d) Flexural Strength (Modulus of rupture or splitting tension):
i) Refers to the transverse bending capacity of bricks.
ii) Determined by supporting the brick at each end and subjecting it to a concentrated load at midspan.
iii) Modulus of rupture obtained from flexure formula is an index of flexural resistance.
iv) The current code specifies modulus of rupture for fully grouted hollow unit masonry assemblage equal
to 4 (f’m)0.5 and 2 (f’m)0.5 for two wythes brick masonry assemblage.
v) Tensile strength to compressive strength ratio for tension is determined by either flexure test or splitting
tension test. Modulus of rupture values are seen to be 20 to 50% higher than values obtained from
splitting tension test.
e) Thermal Conductivity:
i) Increases with the density of the material, amount of moisture present and mean temperature at which
the thermal coefficient is measured.
ii) It has been observed that thermal conductance of individual clay unit is not the same as that of masonry
assemblage because of effect of mortar and grout.
iii) Thermal expansion of a clay product depends to a large extend on the raw material itself.
f) Acoustical characteristics:
i) Vary depending upon the type of units.
 ii) Sound transmission is a function of mass, consequently bricks, because of their high density, are most
effective in controlling sound transmission rather than absorbing sound, because of low sound
absorption rate.
iii) Special units like SCR acoustile are produced with sound absorption capacities above 60%.

Facing Bricks –
UBC 24-1 or ASTM C216.
1) Types of facing bricks:
a) FBS (Facing brick standard): Used in exposed exterior and interior masonry walls as well as partitions, since
wide variations in colour and size are permitted as compared to FBX.
b) FBX (Facing brick extra): Used on exposed faces of exterior and interior masonry walls where an extra
degree of mechanical perfection, narrow colour range and minimum size variation is permitted.
c) FBA (Facing brick architectural): Produces architectural effects which result from intentional non-uniformity
of colour, size or texture of individual units.
2) Physical properties:
a) Colour/Texture/Form:
i) Colour ranges from chalk or paper white to charcoal or jet black.
ii) Texture: Norman/ruffle, Kord, Norman or velour, stone face, standard, free of cracks and other defects
that will impair the strength of construction.
iii) ASTM C216 lists permissible deviations, specified dimensions and warpage limit.
3) Engineering properties:
a) Durability grades:
i) Only SW and MW grades exist – further subdivided into FBS, FBX and FBA.
b) Compressive strength:
i) Like that of ordinary bricks.
ii) Compressive strength values are 2500 lb/in2 min. for MW and 3000 lb/in2 for SW grades.
c) Water absorption:
i) Similar water absorption limit and saturation coefficient as given earlier for building bricks.
ii) UBC 24-1 groups building bricks and facing bricks in the same category.

Hollow Bricks –
ASTM C652

1) Hollow bricks as defined by ASTM C652 are units whose net cross-sectional area in every plane parallel to the
bearing surface is b/w 40 to 75% of its gross area, as measured in the same plane.
2) The effect of reduction in bearing area is significant enough that the properties of net cross sectional are used in
stress calculation.
3) The presence of two or three large cells enables placing of reinforcement and grouting cell.
4) Durability grades: SW and MW.
5) Types of hollow bricks:
a) HBS (Hollow brick standard): Generally used for exposed exterior or interior masonry walls as well as
partitions, as a wide range of colour and greater variation in dimensions is permitted as compared to HBX.
b) HBX (Hollow brick extra):
i) High degree of mechanical perfection.
ii) Narrow colour range.
iii) Minimum variation in size.
c) HBA (Hollow brick architectural): Generally used in masonry walls for architectural effects, resulting from
non-uniformity in size, colour and texture of individual unit.
d) HBB (Hollow brick basic): General use in masonry walls and partitions where colour, texture and size are not
a consideration and where greater variation in size is permitted as compared to HBX.
6) Classes of Hollow bricks:
a) Class H40V: Intended for use where void areas or hollow spaces are between 25 to 40% of the gross cross-
sectional area of a unit, measure in any plane parallel to the bearing surface as desired.
 b) Class H60V: Intended for use where larger void areas are desired than allowed for class H40V. Void areas are
greater than 40% and less than 60%.
7) Significant features of hollow bricks –
a) Very high compressive strength can be developed.
b) Face shell thickness, as with concrete block, is enough to provide stability and sound mortar bed.
c) Cross web requirements are like that of concrete block.
d) The cell sizes and areas are adequate for placement of reinforcement and grout or insulating material.
e) It provides for valid fire ratings, either hollow or filled with grout or insulation, and with or without plaster
coat.

Concrete Masonry Unit (CMU) –

Concrete brick: ASTM C90

1) Grades:
a) Grade N: These concrete bricks are used as architectural veneers, facing units in exterior walls and in cases
where high strength as well as resistance to moisture penetration and severe frost action is required.
b) Grade S: These bricks are used where moderate strength and resistance to frost action and moisture
penetration is required.
2) Types of concrete bricks:
a) Type I: Moisture-controlled concrete brick, must conform to the requirements as given in table.
b) Type II: Non-moisture-controlled brick, need not conform to the requirements as given in table.

Hollow, load bearing Concrete masonry unit (CMU) –

1) Grades of hollow CMU –
a) Grade N: Weight classification of 1360 kg/m3 or greater. Suitable for use in exterior walls – above and below
ground, which may or may not be subjected to moisture penetration or weather. Further, these units may
also be used in exposed masonry and interior walls as well as backup wythes.
b) Grade S: Weight classification of aggregate less than 1360 kg/m3. Limited to use above grade installation in
either exterior walls with weather protective coatings or in walls not exposed to weather.
2) Types of hollow CMU –
a) Type I
b) Type II
3) Categories of hollow CMU –
a) Precision unit: No overall dimension of the unit differs by more than 1/8 inch from the specified standard
dimension
i) Particular feature unit: The dimensions are specified in accordance with the following guidelines –
ii) Mould face units: No overall dimension may vary by more than 1/8 inch from specified dimensions.
iii) Split face units: Overall dimensions of all non-split faces may not differ by more than 1/8 inch from
standard dimensions. Dimensions of split faces may vary more.
b) Slumped units: No overall height dimension may differ by more than 1/8 inch from specified dimensions.
The variation may be more on faces that are slumped.
4) Size of hollow CMU –
a) Manufactured in modular nominal dimensions which are multiples of 8 inches.
b) Standard block is 8 x 8 x 16 (inches).
c) Actual dimensions are 3/8 inch less than nominal dimension to account for the thickness of mortar joint.
d) Slumped units are equal to standard manufacturer dimensions plus 0.5 inch to account for thicker mortar
joint.
5) Importance of compressive strength of CMU –
a) Higher the strength, better the durability under severe weathering conditions.
b) Unit strength along with mortar strength can serve as the basis for satisfying the required masonry
assemblage compressive strength.
6) Absorption -
a) Important property related to shrinkage, and to some extent, durability.
b) ASTM C140 limits absorption in 24hrs immersion in water at room temperature.
c) No IRA is standardized.
d) The characteristic is to achieve a good bond b/w unit and mortar. If too absorptive, mortar will stiffen,
resulting in a poor bond.
7) Shrinkage of CMU –
a) CMU shrinks with time. Shrinkage control is important because in long walls it can cause cracking, while
overall shortening in high walls can affect the performance of other structural and non-structural elements.
b) There are three types of shrinkage.
i) Drying shrinkage: Overall shortening of units occurs as the cement hydration takes place and the initially
moist units come into equilibrium with a lower humidity environment over the long term.
ii) Carbonation shrinkage: Occurs due to the reaction of the hydration product of Portland cement with
CO2 present in air. This type of shrinkage is not reversible and takes place slowly over many years.
iii) Ultimate shrinkage: Mainly strain dependent because of curing condition, cement content, aggregate
type and relative humidity of the environment. Much of the total shrinkage will occur in the factory
during steam curing, autoclaving or specialized precarbonation treatment.
c) Autoclaving can significantly reduce the amount of subsequent shrinkage.
d) Denser aggregates produce less shrinkage than light weight aggregates.
8) Creep in CMU –
a) Creep is common with Portland cement products.
b) In the non-load bearing CMU (bricks) subjected to low compressive loads, creep is not significant.
c) In concrete blocks (load bearing CMU), up to 20-30 story height, creep of concrete block masonry is
relatively less known.
d) Salient features –
i) Approx. of the same order of magnitude as creep in ordinary concrete made from the same aggregates.
ii) Autoclaved blocks creep less than low pressure steam cured blocks.
iii) Creep increases approx. proportional to the applied stress level.
iv) After about 1 year, at a stress level, most of the creep will have occurred.
v) About 20% of the creep occurs in mortar joints, implying that creep strains in mortar are 4-5 times those
occurring in the block itself.