No 37 ~' ".

~ umah Awam .... 05 ~(" ' oa n 2

81800 Ulu Tlrarn Jol)()(
07-8614623 1
Supply Voltages, A.C. and
D.C. Systems
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Electricity is generated in Power Stations, transmitted through
transmission lines and distribu ted through distribution systems. The
various activities concerning operation, maintenance and commissioll-
ing of electrical equipmcnt are covcred bere in the "QUESTION"
AND ANSWER" form. Quest ioning process is the motivator to
lea rn ing. The questiolls alld allswres here will be IIseful to the Readers
ill vil'a-~'oce, illlen>iews, career del'elopmem , departmental examinatiolls,.
tests, traillillg alld del'e/opmel/I.
The question allswers are brief olld cover basic principle and
basic data,
Such a wide and up-Io-dote coverage of question-answers at
relatively less knOWII points is likely to be ofinfeeesl to every electricaf
En gineering Student and Electrical Engineer.
Supply Voltages, Frequency. A.C. D.C., Voltages, Powers·
Factors, Power Factor Correction, Earthing.
Q. 1. What are the commoll Voltages alld Frequellcy used ill'
India for Transmission and Distribution of electrical energy?
T he Standard Values of nominal system voltages specified by
Indian Standard are the following:
Standard A.C. Voltages.
ForDistributiOIl .!J I!5 14.<.0 II ~"t- I?-~ 7:. l' 5 ~oo
400 V ; 3'3 kV ; 6,6 kV ; II kV; 33 kV. (r.m.s. line to line)
For Transmission
66 kV , 132 kV, 220 kV, 400 kY. (r.m .s. line to line).
These arc normal values of voltages, during load fluctuations.
t be voltages also change. The permissible variation in voltage is
approximately ± IO %. These are r.m.s. values for line to line'
voltages. ( Ref. Q. 56). 765 kV AC lines arc pla nned,
3 Ph, AC is used universally.
6 Ph. AC and 12 Ph . AC arc tried on experimental basis in.
USA , but arc not commercially successful.
r 2 OPERAT ION AN D MAINTENANCE OF ELECT RI CA L EQU IPMENT
:SUPPLY VO LTAGES, A.C. AND D.C. SYSTEMS )

F requency . D .C. series rootor has higher starting torque. The cha racteri _
T he rated fr aquency in India is 50 cIs with ta rgeted limits of stlcs. of D.C. !D0tors are useful for applications involving frequent
49 cIs and 51 cIs. startmgs, stoppmg, reversals e tc.
Nofe. Cycles per seco nd (cIs) is now denoted by Hz.
Q. 5. What is a three phase system? W hy is il preferred?
Q. 2. Wlrat is a common distributiO Il YO/foge in India for low
i. voltage cir ell its 1
The a Jr ernali ng curre nt supply system can be single phas c
4(1) val ls A.C. R.M .S. phase-Io-phase; 3 phase. T he corres- three phase . ~hc thr~e phase system has three supply wires a~~
pond ing phase-Io-neutral Val ue is 400/ v3 = 230 volts. This is <lIsa ~)IlC ~eu t ral. w.lfe optIonal. A three phase a.c. generator has three
t h e phase to ea rth volta ge.
IdentIcal WI~ldlllgS o n t he stator placed at 120 0 electrica l. For
Permissible L im its .the same SIze, a th rce phase a.C. machine has higher capacity.
- Ph ase-Io-phase Nom inal Vo hage 400 valls. 1 A.C. 6CNCRr=A~'""~'-__________________"O~A~O~
Upper Voltage Limit 440 volts.
Lo wer Voltage Limit 380 vo lts.
~CO!L {
Q . 3. Why the alternaling curre", used fo r electrical syStems 7
COIL~~'~~I~ 11
Alternating current is used for the fo llowing:
-Genera/iOIl of electric" i power in large hydro/turbo gCl/crators
(alt ernators). (60 MW, 100 MW, 200 MW , 500 MW) is wi th a.c.
o nly. D.C. generators ha ve a limita tio n of rating due to com mutator
r ,--1_
proble ms an d it is not econo mica l to use d.c. genera tors for large
po wer generation. For same power ra ting, cost of d.c. generator is Fig. Q. 3. J·phase syst~m. 3 ph. 4 wi re system.
higher than a.c. \.s..~n· hI .
- Transmi.fsiOIl of r.ieClrical power ol'er long disfances by E. H. V. (kVA. rating). Henc.e it is more economical than single phase
a.c. tmnsmission systems (220 kV, 400 k\'). To transmit large !l13ch Jne o,f the same SIze. Hence la rge motors, transformers rotut-
b locks of power (500 MW. 1000 MW) high voltages are necessary. lng mac~Jn~ etc. are three phase. Single phase loads ar~ moslly
Altern aling voltages ca n be easily stepped up by means of power those o f IIghtmg, and small ca pacity fractional hOl~e'j}ower motors.
transformers. D.C. voltage can not be easily and economica lly stepped
u p or stepped down. I·fe nce A.C. voh ages are preferred for trans- Q. 6. ,E:"'jJlaill fhe mef/fling of star COflnection alld della COllllt!C -
mj ~s ion an d dist ribu t ion. lioll. Exp lam fhe pector rc/atiolls.
[Exception. H.V.D.C. (±5oo kV) is used for long dista nce
(above 800 kM) h igh power (above 1000 MW) transmission systems . . A three phase machine (motor/generator) has threc identical
as it requ ires only 2 cond uctors per circuit and cond uctor cost is WindIngs. These can be connected in star or delta as shown in t he
figure.
red uced. But H.V.D.C. transmission system requires costly recti-
fiers and invcrter sub-stations at both the ends of transmission li nes
in addition to usua l a.c. eq uipmenl.l
- A.C. induction mola rs a rc robust and economical.
Q . 4. WI!tl/ a rc fhe applicatiolls oj D.C.
Ul iJb.alion of D.C.
-Suburban Railways use t 500 V D.C.
- Lo ng dista nce Railways use 25 kV, single phase 50 H z a.c.
- D.C. is used for electroplating, fo r d.c. motor d rives, for
spot we lding. for lift ing m agnets, traction motors for railways. pro- Fit . . Q . 6" Slar COllnection.
tection sys tems, co ntro l systems etc.
 4 OPERATION AND MAI NTE NANCE OF ELECTR ICA!. EQUIPMENT!

A
' SUPPLY VOLTAGES, A.C. AND D.C. SYSTEMS 5

Single phase load is co nneeled between phase conducto r and ncutral

con ductors. (Fig. 7'2).

Q. 8. In A.C. I'oilages, what is R.M.S. "alue and wha( is peak

8
c The R.M.S. val ue is "root mean square value". It is equ iva.
Fig. Q. 6'2. Oclla Connec tion. (VI, = Vph)
In slar conncction, a neutral po int N is available.
In delta con nection , a neutral point is lIor available.
value?
' lent value of current which produces sa me amou nt of heat as equa l
·value of D.C. current. An A.C. wave is generally a sine wave
e=E.. si n wt
\ e = lnstante nous. value
I'
w= R adian frequency =2"7T/ radians per sec.
E .. = Peak value £ .. = <1"2 E, ...

PHASE Vr ... . . . ,
1 LOAD

1,~ PHASE
11 lOIl D Rf--7f-
PHAse
,
It LOAD o

-=- EARTH
Fig. Q . 8. Sine wave.
Fig. Q. 7'1. 3-phase 4 wire sup ply. (VL = .(3Vpll)
Q.7. Explain a Iypical litre, phase/our wire supply, For a si ne wave R .M.S. value is equal to Peak Va lue divided
by ,(2 i.e.,
Fig. Q. 7 illustrates a 3 phase 4-wire low voltage supply system .
It bas three line conductors ( R, Y, B) and one neutra! conductor. £ .. , ~ £p H2 ~ E_ / l · 414.
In low voltage system, the voltages between p~ascs IS 400 volt
RM.S. The voltage between phase and neutral IS 400/ .[3 - 230 V. 1'414 ir known as form factor, e.g. R .M.S. value of supply
) ·R -,- volt age is 230 volts. Peak value of the wave will be 230x 1'144
=324 volts.

Q . S·1. S tate the standard vailles o/nominal system voltage,

highest system voltage alfd lowest system I'altage. Why does system
voltage fluctuate?

During low loads, the capacitive reactance of transmission line

causes rise in receiving voltage. During high loads , the inductive
series reactance of line causes drop in· receiving voltage. Hence for
a cOllstan t sending voltage, the receiving .volta~e fluc tua tes widely.
H owever by various methods o f voltage control (tap changing, shunt
compcnsati<.IO) the receiving bus voltage should be kept within speci.
fl ed limits. ~ The !ltandard values of these limits a re given in the
. table:
 SUPPLY VOLTAGEf., A.C. AND D.C. SYSTEMS 7
6 OPERAT ION AND MAINTENANCI} or ELECTRICAL EQUlI'M ENi
Harmonics are generated in a.c. : generators baving non-
Reference \'aiucs of Vollagc Limits in A.C. Network sinusoida l nux distributi on. Harmonics arc generated it convertors.
J due to ripple in d.c. waveform. H armonics are generated in non-
System \'oltngt J/ ighr.fl VolIQlt Permissibll! Lo w !'!! linear (saturated) region of BH curve in transformers. Harmonics
S y Sf/!m Voltog e produce losses, radio interfe rence a nd TY interference. '!beyare
Class eliminated by using appropria te "armO/,ic filte rs.
J pli. A C
U n t IfYlUnt Lin« to /i'lt Lint 10 lille Q. 8·3. Why do we prefer A.C. system/or transmissillg and
R .M .S . R .M .S. R , M.S . distributiOIl ?

LV (I. ph .) 230 V (Ph)

- 242 V (I'h)
-
220 V (Ph)
Alternating voltages can be stepped-up and stepped-down easily
by means of power transformcrs. Transrormers are installed in
M ,V. (3 ph) 400 V 420 V ] &0 V \ genera ti ng stations, receiving substu lioos, distribution substat ions
and near load points. H ence A.C. system is preferred for trans-
M .V. 3' 3 V 3'6 kV 3 kV mission and distribution. (Also sec Q. 3)
Q.8.4. Which are the applications of HVDe systems?
M.V. 6'6 kV 1'2 kV 6 kV
H VDC systems are used for following applications:
M .V. II kV I2kY 10 kV
(I) Long distance high power transmission (say (1000 km,
M .V. 22 kV 24 kV 20 kV 1500 MW) for econom ical advantage.
. (2) EH Y submarine cable for power transrer across lakes or
M.V. 33 kV 36 kV ]0 kV sea.
H.V. 66 kV 72"5 k GO kV (3) Back·to-back HYDe substa tion between the AC systems.
Q.8·5. Which is t.lle highest system I'oftage ill India . .
H .V . 132 k'l 145 kV 120 kV 400 kV AC lines have been established during 1975-1985.
e .H .V . 220 kV 225 kV 200 kV ± 5oo kV HYDe line and 765 kV AC lines arc being executed.
Q .8·6. Which are the possible HVDe lines in India durillg next
S.H ,V. 400 kV 420 kV 380 kV fell years?
,
V.H.Y. 760 kV goo kV 750 kV Five HYDC projects have been pla nnC"d in India for the period
1985- 2000. These include:
No le : L. V. ""' Lo w Voltage M .V. = Mcdium Vo ltage ( I) UP (Riband) to Delhi ± 500 kY, 1500 MW Bipolar.
M. H .V. ""' McdiuOl H igh Vo ha ge '·I.V .- High Vollage
U .U .V. = Vltm I-l igh Volta ge
(2) U P to MP Asynchronous Tie at Yindyachal, 500 MW.
E.1-I. V. = Exlra lI igh Voltage
(3) Inter-regional a synchronous tic lines between regional grids.
Pe rmissible va ria ti on is approxi ma lcly ± IU% o r Nomi nal Value.
Q . 8'2. What is FOllrier Series ? What is the meanillg of har- (4) Long lines from super thermal power stations to distant
monics and fundamelltal ? What arc demerits of harmollics? How load points. e.g. Chandrapur- Oombay H YDC
are the harmonics minimised? POWER FACroR CORRECllON
Fourier Series and Harmonics. Fourier analysis gives mathe- Q. 9. Whm is phase angle ?
matical treatment for alternating waveform. Any nonsinusoidal 11 is angle in clectrical degree between two vectors e.g. phase
periodic alternating waveform can be expressed in terms a numbcr <. angle between current and voltagc vectors is 30°.
of s inusoidal waveforms called the fundam ental and harmonics. The
general equation of Fouries Series is
y=Y , sin (wl +tl ,) +y: sin (2 w l +9~) \
+Y3 sin (3 wt +e3)+ .. .. .. +y~ sin (lIwl +O .)
where, w= 2Trfis angular veloci ty ; f = frequellcy of fundamenta l "'~:-T.i.
,------ .. .
wave; n= l , 2, 3 ...... are order number of harmonics.
I
Fundamenta l componen t wave has same frequency as tbe:
original nonsinusoidal waveform, nth harmonic has frequency of nf Fir. Q. 9. Phase angle .p .
r
'8 OPERATION .... ND MAI NTENANCE OF ELECTRICA L EQUIPMENT
Q . 10. What i.~ a power faclor.
Power factor of a load is cos .; where ¢ is the phase angle
between cu rrent vector and voltage vector. Power in a sin gle phase
circuit is given by
P = V/ cos "' ...... wa tts/phasc. for single phase.
V= Voltage phase to neutral ;
I = Une current.
Q . J I . Whal is the expressioll fo r power ·;11 3-phasc circuit?
P= .f3 VI cos .p ...... watts. for 3 phase.
\. ) 1cr c, V= line- to-linc-vo ltage V, r.m.S. value
J= cu rrcnt ...... Amp . r.m.s. value
cos ';=power faclo r.
. Q . 11 '2 What is Power , Active Power. Apparent Power, Reactive
Powe r . Power Faclor ?
Power. It is the rate of flow/ tran sfer of energy. Electric
power is the product of instantaneous current ; aod instantaneous
vollage v. units watts.
Apparent Power. It is the product of r.m.s. volts aDd rms
I amperes.
Acfil'c Power. It is the product of r.m.s. volts and in pbase
component of amperes.
Reacthe Power. It is the product of r.m.s. volts and quadra-
ture component of cu rrent.
Q. 12. What are the callJes of low power factor?
In inducti ve loads, the current lags behind appl ied voltage.
Most of the loads in industry arc inductive. e.g. Inducation motors,
welding transformcrs. reactors, furnace installation etc. These
loads take C/lrrellt of laggillg power factor, Resisti ve loads like
.lilament la mp take unity po":er factor load but such loads arc
generally less predominant. Hence the overall power fac tor of
group load is generall y less than one e.g. O'S, 0'7 lag, this is called
a poor power factor. 1 and 0'9 arc called better power factors.
(Ref. Q. 98).
Q . 13. What are the disadl'amages of poor p.f?
We know, the apparen t power kVA = v3 VI/ I000.
Rea l power kW= v3 VI cos cp/ 1000
Hence. kW = kVA cos cp.
For sa me kVA rating of power transformer, the amount of
kW which can be supplied to load depends upon the power facto r.
kW = kVA xcos cp.
•
SUPPLY VOLTAGES, A.C. AND D.C. SYSTeMS 9
For higher p.f. (ncar unity) higher kW can bc obtained from
thc samc supply transformer.
Secondly, with given kW load of a motor or other load , poor
p.f. Il1C11llS higher kVA, hence higher current for sa me voltage.
This gives rise 10 more I" R t losses. Henee loss of elect rical
cnergy.
l1mdly higher curren t I gives higher l Z droo in supply
circuit. hence higher voltage regulation problems. Helice floor pI
gil'e poor I'oltage cOlllrol, higher losses ami poor use of electrical
equipment rmillg.
Q . 14. Wllat is power factor corrcctiOll ?
How i.f i/ achie~ed?
The p.f. is improved by connecting static shunt capacitors
ncar load points. These capftcltors supply reactivc VARs of
lead ing p.f. Hence the p.f. of the ' installation is improved (to
' O' S to 0'9 lag).
Q . 15. Wh ere arc the shul/I capacitors COlJllecled? (Ref Q. 97)
Individual correction Near the terminals of the motors?
Grollp correction Ncar supply swi tchgear.
- I n factory sUb-station.
- In dist ribution sub·stations.
- i n the receiving sub-Jitations .
As ncar the load as possible (not at the suppl y end). Because
the kVA and Ampers flowing through t ra nsmission hnes are reduced
giving maximum be nefits Capacitors arc installed ncar load points.
Shunt eap<lcitors are insta lled at the receiving end and load
end and not at sending-end of transmission line.
EQUIPMENT EA llTHI NG
Q. 16. Witat is" Equipmem carthing" or "ho(ly earthing"?
Wlla t is the difference between Equipment Earthing and Neutral
Earthing?
(Earthillg is called GroulJding ill USA).
Equipment Earthing (INdy earth ing) IS connecting to eartb
non-current carrying metallic parts of/in the neighbourhood of
electric equipmen t and circui ts. Equipmcnt earth ing ensures safety.
If lhc body/frame/structure or any mctallic part is connected to
e~rlh plate, the voltage o f tbat pa rt with respect to earth does not
flse to dangerously higher value during leakage currents or faults.
~bu s. scvere shock is prevented. Earth fault can operate fu se of
-ClrCUl t breaker because of sufficien t earth fault cu rren t.
 11
10 opeRATION AND MAINTENANCB or Et.ECTR1CAL EQUIPMEN'r SUPPLY VOLTAGES, A.C. AND D.C. SYSTI!~tS

- grounded neutra.1 Moreover Grounded Neutral System·

are WIth
has foll owing advantages.
- Easy for earth fault protection.
-I d' . ted to earth.
, - Transient over voltages are easl y ISslpa
These include lighting and switchi ng over voltages.
Q. 17. How can the lIeurral ear/hing be arranged 7

Fig. Q. 16"1. EquiJlmcnt Earthing. Fig. 16"2. Frame Eart hing.

Points 10 be carlhcd Fig. 17'1. Kculrill Uarlhin" .
Motor body, switchgear enclosures. transformer tanks. condui ts
of wiring, s'!pport structures, lowers, poles, cable sheaths. body of
portable eqUIpment carth terminals of surge arresters and earthing
switches. t JJJJJ,JJJ
Neutral Earthillg is different from equipment earthing. Neutra l
earthing refers to connecting to ground, lhe neutral point of a

--
~
0- 12k< 22''''' ",,,

Fig. \1'2.
,~.; ~., m"
Ea rthing at each Yoltage.
The neutral of star connected 3 phase .winding of transformer
-------
- - can be earthed. The neutral of generator can be earthed: ] f neutral
point is not available, a scparate sta~.delta tr~nsform ~r IS arranged .
Star points can be carth. Somcll m~s ~peclal .earthm g transformer
having zig.zag winding and ne~tral pOlTlt IS prOVIded. A rule to be
followed - provide IIC11trai carthlllg at every I'olrage IClte/.
, , NEUTRAL EARn-liNG
,-
~
Q. 18. What (lrc the at/vall/ages oj ne/ltral carthing ?
Fig. 16"3. Rod)' Ear, hing. Fig. 16'4" Body Earthing. (I) Elimination of arcing grounds?
(2) Lesser stresses on insulation du ri ng earth fault elsewhere.
star connected winding. [n ungrounded system during an sillgle
earth fault (even minor arcing) any where in the system, the voltage (3) Easy earth fault protection.
of two healthy phases with respect to ground rises to 4'3 limes Disadvantages:
normal phase to ground voltage. Such sustained ovcrvoltagc is
harmful 10 motor insu lation. Hence ungrounded neutral system Higher earth fault current. This disadvan tage is eliminated
is no more preferred for supply system. All modern supply systems by providing reactance earthing o r resistance earthlOg.
 ,
SUPPLY VOLTAGES, A.C. AND D.C. SYSTEMS 13 ·

Pipe electrode is usually in tbe form of 30 to 40 mm dia

12 OPf!RATION AND MAINTeNANCE OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 2'5 m long galvanised iron pipes.
Q. 19. (a) What is Earthing system (Groundillg System)? Earthing pit should be filled witb charcoal, common salt and
soil to reduce earth resistivity.
The sub-stations. power stations. factories, and electrical
installations need proper body-earthing and ncutral-earthing. The Q. 22. How 10 meaSlire earth resistance?
neutral points and the bodies of various electrical cquipmcnts arc Earth resistance is mea sured by earth resistance tester, Ithe
connected to the earthing system. The earthing system of a sub-
sla/ ;ol1 comprises sCI'eral fellS oj earll! electrodes buried deep into the
testing pit comprises a low resistance measuring inst rument earth
ground. The ground electrodes arc usually 40 mm diameter, 2'5 III •E,ARTH RESI5TANCE
long G. !. Pipes. These arc connected to Earthing Man Mesh below
ground level. (RcL eh. 8, Substation Earthing system) D.C. G(Nef?ATOf?;:::::tT~'!S~T~£R~=~'~H~M=':"~'~"~"~_________1
E. trth resistance of Earthing System of a Power Station and
suh-station shou ld be below 0'5 oh m. Earth resistance of earthing '.1 ,I ,
( . fys tem of residential building may be as high as 2 ohms.
I---v----I
Larger the installation, lower the earth resistance requiremem.
Q . 19. (b) In low ~'ollage single phase lI'irillg, (I three pin
socket is used for electrical appliances. Why, three pill plug? Why
.lIot two pin? CART,.,
.poINT UNDER
VOLTAGE CIIRREN7
Ef-I--'----1.1
!J·PIH 'E ST
SPIKE SPIK.E
30CK£7

Fig. Q. 22'\' Measuremenl or earth resistance.

(>1~____-r__________;f~~~,\800Y E,ARTH

,
51N(iLE PHASE LOAj7
Fig. Q. 19 (b). Soeket for 3 pin . plug, I Ph.
Two pins for single phase and neutral supply. Third pin for
earth. The portable electrical device needs body earthing for safety.
Green wire is used for earth connection. Red a Black arc used fo r
phase connections.
) Q. 20. Exp1air.. the Earlhi/lg System for a residential building, a
small sub-slat ion at,d II large powr stalioll.
-small residellfial building needs simpier earthing system.
11 has only one or two earthing electrodes . The ea:th i l~g
electrode is in the form of a metal, plate Of a pipe or rod bUried In
to the ground with charcoal mixed in the surrounding soil, space
should be kept moist to reduce earth resistance. Small installation
may have earth resistance uplO about 2 obms. Large·sub-station
should have earth resistancc less than 0'5 ohms. In large-sub
station severa l ea rth electrodes and earth mesh is used.
Q. 21. What is Ihe size of earth electrode?
Earth electrode can be of dilTerent types.
Plate electrode is usually in the form of 1 metre x 1 meter x
12 mm thick cast-iron plate.
Fig. Q. 22'2. Measurement of earlh resistance.
resistance megger and two metall ic spikes and cables. The current .
spikes is driven into earth at a longer distance from earth point
under test. When the bandle of the earth resistance meter is ·
rotated, the current, is driven through the earth. The potential
spike is driven at various points. The voltage between potential
spike and tbe cartb point is given to the potential coil of the meter
Thus the current coil or the megger gets earth current (I). The
potential coil gets tbe voltage drop (V) the earth resistance meter
. V
rca d s reslstance- ,- .
As tbe potentia! spike is moved at different distances from
earth electrode, an al most co nsta nt value of earth resistance (R) is
obtained by the measurements. This constant value is called the
carth resistance of the carth point.
 14 OPERATION .... NO MAINTENANCE OF IlL:!:CTR ICAL EQUIPMENT 15
SUPP LY VOLTAGES, A.C. AND D.C. SYSTEMS
Q. 23. If carrh resistallce is high, what action sflolild be taken? High resistance: Above 10,000 Ohm.
I. Clean the surface of cartb electrode, mix the soil in the
earthing pit with charco.!l, sail and soft so il mixed together. Pour EiI"ipmcnt Elcctrical Coill! Blls-barr
sufficient water in Ihe earthing pit. cOI/f(let
2. Contlect the earthing rod wilh the equipment by low
resistance cop per strip. 5 to 10 5 101 5
Rc:sisl:lncC
Q . 24. Whal arc safety precautions esselllini in electrical "'{Iill-
(e'ta"ce I\'or~.
Micro Ohms Milli Ohms
I Micro Ohms

lll C following pn:o:auliolls :l fC necessary : - Exam ples: Low resistance; b.us-b:lrs,. elc(;tri~a'. contacts
electrical fuse, cables, conductors, mam Circuits of CIfClll! breaker
, . Proper permission from authority for carrying OUI main- isola tor. C_T., motor windings, transformer windings etc.
tenance work. ,,
2. lllC circuit or equipment should be disconnected from Metlium Resistance. Coils, resistors. secondary winding of
supply by opening of switches/circuit breaker and isoh1l0rs. C.Ts., winding of V.Ts. etc.
3. The isolators can be seen by ' open eye. Ensure that I Medium Resistance. Coils, resistors, secondary winding of
isolators on bot h sides of the circuit arc open before touching any C_Ts., winding of V.1s. etc.
conducting part. Close the carthing-switch.
High Res istance. I nsulation resistance, leakage resistance,
4. Connect tempor"ry earth connections between conductors
and earth on both sides of the circuit under maintenance. open circuit etc.
5. Discharge the vol tage remaining on the eQnductors and Q.27. What is a balallce Ihree phase slIpply?
c.'tpacitors.
6. Use in terlocks to prevent proper sequence of operation. E,
7. Always check the clearance betwccn Jive part and physical
objects in the hand of the maintena nce starr. Th e maintenance
t
starr should not hold long metal bars vertically,
8 .. Wear electr ic,,1 insulating quality rubber shoes and rubber
gloves.
9. Follow directives of electrical sa (ely rules.
I,
Q. 25. What i." the difference bet"/een il/suratiol/ resislallce alld
earlh re.sistance 1
IIr srdation resistal/ce is measured Octween conductor and
earth is of the o rder of several tens/thousands Mega Ohms or Fig. Q. 27. B:-.lanccd su pply .
inflllity for healthy insulation. It is measured ~)' means of megger In a-balanccd 3-phase supply, the 3-phase voltages flre equal
(m ega-ohm meter). in magnitude and arc having a mutual phase displacement of 120°.
Earth resistance is measured for a earthed metallic body or In balanced supply. we get
neutral point. It is measured by means of earth resistance tesler, Vl =V2= V~
F or good effective c.trthing, the earth resistance should be of the
order of 0' 5 ohm to 2 o hm. and 11 = / 2= / 3
Q . 26. Whal is low resJSlflllce, mc(IiIlJn resistallCC and high cos "' I = COS tP2=COS P3.
resistance ? Gb'e examples of each.
Q. 28 . Wllllt is a balanced 3-plrase load?
Loll' resistallce: Below I ohm
In balanced 3-phase load, the currents in 3-phase are equal 0
MediuIII resistancc: Between o hm and 10,000 ohms (approx i- in magnitude and have a phase d iffe rence of 120 between each
mate).
----- -

16 OPERATION AND MA INTENANCE OF ELECTR ICAL EQUIPMENT

other. The phase angles of currents in the 3-pbases with respect to

their phase voltages arc equal. Thus in ba)anccd load.
r - ' ~UPPLY VOLTAGe, A.C. AND D .C. SYSTOMS

winding, Chokes etc. The c ircuits baving core of magnetic material

bave large inductance.
11

JR, = 1, = 10 Q. 31 . What is capacitance? What are irs u!es ?

VR, = Vyn = VnR Capacitance
cos q,R. = (;OS of. , = 005 ;0 . Capacitance is defined as charge per lIroit potential. Capacitor
is a device having conducting surfaces separated by insulation.
Q. 29. What life lite ullits oj the following elec l~ical quantities? Capacitor stores electrical energy in form of voltagc. _ If voltage V
/ lIdllcwncc, capacitallce, reactallce, il!lpctiunce, magl/etlc jllIX, clec /flc volts results in charge Q coulumbs on capacitor plates, the capaci-
fl/lx , electric power, c/ccuic energy. tance will bc
UNITS OF ELEcr RICAL ENTITlES c= ~ farad s.
) Units arc as follows : Capacitors arC" used for powcr factor improvement, voltage:
Elllily UnifS Symbol transfor mer, electronic circuits, timer circuits etc.
Inductancc Henry L Q. 32. What is the reac;/(lIlce ?
Capacitance Farad C
Reaefance = XL =2-rrfL ; Xc= 1/ 2 ."fG
Reactance Ohm X
Whcn alternating cu rrent of frequency fflows through induc-
Impedancc Ohm Z
tance L, a voltage drop V= (2w fL) x I is produced in the indue--
Magnetic flux * : Wcber 'I' or </> ... tance the quantity 2." fL which bas the same units as Ohm, and is
Lines called rcact'lnce of the inductance. L is in henry. XL = 2." fL .
Electric flux
Electric power Wails
••
P Similarly, when voltage V is applied to a capacitor, currea t
kWh flowing in the circuit is
Electrical cncrgy: Watt bour
kVA I= Vx(2 . Ie)
Apparent power : Voltampcrcs
The quantity t / 2 wfG is called reactance of a capacitor and bas;
Reactive power: Vo\tampcrcs reactive kVAr u nits Ohms, G is in farads. Xc = I /2." fe, I=VIX"c.
Q. 30. Define inductance. Stale the components which have' Q. 33. What is impedance?
indllctonce ?
Impedance Z
Inducl ance The combincd effect of resistance and reactance is caned\.
Inductance of a circuit is defined as nux linkage per unit
current. If current J flowing througb the circuit produces flux Impedance. If current I flows tbrough impedance Z, tbe vo ltage-
d rop in the impedance will be
linkage A, the inductance of the circuit is
V=l Z volts
'I' N
L= y1\ <-r Zc:::..[ R'+(XL Xc)' ohms.
1lle magnetic flux passing through a turn is said to be linking . Q. 34. What is the UI/ ;t of electrical energy 7
with that turn. Practical unit of electrical energy is Kilo-Watt Hour. One kW'
where L= l nductancc, Henry used for onc bour results in ene rgy consumption of I kWh.
'1'=Flux lini:ing with N turns Tbe energy meters a rc calibrated in terms of kWh.
I = Currcnt giving flux ' I' in Amperes. Q.35. What is the unit of power? (Ref. Q. 54'4)
Magnetic circuits having large number of turn ~ h.avc higbcr Watts or kW. One watt = 1 louIe per second.
inductance. C.g. Transronners winding. Reactor ·wllldmg, motor Jouie= Watt x Seconds.
Q. 36. What i.~ the relation between magnetic flllx electriC"
* Magnetic Flu .~ Density : Wr.bcrs/ mcter o r Teslas. current ?
I Testa - I Weber / meter. According to Faraday'S Law c.m. f. is induced in a circuit
whenever the magnet ic flux I:nking with the circuits changes. Hence
.'
 ----......, .
",.,.......... t

18 OPERAT ION AND MA INTENANCE OF ELECTR ICAL EQU IPMENT ' SUPf'L¥ VOLTAGI!S, A.C. AND D.C. SYSTEMS
19
c.m.r. is induced by changing magnetic nux with respect to coils.
This principle is used in generators and transformers.
When a current c.1.rrying conductor is placed in nl:lgnclic field,
it experiences a mechanica l fo rce.This principle is used ill electric
m Olors,

Thus electric current and magnetic field is closely related ,

Q.37 . . What is phase sequence? What har-pells if Ihe phase
seqllel1c(' is changed?
t
Phase sequence is the sequence is which the currents or voltages
f in the J·phases altain their peak position with particular reference of
1 time e,g. R, Y. B, or R. B, Y.

z'\--_-~~-___ '---+--A-------
1
'---'
Ie ______
~_=,-,__j"'_
£ ,
Fig. Q. 39. Magne,ic fiel d around a co n ~~~,or. cork·screw TU.le.
Q. 40. Why D.C. c.urrellt. is II sed.,for lifting magnets, tnp Calls
.of circuit breakers. operatlll g Calls etc. . . .
The direction of magnetic flux of d.c .. eo'l~ re":lams the same.
.

Fig. Q.37. Phase sc::quc:m;c. In A.C. coils, the magnetic flux a.lternates In d, rc~t,on. Hence d.~.
For connecting two supplies in parallel, their phase sequence coils give accurate and better lifting magnets havmg no hystereSIs
should be same. loss.
Q. 41 ·1. What is the direction of force bc/IVeelltwo parallel
Th e direction of rotation of 3.phase induction motor depends upon
phase sequence. The direction of rotalion of 3·phase induction 11I0tor Cllrrent carrying cQnductors ?
can be changed by challging allY two supply termillals. Two pamlfd currellt carrying condu ctors experience mechanical
f orce. ~
Q.38. What are the colour codes for A.C. system alld D.C.
system? If the paral'e] conductors carry current in th:. saf!1e direction,
the force is of attraction. (For instantaneous cond,tlOn III a.c.)
,. Single pbase. Line wire- Red, Earth wire- Black.

i- ~'S~ 1-
2. 3 phase, 4 wire Line Wires- Red, White, Blue.
Earth/ Neutral Wire- Black.
3. Bus Bars Red, Yellow, Blue.

Q. 39. What;s the direction of magnetic flux surroUlldillg a

cUrrel11 carrying cOl/ductor ?

TIle cu rrent carrying conductor has a magnetic flux in a plane

if~Y~
".
((Q)::; (@)'"
...... ~,. ' ...... -
perpendicular to the ax is of conductor If a fi ght handed screw is .. '"
'

driven in the direction of current, the magnetic flux will be in the

Fig. 41 (0) Fig. 41 (6)
d irection of the motion of t he thumb for advancing the screw (Cork-
Screw Rule). (Fig. Q. 39). If the parallel con ductors carry current in opposite directions
t he force is of repulsion.
In A.C. circuit direction of current alternates and therefore
magnetic nux also alternates in direction during every cycle. The force between parallel conductors is proportional to square
·of the current and is inversely proportional to the distance between
.the conductors.
20 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCB OF ELECTRICAL EQUI PM Et-.'T1
'S UPPLY VOLTAGES, A.C. AND D.C. SYSTEMS 21
The forces between conductors in a A.C, circuits have a double r The direction of force F is such that a screw rotated from J to
frequency component. These forces arc high during short circuit ·L
.D will move towards F. .
currents.
Now consider another conductor I I of very long length carrying
A right·angled belld of COlldlictor trieS /0 become straigfll drlring ·current . I , placed. at distance r metres from conductor 1\ . The
shorl-cirellit condilioll. .magnetlc flux density at any point at distancc r will be given by
Q . 41 "2. State closed palm rule oj magnetic field.
B = Il nl 1
Place a conductor on pa lm of a right hand with clIrren t. 411"r ... (2)
fl ow ing towards thumb. Close the finge rs to surround the
Substituting .Eq. (2) in Eq. (I), we get, the force experienced by
conductor. .conductor placed In magnetic flu x density B is given by
For direction of current towards the thumb, the direction of F JI.o f , f2, L
magnetic field is indicated by the closed finge rs encircling the 411"r ... (3)
conductor . -sin « = 1 when,« is 90", Medium : Air.
Q . 41 '3. State 'Amperes /.AII'",
Amperes law gives co- relation between the magnetIc field and I . Equation (3) gives the force between two parallel conductors
electric current. It states that " The Line integral of flux density I havln.g long length L. The force between two parallel conductors
around a closed path gives the total current enclosed.' ,carrying sa me current I is given by
J B.dl= J= IJ·(IS F- 1-'0 ltL
- 411"r ... (4)
B= Magnetic Flull dcnsity W b/Ill t , J= Current, Amperes; J = Current
D ensity A, mt ; S=Area of conductor. . wbere I is magnitude of curren t amperes instantaneous,
Q.41·4. State Gallss Law. L is length of conductor, meteres.
Surface integral of normal component of electric (lUll density R is distance between conductors, metres
around a closed surface is equal to lOla I cha rge enclosed . F Force in Newtons
f D .dS~Q
1'0 is permeability or air.
D= Electric !lUll density; S = Area, Q= Charge. . Equ.ation (4) can be further expanded for alternating currents,
Q. 41·S . Stalc Coulomb's Law. TI1 C ~a~lmum fo rce occurs when the currellt is at peak value.
The force between two charges is proportional to the product Substl t utmg the values of constants we get the following:
of charges and inversely proport ional to squarc of d istance (r) ~he ~ y nami~ force ~ccu.rs at the peak of first major loop, on
Q\Q2 short ClrcUll. ThiS rorce IS given by the expression:
F oc -:;r-
p F= 2'04 ;.1 ; x 10-1 kgf
Q. 41 ·6. Explain tlte low gOl'ering electromagnetic/oree betweell"
parallel conductors. ·whcre F = force between conductors
Current carrying conductors placed near each other experience i. =peak value is current, kA
electromechanical force . lf a conductor carry ing current h is placed . L= length of conductors, cm
in magnetic field havi ng nUll density B, it will ellpcriencc a physical
r= distancc between conductors, cm
force given by the equation:
F = B h L sin fl •.. (1) '
'[I ncwlon = 0·10 1972 kgfJ
where, F = Force ellperience by conductor, N~wtons. ,,-, Fr«:>1ll this f?rce, the cantilever strength of thc support insulator
-or span IS dctermlOed.
B= Magnetie fl ux densi ty, W b/m2
Pcrpendicular conductors tend to straighten out due to electro-
h = Conduetor curre nt, Amperes ·11l1ognetic forces.
L= Conductor length , metre Q.4 1' 7. Law oJ Electromagnetic Fields.
0; = Angle between d irection of current and direction of:
State the following laws:
flux.
\ (I) Fleming's right hand law of EMF
{2) Fleming's left band law of force
r OPBRATION AND MAI NT(lNANCE OF nLI3CTRICAI. EQUIPMENT

(3) Faraday 's law of induced EM F

SUPPLY VOLTAGflS, A.C. AND D.C. SYSTeMS

- Polelltial gradient.
-Electric flux dellsity.
(4) Lcnz's Law.
-PermillivilY of dielectric material.
(1) Fleming's Right Hand Rule of induced EMF. Stretch tbe - Relative permilivity.
thumb, index fi nger, and mi ddle fi nger of right hand such that they
arc mutually perpendicular. If the index finger (finger ncar thumb) is
in the directio n of tbe magnet ic field, the thumb in direction of
motion, then the middle fi nger gives direction of i\lduccd EMF.
(2) Left hand rule for force on conduclor. Stretch the thumb, index
T
d
---.L- i 0

finger and middle finger of left and mutually perpendicular . If the

index fin ger shows direction of magnetic, field middle f1l1gcr shows
the direction of current in conductor then tbe tbumb indicates direction
1 I 1
of force experienced by conductor.
(3) Faraday 's Law of induced EMF. EMF is induced in an c:J VOLTslmm
electric circu it when the flux linkages of that circui t changes . The F ig. Q. 42.
induced em f is proportional to the time rate of change o f flux Electric field is associated with charged particles. A cbarged
lin kage .
particle experiences force in t he electric field.
dA I. E lccl ric Field InlcJ1sil y (E). It is defined as th e force
e=-;h
experienced by unit positive c harge placed at a poin t in the electric
/\ =Flux linkage (Weber turn s) field. It is a vector and its units arc volt/ coulumb.
e= induced emf. The lines of force in the electric field are called fi el d lines.
(4) Lenz 's Law. The d irection of induced emf is such that it They arc perpendicular to equipotential lines. The plots showing
opposes the cause. field lines and equipotential lines a rc called eletric field plots.
2. Potential Gradient. The ral~ of change of electric intensity
Q . 41 '8. State tile "e ffects" of electric Cllrrent . at a point along the direction of the fidd is called potential gradient
I. Electromagnet ic :E.iJccts at tbat point. Its units arc volts/ metr'!.
1'1. A ~current carry in g conductor has associated magnetic 3. Electric Potcnlia l (V). It is defined as the work done in
field. bringing a unit + ve charge from in fin i .y 10 that point.
"2. A current cat rying conductor placed ill magnetic field 4. Dieleclric Strenglh. it is 111(; maximum electrical poten tial
experiences mechanica l fOl ee. gradient (kV/ mm) which a dielcctri .: material can withstand under
given tcst conditions.
1'3. EMF is induce:. in a co nd uctor which n: o ves in magnetic The dielectric strengths of some ::of the insulating materials are
field. as follows:
2. Thermal Effects TallIe Q. 42. Dielectric strell~ths for uniform fi eld
Current passing through a conductor produces heat proportional
Material Dielectric Strellgth )'Olls/meter
to l~ Rt. -------
3. Chemical Effect Air 3 X l OG
A current fl owing th rough an electrolyte cau:>:s ionisation in the Mi neral oil 15 x 10~
chemical, positive ions move towards negative elc .'trode and electrons_ I mpregnated paper 15 X 106
towards positi ve electrode Polystyrene 20 X 106
H ard Ru bber 21 X lOG
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 25 X lOG
Bakelite
Q . 42'1. What is tl ~ meallillg of the follow :'lg lemlS : Glass plate 30x 106
-E/cclroslalicjieid Illef/si/y. Paraffin 30 X lOG
Quartz 30 X 106
- Dielectric strength. Mica 200 X 106
 24 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE! OF ELECTRICAL EQUI PMENT : SUPPLY VOLTAGeS, A,C, AND D.C. SYSTBMS 2S

Dielectric Strengtbs at 50 Hz A.C. Wave Q. 42'3. Stale relations between vadous electric field quantities.
(I) D ~ 'E
Material POfcdaill 1 Glass Mica Bakelite Di d ec(ric SF, Gas Air D= Electric fiux density, coulomb/cm1
oil j kg/em ' (N.T.P.)
E: = Permilti vity.
E=Elcctric field intensity. Volts/ m.
Dielectric
Strength (2) ID.dS ~ Q
kV / mm 10- 20 5- 12 4o--Il0 \ \8- 20 3-8 7- 10 \- 2 Surface integral of normal component of electric fiux density
(at 50 H :t)
r.m.s. ,is equal to charge enclosed. This is Gauss 's Law.
(3) F~ ;hQ,
-.' 41TU'
) 5. Pcrmittivily (e). It is inherent property of a dielectric
material which determines the relation between electric fl.ux density 111is is Coulomb's Law.
and electric fi eld intensity F = Forcc in Newtons.
D = €E Ql, Q2=Charges, coulombs
where, D= Flux density coulumbs/metre r = Distance between ehargcs mctres
&= Permiltiv ity Farads/melre t=Pcnniltivity of medium
E= Elcctric field intensity vo lts/ coulumb. = fl O fl,
6. Relative Permittivity E,. Permittivity of a dielectric material E:o=pcrmittivity of vacuum
• : is often expressed a multiple of perm ittivity of air . =8 '85 )( 10- 11 farads/ m
E = EOE , fl, = Relative permittivity of medium.
where, Eo= Pcrmittivity of air/ vacuum '(4) Scalar potential difference between two poiuts a, b placed
I ,in electric field:
" = 8"85 x IO- 1s=::: 36 'IT IO- t Farads/ metre
E, = Relative permittiv ity of the material, Vab=I: E . dl
Relatjye Permitthities of Dielectric Materials Linc integral of electric fie ld intensity is equal to poten tial
~
, difference.
Material Vacullm Air Rubber tDak,dllt Mica Glass Q.42'4. State pracricaillnils of electric cirCllit alld magn etic
--- current.
Relative \ \'0006 3 5 6 \0 Practical Units:
Permitti vity Current [ Amperes
) Voltage volts
V
Q. 42'2. State the terms , I/olalio/ls and units of variOllS quanti- Power W watts
lies ill Electric Field Theory,
Energy E kilowatt hours
QuantilY Ullit Natnre
Magnctic flux density 8 webers/ m'
Q Cbarge Coulombs Scalar
E Field intensity Volts/metre Vector Magnetic flux rP wcbers.
D Flux density Coulombs/ms Vector Q. 42'S , Slale Maxwell's Laws of Electric alld Magnetic field
V Scalar Potential Volts Scalar , tlreory.
.p Charge Density Couloms/ ml Scalar There are four Maxwell 's Law of electromagnetic field theory.
1 Current Ampercs= coulomb/sec. Vector These give correlation bctween electric-field and magnetic field.
W Energy Joules Scalar I, Mavwell 's Equation from Faraday 's Law:
H
B
.p
Magnetic field vector Ampere turns
Magnetic flux Webers
Magnetic flux density Webers/ m'
Vector
Vector
Vector
1 E.dl= - I ~; . ds
26 opeRATION AND MAINTENANCE OF ELECTR ICAL EQU1P~1 ENT SUI'PLY VO LTAG ES, A.C. AND O.C. SYSTEMS 21'
Line integral of electric field intensity around a closed path is where, p. = Permcability of material
equal to surface integral of magnetic flux density.
l-'o= Permeability of vacuum
2. Maxwell 's Equation from Gauss's Law: = 41T x 10- 7 Henry/ metre
/n . ds = rpd~ p., = Relative permeability
Surface integral of flux density is equal to volume integral OJ
(Dimensionless)
cha rge density.
3. Maxwells equation from Gauss's Law :
Total flux equal to surface integral of flux density. ilIa/erial Air
Rcl:tlive Permeabilities
,
Coppt"r ' /roll \ Pemut![oy SlIpl'Tlllally I Nickel
-
\f .. = J B.ds -,.. (78% NI)
-,
4. Maxwells equation from Amperes Law:
Line integral of if equal to total current enclosed.
I,
I
e, --:I~I 10' 10' ."

1 if . dl= L J . ds= ltutal

Q. 46.
LOAD FACTOR , DIVERSITY FACTOR
What arc load cllrves ?
Q. 43. How is the die/celric strength of a material checked? Load cUfI'e is a graph of hours on X-axis and MW load .on
The last is carried out according to relevant standard test Y-axis. Load eurves are plolted for a sub-station, a gcneratlDg
procedure. The test specimen, electrodes, test vol tage etc. arc as station or a network.
per standa rd specifications. In the load ther~ arc daily variations and seasonal variations.
The voltage across electrodes is gradually increased. The Q.47 . What is (J) Load Jaetar ?
break~own occurs at a particu lar test voltage. This value divided
by thickness of the speci men gives the dielectric strength value of the (2) Dirersit)' faclor ?
material. tl) Demalld fa ctol" 'J
Dielectric strength Maximum voltage across thickness
I. ,Loa"• rae I or = kWh consumed
Th ickness Peak kW x No. of hours
Q.44. What is a ferro-magl/etic material, paramagnetic alld Maximum demand of the installation
nOli-magnetic materials ? 2. Dh'crsity raetor
Sum of individual maximum demands
Magnetic Materials
3. Demand factor Maximum demand
Materials which exhibit strong magnetic properties arc called Con nected load
ferro-magnetic material. e. g. iron, nickel, cobalt, mild-steel etc. Q.48. Defille filcfollolVillg Jactors ' or a gelleraling statioll:
Ferro-magnetic materials have high relative permeability, higher
than I. I. Diversity jaclor 2. Load factor
J, Plant capat itv jactor 4. Plam lise factor .
Pa ramagnetic materials have magnetisation in the same direc-
t ion as applied magnetic held. Ferro-magnetic materials are also I. Diversity fact or
called strongly paramagnetic. Diamagnetic materials get magnetised Sum of consumers maximum demands
in opposi te d irection of applied field and have rela tive permeability =
Maximum load on the station
less than I. 2. Load facto r
Q. 45. What is relative permeability of magnetic material? A verage demand
Permeability of magnetic material p. is expressed as a mUltiple Maximum demand
of permeability of vacuum (1-'0) as foJlows = _ Energy generated in a given period
1-' =""01-', (Max . demand) x hours of operation in given period
 . Un '

SU PPL Y VOLTAG ES, A.C. AN D D.C. SYSTEM S 29'

:28 OPERA TI ON .... ND MA INTENANCE OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENr
3. Plant capaci ly ractor
Actua l energy produced
Maximum possible energy that cou~ld:i'>b~a~v~e'be=en:;-;p~,~o~­
duccd (based on installed plant capacity)
= Average demand
Installed capacity'
4. Plant usc ractor
Act lInl energy produced
I'lanl capacity x Time (hours) tbe pla~n~l~h'"a~s"be ~e~n~;n
operation
Q. 49. Define the folfowillg terms commonly used ill generatioll :
J, Firm power 2. Cold reserve
3. lIot resen'c 4. Spillnillg resen'e.
I. Firm power, It is the power intended 10 be always
available (even under emergency condition).
, ~. Cold reser.vc, It !s th at. reserve generating capacity which
,)s avaIlable ror servIce b ut IS not l1\ operation,
3. Hoi rcserve. It is that reserve generating capaci ty which
is in operation but is in service. • M aximum kVA demand can be rcduced by-
4. Spinning resen e. It is that gencrating capacity which is
,connected to the bus and is ready to take load,
Q. 50. What is "tariff" "! Whal is two pari tariff alld Flat
rate tariff? .
J:"Tariff" means the rate by which the electrical power con·
·sumption is eba rged to the consumer.
TAIUFF OF E LEC fRICAL ENERGY
(0) Two port teriff has two parts, e,g.,
Part I : kVA charges per month,
) Part 2 : kWh charges per month.
Example or two-part Tari ff :
Rs. 30 per kVA per Illonth + Rs. 0·60 per kWb.
(b) Two·part tariff with maximum demand cbarges . Another
..exa mple or two-part tariff is based on maximum demand charge
plus kW h cha rges.
e.g. Rs, 15 per mont h per kVA ror maximum kVA demand
+ Re. 0'50 per kWh.
. . The.maximum kVA dcmand is recorded by maximum demand
mdlca tor In kVA mcter. In this meter a pointer is arranged to
indicate the maximum kVA dcmand during the month, Tbe
. de m.and du ring successive t5 minutes or)O minutes is averaged by
·the mstru ment and the pointer shi rts to tbe highest average value
.d uring t he month.
(c) Flat rate or Tariff. This is applied \0 small domestic or
commercial consumer. The charge is based on kWh consumed
during the month. It is in rupees per kWh. (e.g. Rs. O·SO per kWh),
Q.51. What is the difference be/weell kWh and kW?
kWh is t he unit 01 energy consumed. kW is the unit of
power.
l.'(kW x Hr.) gives lotal kWhr,
Onc kW power used continuously ror one hour results III
encrgy consumption or one kWh.
Note. kWhr is 1101 kW per hL It is kW x hr.
-- Q.52. What is rl:e'sigllijic(lllce of maximllm kVA demalld?
H ow call maximum kVA demalul be reell/eed?
kVA maximum demand should be mel by supply company
and causes difficulties during the peak load periods and when
generation is inadcquate.
For the same kW. higher kVA. means morc ~urrent t h ~ollgh
supply bus.bars, transrormers etc. Higher current IS n,ot adv l sa~le
as it causes higher temperat ure stresses and reduced Itre of eqUIp-
ment.
I. Installing shunt capacitors ror power ractor improvement.
(Q. 12 10 IS).
2. By staggering the load in time so that peak load is lesser.
Q. 53. What is the relatioll between kW:kVA and kVAr?
(kVA)' ~ (kW')+(kV Ac)'
Q. 54 '1. How (0 COlllleet tile followillg illstrllments? Ammeter,.
Voltmeter , Wat tmeter, energy meter.
Connections of Ammeter , 'Vattmcter etc.
Ammeter is connected in series with the phase conductor.
Voltmeter is con nected across the two points between which'
the voltage is to be measured,
Wattmeter has a current coil wh ich is connected in series with'
t he phase conductor and a voltage coil wh ich is connected between·
pbase and neutral.
Energyroetcr also b as a cu rren t co il and a voltage coi l. It is ·
connected li ke a wattmeter,
Note ror 3-phase circuit , two ~attll1t l ers arc used ror
measurement or power. The current COIls or two. watt meters are
connected in series with two phase. The voltage COIls are connected'
betwecn the respective phase and the third phase .
 '"L .
=
FMGW7
. , .." ... .

30 OPERATION AND MAINTENANce O~ ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT SUP P L!> VOLTAGES, A.C. AND D.C. SYSTEMS
31
Current transformers are used for reducing magnitude of Table Q. 54'3. Derived 5 1 Un its in E lectrical Engillcering
current to abou t 5 A for measurement, protection and co ntrol. - Qllantity -
Voltage t ransformers arc used to reduce magnitude of voltage Dime ,,$iOIlS Name S y mbol Expression
to about rIO v fOr measurement, protection and control. ---- -
Frequency ,=, HZ
Q . 54"2. What afe SI un i t.f? Which afC the Basic SI IIl1ilS He rtz -
and Deril'ell S I IIlIits for ElectrIcal Technology? F orce m-kg_s-:' Newton N -
Pressu re (stress) m";' .kg.s - I
What is MKSA system of IInits? Pascal p, Nl m"
Energy m"kg-s- I
51 Ullit s, Basic Slllllirs alld Deril'cd Sf Imits, MKSA system. J oule J Nm
Wo rk
" " " ,.
The units of quantities most commonly used in electrical QUan tit)' of Heat
engineering (volts. amperes, watts, ohms etc.) arc now embodied in
POwer
,.
" " .
SI units (Systeme International d' Unites) International system of
units (abbreviated SI units). E lecl ric charge
m". kg,S- ·
'.A
Wa tt
Coulomb Q orC
W
",
A.'
SI units are un iversally accepted. E MF m". kg.s-'A-' Volts V WIA
P olenti;.1
SI System of Units arc based on I MKSA system (metre, " " " "
kilogram, second, ampere system of units). Polcnlial DilL
" " " "
Table Q. 54'2. Basic 5 1 Units, MKSA Units '" pacitance
~cs istan ce
m-:'.kg- '.s'. A"
m'.kg.s-:' .A- I
Farads F QIY
Obm !1. V/A
C onducta m;e m=' .kg- '.s·.A""
Quantity Unit Symbol
, 1agnerie Flul(
Siemens S A/ V

Length meter m M . Flul( Density

m"kg.s:;"'.A - , Weber . Wb V.s
kg .s ~'A-'
Tesla T Wb/ m'
. Mass kilogram kg In duclance m.kg.s-I.A-:' Henry H Wbl A
Time seconds S L uminous Flul( Cd.S,-
Lumen 1m Cd.sr

I
Current ampe res A J. umi nance m-:'.cd.Sr
L"
I I,

II Temperature
Luminous intensity
Plane angle
kelvin
Candela
radians
K

Cd

,,'
Q. S44.
Engjneering.
Define tire various derived Sf L, li" ,'n EI
ectrical

Solid angle Steradians S, 1. Hertz. Unit of frequ ency, cycles per second.
r 2. Joule. Unit of energy Watt·seconds. Work done by
loree of I Newton acting through' l metre.
Q. 54'3. What are the derived Sf units. State the units,
dimensions and symbols. I Joule= I watt x I second.
3. Walt . Unit of pOwcr
Most of the practical units in electrical engincerinl' come in 'work of I joule per 1 second. . I watt power is .apable of doing
the category of derived $1 unit s.
4. Coulomb. The .
The derived SI units are defined in terms of basic SI . ,nits and = I ampere of 1 seCOnd. quantity of electric ch .rge, I coulorob
supplementary SI units.

\
 32 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCC OF ELCCTRICAL EQUI PM ENT·

s. Volts. Potential difference between two points such that

watt is consumed while carrying I ampere between those two ·
points.
6. Forods. Capacitance such that I volt produces charge of
1 coulomb.
7. Weber. Magnetic fiux which when decreased to zero
induces in one tu rn a voltage whose time integral is I vol t·second.
8. Henry . Inductance such that a rate of change of I ampere
per second induces an emf of I volt.
Q . 54·5. 310te SI 111Iits for plane allgle. allglllar acceleration.
What is co-retarion betweell ollgle alld fr eqllency.
)
Plall£' allgle is denoted by 11. or O. Sl unit plane angle is radian,
symbol is rad, One radian is the angle subtended by an arc of a
circle whose length is equal to radius.
Angular Aeceleratioll is radians/sec'.
One revolution= 2'IT radians.
II revolutions= 21T1I radians.

! cycles/sec give 21T/ radians/sec.

Q . 54·6. Slale SI ullits for Solid Allgle ?
Sterediall. Solid angle which is subtended by at the centre or
a sphere by a square marked on sphere whose sides are equal to.
radius of spbere.