BIOENERGETICS

Energy is defined as the capacity of a system to do work. Bioenergy is the energy derived from living organisms. Bioenergetics is defined
as the study of energy transductions in living system.
Light as a source of energy:
Sun is the ultimate source of energy on the planet.All energy conversions, obey the Laws of Thermodynamics.
The I first law, states that the energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can be transformed one form to other. Ex. conversion of
solar energy to chemical energy.
The second law, states that at every stage of energy conversion some amount of energy is lost in the form of heat which cannot be utilized.
When energy transformed from plants to animals energy lost.
ATP as the energy currency of the cell:
The amount of energy used to manufacture ATP and the energy released by ATP is the same i.e. 18 kilocalories. Hence it is called energy
currency of the cell.
ATP Synthesis.
ATP molecules are synthesized in living system in different ways as follows-
1)Photo phosphorylation
2)Oxidative phoshorylation
3) Substrate level phosphorylation

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is a process by which green plants synthesize organic food by using carbon dioxide and water as raw materials, in the
presence of sunlight.
6CO2 + 12H2O-------------------------------------- C6H12 O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Sunlight, Chlorophyll

MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis occurs in two sets of biochemical reactions, namely, light reaction or Hill’s reaction and dark reaction or Blackman’s
reaction.
Light reaction is a photochemical reaction which requires light to manufacture ATP while dark reaction is a thermo chemical reaction for
which light is not required but ATP is used to manufacture food.

LIGHT REACTION:

Light reaction is the first phase of photosynthesis which is a light dependent reaction. It takes place in the granal membranes and the
stromal lamellae of the chloroplast.
Light reaction of photosynthesis involves four steps
1) Excitation of Chlorophyll molecule
2) Photophosphorylation –Cyclic and Noncyclic
 3) Formation of NADH
4) Photolysis of water.

Differences between non-cyclic and cyclic Photophosphorylation

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation C Cyclic photophosphorylation
1.Involves both PSI and PSII It involves only PSI
2.Electron transfer is unidirectional or non cycyclic E The electron transfer is cyclic

3. Photolysis of water takes place Photolysis of water does not take

place.
4. Oxygen is evolved. Oxygen is not evolved.
6. NADP is reduced to NADPH2 N ADP is not reduced.

DARK REACTION:
Dark reaction of photosynthesis takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast. It is an enzymatic and light independent process. As this set of
reactions does not require light, it is referred to as dark reactions. But it is dependent on light reaction. During this set of reactions, fixation of
carbon and reduction occur through a series of steps leading to the formation of carbohydrates by using the assimilating power of light reaction
(ATP and NADPH2).There are three types of Dark reaction: C3 cycle C4 cycle and CAM cycle.
BLACKMAN’S LAW OF LIMITING FACTORS:
Blackman (1905) proposed the law of limiting factors which states that “when a physiological process is conditioned as to its rapidity by a
number of factors, the rate of the physiological process is limited by the pace of the slowest factor”.

RESPIRATION
Resoiration is a process where in the respiratory substrate is broken down to release energy in the presence or in the absence of light
Types of respiration:
There are two types of respiration
1) Aerobic respiration: This type of respiration takes place in the presence of molecular oxygen during this process glucose is
completely oxidized to release energy and form CO2 and H2O as by products.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 +6H20 + 38 ATP

2) Anaerobic respiration: This type of respiration takes place in the absence of molecular oxygen. It involves partial or incomplete
breakdown of respiratory substrates. During this process’s either lactic acid or alcohol and CO2 are formed as by products. This type of
respiration occurs in some yeast and bacteria.

MECHANISM OF AEROBIC RESPIRATION

The mechanism of aerobic respiration takes place in 3 steps namely
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs cycle
3. Terminal oxidation.
1. GLYCOLYSIS OR EMP PATHWAY:
Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm, It was discovered by 3 scientists – Emden, Meyerhoff and Paranas (1940). Hence, glycolysis is,
also known as EMP pathway.
It is the phase in which a molecule of glucose is converted into two molecules of a 3-carbon compound called pyruvic acid. NADH2 and
ATP are also formed.
This phase is common to both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. The glucose molecule breaks down into 2 molecule of pyruvic acid.
Glycolysis occurs in two stages of 5 steps each. I step is called preparatory phase and II stage is called payoff stage.

2. KREBS CYCLE (CITRIC ACID CYCLE OR TRICARBOXYLIC CYCLE OR TCA CYCLE):

Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix of mitochondria.
It is a phase of aerobic respiration during which, pyruvic acid is completely oxidized into carbon dioxide and water.
Hans Krebs explained this cycle of reactions therefore, this cycle of reactions is named after him.
3. ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM (ETS) OR TERMINAL OXIDATION
» It takes place on the inner surface of the inner mitochondrial membrane (cristae) where, Rackers particles are present.
» Electron transport system is the final step of aerobic respiration. It involves oxidation of reduced coenzymes NADH2 and FADH2
produced in glycolysis and kreb cycle by molecular oxygen through electron transport system.
» When a molecule of NADH2 enters the electron transport system, it undergoes oxidation (removal of H+) leading to the formation
of 3 ATP molecules. Similarly, when a molecule of FADH2 enters the ETS, it undergoes oxidation leading to the formation of
2ATP molecules.

Respiratory Quotient (RQ):

The ratio of volume of CO2 released to the volume of O2 consumed during respiration in a given period of time at standard temperature and
pressure is known as Respiratory Quotient (RQ)

Difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

1. Takes place in majority of plant and animal cells. Takes place in anaerobic microorganisms and in
muscle cells under special circumstances.

2. Molecular oxygen is necessary. Molecular oxygen is not necessary.

3. The reactions take place both in the cytoplasm The reactions take place only in the cytoplasm.
and in the mitochondria..

4. It involves glycolysis, oxidative decarboxylation It involves glycolysis only Pyruvate enters anaerobic
of pyruvate, Krebs cycle and terminal oxidation. pathway.
5. Mitochondria are necessary. Mitochondria are not necessary.

6. Fuel molecule is completely oxidized. Fuel molecule is partially oxidized.

7. Byproducts are, water and carbon oxidized.. By products are, CO2 and lactic acid.

8. A few fuel molecules are generally sufficient. Requires nearly 20 times more of fuel molecules..

9. 38 ATP molecules are synthesized form each Only 2 ATP molecules are synthesized form each
glucose molecule. glucose molecule due to partial oxidation of
glucose.

10. Net energy yield is 676 k for each glucose Net energy yield is 58 k cals for each glucose
molecule. molecule.

Multiple choice questions:

1) Chlorophyll a is found in
a) All plants except fungi
b) All higher plants that photosynthesize
c)All photosynthetic prokaryotes
d) All O2 releasing photosynthetic forms
2) The end products of anaerobic respiration are
a) CO2 & H2O b) Lactic acid & CO2
c) Et OH & CO2 d) Et OH & lactic acid
3) Isotopes popularly known to have been used in photosynthesis were
a) C14 and O18 b) P32 and O18 c) C11 and P32 d) None of these
4) Iodine test is used to detect
a) Proteins b) Lipids c) Nucleic acids d) Carbohydrates
5) Electron transport system is present in
a) Cytoplasm b) Stroma, c) Cristae d) Racker’s particle
6) The only metallic ion of chlorophyll is
a) Fe b) Mn c) Mg d) Hg
7) The energy currency in the cell is
a) Adenosine tri phosphate (ATP) Adenosine tetra phosphate c) Adenosine phosphate d) Glucose
8) The formula for the process of glycolysis is
a) 6H2 O + 6CO2  C6H12O6 + 6O2
b) C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2
c) C6H12O6  2 C3H4O3 + 4H+
d) None of these
9) Seeds sown very deep in the soil usually do not germinate because
a) These do not get nitrogen b) These do not get air
c) These are under pressure d) These do not get light
10) Choose the correct statement regarding photosynthesis
a) Light reaction is photochemical and dark reaction is biochemical
b) Dark reaction is photochemical and light reaction is biochemical
c) Both light and dark reactions are photochemical
d) Both light and dark reactions are biochemical
11) Respiration is a
a) An anabolic process b) A catabolic process
c) A chemical process d) All of these
12) Important photosynthetic pigment is
a) Carotene b) Xanthophyl c) Chlorophyl l d) All of these
13) Solar energy is converted to ATP in
a) Mitochondria b) Chloroplasts c) Ribosomes d) Peroxisomes
14) The end products of terminal oxidation are
a) ATP and oxygen b) ATP and water
c) ADP and woater d) ADP and oxygen
15) The starting compound of Calvin cycle is
a) RUMP b) RUDP c) PGA d) PGAL
16) Which of the following is a C4 plant?
a) Sorghum vulgare b) Helianthus annus
c) Pisum sativum d) Allium cepa
17) EMP (Embden – Meyerhof and Parnas) is the biochemical pathway is
 a) Krebs cycle b) Photosynthesis c) Glycolysis d) None of these
18) Identify the exergonic (free energy releasing) reaction among the following reactions of Kreb’s cycle
a) Pyruvic acid to acetyl Co-A
b) Malic acid to Oxalo acetic acid
c) Citric acid to isocitric acid
d) Succinyl Co-A to Succinic acid
19) The dark reaction is called so because it
a) Can occur in dark b) Cannot occur in dark
c) Does not require light energy d) Occurs in dark
20) Identify the correct sequence of stable intermediates during Calvin cycle of photosynthesis
a) RuMP  RuDP  PGAL  PGA
b) RuDP  RuMP  PGAL  PGA
c) PGAL  RuDP  RuMP  PGA
d) RuMP  RuDP  PGA  PGAL
21) Which of the following activities does not occur during cyclic photophosphorylation?
a) Production of gaseous oxygen
b) Formation of ATP
c) Involvement of chlorophyll - a
d) Involvement of cytochromes
22) Photosynthesis starts with
a) Conversion of PGA to PG aldehyde
b) Photolysis of water
c) Carboxylation of RUDP
d) Excitation of electrons
23) In an experiment on respiration in an organism, when RQ is calculated which of the following molecule is most likely to
have been used as the respiratory substrate?
a) Starch b) Cellulose c) Albumin d) Citric acid
24) Which of the following molecule is not involved in aerobic respiration?
a) Cytochrome - a b) Cytochrome - b
c) Cytochrome - c d) Cytochrome - f
25) Cyclic photophosphorylation forms
a) Only ATP b) ATP and NADPH
 c) NADPH d) ATP, NADPH and O2
26) Moistened seeds trapped in a column of mercury are still capable of liberating carbon dioxide. This may be taken as
evidence for
a) Anaerobic respiration b) Fermentation
c) Aerobic respiration d) Lactate fermentation
27) In photosynthesis, O2 is liberated due to
a) Hydrolysis of carbohydrates b) Break down of chlorophyll c) Photolysis of water d) Reduction of CO2
28) Which of the following is least important in photosynthesis?
a) Red light b) Blue light
c) Both (a) & (b) d) Green light
29) Raw materials of photosynthesis are
a) CO2 & chlorophyll b) H2O & chlorophyll
c) CO2 & H2O d) H2O & O2
30) Special features of C4 plants is
a) Multilayered epidermis b) Thin cuticle
c) Kranz anatomy of leavesd) Piliferous layer
31) Emerson effect is associated with
a) Salt absoption b) Respiration c) Transpiration d) Photosynthesis
32) Calvin cycle represents one of the following phenomenon
a) Oxidative carboxylation b) Dark phosphorylation
d) Reductive carboxylation c) Dark respiration
33) In non - cyclic photophosphorylation PS I is reduced by
a) Electron from feridoxin b) Electron from PS II
c) Hydrogen from PS II d) H2 from water
34) Calvin cycle utilize for fixation of 3 molecules of CO2
a) 9 ATP and 6 NADPH2 b) 8 ATP & 6 NADPH2
c) 9 ATP and 3 NADPH2 d) 6 ATP & 9 NADPH2
35) Who among the following propoced the concept of free energy?
a) Peter Mitchell b) Robert Mitchum
c) Willard Gibbs d) William Bowman
36) Which of the following are components of ATP?
a) Ribose and three phosphates
b) Ribose, adenine and three phosphates
 c) Adenine and three phosphates
d) Ribose, adenosine and three phosphates
37) The hydrolysis of ATP into ADP and iP is an example for
a) Exergonic reaction b) Endergonic reaction
c) Polymerisation reaction
d) Phosphorylation reaction
38) Which bond among those present in ATP is energy poor?
a. Phosphoester bond b) Phosphoanhydride bond
c) Glycocidic bond d) Thioester bond
39) The addition of a phosphate to any compound for priming it is called
a) Hydrolysis b) Carboxylation
c) Dehydrogenation d) Phosphorylation
40) Match the items in column I with those given in column II. Choose the answer with the correct combination of alphabets.
Column I Column II
a Direct electron transfer p FAD and FMN
b Transfer of : H- q Cytochromes
c Transfer of hydrogens r ADP  ATP
d Phosphorylation s NAD+, NADP+
t 41) ATP  ADP
a) a-q, b-t, c-r, d-s b) a-s, b-t, c-r, d-q
c. a-t, b-s, c-q, d-r d. a-q, b-s, c-p, d-r
42) A stack of thylakoid in a chloroplast is called
a) Fret membrane b) Cristae
c) Granum d) CF0, CF1 particles
43) For the synthesis of carbohydrates, green plants require
a) Chlorophyll b) Carbon dioxide and H2O
c) Solar energy d) All of these
44) The chloroplast is the only organelle of a eukaryotic cell that is a
a) Two – membrane system
b) Three – membrane system
c) Four – membrane system d) None of these
45) The sequence of energy changes in photosynthesis is
a) Chemical  Electrical b) Light  Electrical
 c) Light  Electrical  Chemical
d) Light  Chemical  Electrical
46) Which of the following are the two types of photosynthetic pigments?
a)Chlorophyll - a and b
b) Chlorophyll - a, b and carotenoids
c)Chlorophyll a and carotenoids
d) Chlorophyll b and carotenoids
47) Noncyclic photophosphorylation produces
a) ATP and oxygen b) Oxygen and NADPH
c) NADPH and ATP d) All of these
48) Chlorophyll absorbs
a) Green light only b) Blue and green light
c) Blue and red light d) Red and green light
49) When both photo systems are involved and absorb solar energy in which direction does the electron flow occur?
a) PS II to PS I b) PS I to PS II
c) PS II back to PS II d) PS I back to PS I
50) Which one of the following would be a correct representation of the reactions of photosynthesis?
a) CO2 + H2O  C3H6O3 + O2
b) C6H12O6  6CO2 + 6H2O
c) C6H12O6  6CO2 + 6H2O
d) 6CO2 + 12H2O  C6H12O6 + 6CO2 + 6H2O
51) Which of the following is a reactant in the Blackman reaction?
a) Water b) Chlorophyll
c) Oxygen d) Carbon dioxide
52) The photochemical reaction centre of PS I is named
a) P 680 b) P 700 c) P 780 d) P 870
53) The dark reactions of photosynthesis utilize
a) 12 ATP & 12 NADH b) 6 ATP & 12 NADH
c) 12 ATP & 6 NADPH d) 18 ATP & 12 NADPH
54) Rubisco, the most abundant enzyme on earth, catalyzes reaction between
a) PGA and PGAL b) CO2 and RuBP
c) RuMP and ATP d) PGAL and DHAP
55) Light reactions of photosynthesis take place in
a) in stroma b) On the thylakoid membranes c) In stroma d) In the cytosol
56) Match the processes given in column I with the events given in column II. Choose the answer with the correct
combination of alphabets.
Column I Column II
a Hill reactions p Boosted electron
b Carbon dioxide fixation q Synthesis of NADPH
c Photoexcitation r Photophase
d Photoreduction Calvin cycle
s
t ADP synthesis
a) a-r, b-s, c-p, d-q b) a-p, b-r, c-s, d-q
c) a-q, b-s, c-p, d-t d) a-t, b-s, c-r, d- p
57) Match the molecules given in column I with their functions given in column II. Choose the answer with the correct
combination of alphabets.
Column Column II
I
a NADPH p Oxidising PGAL
to PGA
b RuBP q Accepting carbon
dioxide
c ATP r Transporting
PGAL to cytosol
d Antiport s Phosphorylating
PGA to biPGA
t Reducing PGA to
PGAL
a) a-s, b-q, c-r, d-t b) a-t, b-q, c-s, d-r
c) a-t, b-s, c-q, d-r d) a-t, b-r, c-s, d- t

58) Malic acid is formed in C4 cycle in the cells of

a) Epidermis b) bundle sheath c) phloem d) mesophyll
59) NAD is
a) Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
 b) Nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide
c) Nicotinamide adenosine diphosphate
d) Nicotinamide adenine diphosphate

60) CAM plants belongs to family

a) Malvaceae b) Crassulaceae c) Trapaceae d) orchidaceae
61) Which does not evolve O2
a) Green algae b) blue-green algae c) red algae d) golden brown algae
62) ATP molecules required to synthesis one molecule of glucose by C4 cycle is
a) 12 b) 18 c) 24 d) 30
63) Pasteur effect is not a feature to be found in
Exclusively aerobic organisms
Exclusively anaerobic organisms
Both 1&2
Neither

64) Enzymes PEPcase and RuBPcase are located in chloroplast of

a) C3 cycle b) C4 cycle c) CAM plants d) Both B and C
65) CAM occrs in
a) Thin green leaves with retuiculate venation
b) Thin green leaves with parallel venation
c) Thin colored leaves
d) Fleshy green leaves
66) At high oxygen content the rateof photosynthesis decreases due to
a) Warburg effect
b) Pasteur effect
c) Emerson effect
d) Richmond lang effect
67) Most effective wavelength of light for photosynthesis is
a) Green
b) Violet
c) Red
 d) Yellow
68) In C4 plants, photosystem II is absent in chloroplast of
a) Mesophyll cells
b) Bundle sheath cells
c) Palisade parenchyma
d) Spongy parenchyma
69) Calvin cycle operates in chloroplasts. Where does Hatch-Slack pathway occur
a) Mitochondria
b) Golgibodies
c) Chloroplasts
d) Cytoplasm
70) Acetyl CoA forms a 6-C compound after combining with
a) Malic acid
b) Citric acid
c) Succinic acid
d) Oxaloacetic acid
71) Enzyme of TCA which is located in inner mitochondria memb rane in eukaryotes and cytosol in prokaryotes is
a) Lactate dehydrogenase
b) Malate dehydrogenase
c) Isocitrate dehydrogenase
d) Succinate dehydrogenase

72) For formation of ethanol, pyruvic acid is first changes to acetaldehyde by enzyme
a) Pyruvate dehydrogenase
b) Pyruvate carboxylase
c) Alcohol oxidase
d) Alcohol dehydrogenase

73) Terminal acceptor of electrons in ETC is

a) H2O
b) Cytochrome
c) O2
d) Flavoprotein
74) Which is wrong about Krebs cycle
a) It occurs in mitochondria
b) It starts with 6 carbon compound
c) It is also called citric acid cycle
d) Glycolysis is linked to it through malic acid.
75) If R.Q is 0.6
a) Oxidation of respiratory substrate consumes more oxygen than the amount of CO2 released
b) Oxidation of respiratory substrate consumes less oxygen than amount of CO2 released
c) Carbohydrate is respiratory substrate
d) Reaction is anerobic
76) During which stage in the complete oxidation of glucose are the greatest number of ATP molecules formed from ADP
a) Glycolysis
b) Krebs cycle
c) Conversion of pyruvic acid to acetyle CoA
d) Electron transport chain

77) How many molecules of NADH are produced when four molecules of PGLD are converted into four molecules of
pyruvate
a) 2 b) 6 c) 8 d) 4
78) How many ATP’s are formed per glucose molecule in Krebs cycle
a) 2 b) 24 c) 6 d) 28
79) How many ATP molecules are released whjen one molecule of glucose is oxidized in our liver cells
a) 36 b) 38 C) 2 d) 8
80) Dough kept overnight in a warm place becomes soft and spongy due to
a) Osmosis
b) absorption of CO2
c) cohesion
d) fermentation

81) Pasteurs effect can be studied in case of

a) Nostoc
b) Penicillium
c) Pinnularia
d) Saccharomyces

82) Number of glucose molecules required to produce 38 ATP molecules under anaerobic condition is
a) 2 b) 4 c) 19 d) 38
83) When malic is respiratory substrate the amount of CO2 released is
a) More than O2 consumed
b) Less than O2 released
c) Equal to O2 consumed
d) Co2 is not released
84) A sudden change from anaerobic to aerobic process produces
a) Pasteurs effect
b) Emerson effect
c) Blackmann’s law
d) Chargaff’s rule.
85) In mitochondria, the proton gradient required for ATP synthesis develops across
a) Inner membrane
b) Inter membrane space
c) Outer membrane
d) F0-F1 particle
86) The actual lysis in glycolysis involves cleavage of
a) Fructose 1,6 diphosphate
b) Glucose 6 phosphate
c) Glyceraldehydes 3 phosphate
d) Fructose 6 phosphate
87) Which of the following is not true of glyolysis
a) Oxygen is not used
b) Four ATP molecules are used in initiating the reaction
c) Two molecules of pyruvate is formed
d) Two molecules of NADH are produced
88) Which cell depends exclusively on glycolysis
a) Parenchyma cell
b) Erythrocyte
 c) Meristematic tissue
d) Tumour cell
89) Enzymes that catalyze reactions of glycolysis are present in
a) Cytoplasm
b) Mitochondrial matrix
c) Mitochondrial cristae
d) Both mitochondria and cytoplasm
90) Which of the following contribute to muscle fatigue
a) Accumulation of pyruvate
b) Depletion of ethanol in strenuous exercise
c) Accumulation of lactate in strenuous exercise
d) Depletion of oxaloacetate at rest