On its 1,560- (2,510-km) course in plains, Ganga flows southeast through the
Indian states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. The Ganga
passes some of the most populous cities of India including Kanpur, Allahabad,
Varanasi, Patna, and Kolkata (C.K. Jain, 2002). The Yamuna, which
originates less than a hundred miles east of the Bhagirathi, flows parallel to the
Ganga and a little to the south for most of its course before merging with the
1
Ganga at the holy city of Allahabad, also known as Triveni Sangam. New
Delhi, capital of India, and Agra, site of the Taj Mahal, are two of the major
cities on the Yamuna river (A.R. Khwaja et. al., 2001).
Now flowing east, the river meets the Tamsa River (also called Tons), which
flows north from the Kaimur Range and contributes an average flow of about
190 m3/s (6,700 cu ft/s). After the Tamsa the Gomti River joins, flowing south
from the Himalayas (G. Muller, 1997). The Gomti contributes an average
annual flow of about 234 m3/s (8,300 cu ft/s). Then the Ghaghara River
(Karnali River), also flowing south from the Himalayas of Nepal, joins. The
Ghaghara (Karnali), with its average annual flow of about 2,990 m3/s
(106,000 cu ft/s), is the largest tributary of the Ganges. After the
Ghaghara(Karnali) confluence the Ganges is joined from the south by the Son
River, contributing about 1,000 m3/s (35,000 cu ft/s). The Gandaki River, then
the Kosi River, join from the north flowing from Nepal, contributing about
1,654 m3/s (58,400 cu ft/s) and 2,166 m3/s (76,500 cu ft/s), respectively. The
Kosi is the third largest tributary of the Ganges, after the Ghaghara (Karnali)
and Yamuna.
Along the way between Allahabad and Malda, West Bengal, the Ganges
passes the towns of Chunar, Mirzapur, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Patna, Bhagalpur,
Ballia, Buxar, Simaria, Sultanganj, and Saidpur. At Bhagalpur, the river
begins to flow south-southeast and at Pakur, it begins its attrition with the
branching away of its first Distributary, the Bhāgirathi-Hooghly, which goes
on to become the Hooghly River. Just before the border with Bangladesh the
Farakka Barrage controls the flow of the Ganges, diverting some of the water
into a feeder canal linked to the Hooghly for the purpose of keeping it
relatively silt-free (M.Singh et. al., 2003). The Hooghly River is formed by the
confluence of the Bhagirathi River and Jalangi River at Nabadwip, and
Hooghly has a number of tributaries of its own. The largest is the Damodar
2
River, which is 541 km (336 mi) long, with a drainage basin of 25,820 km2
(9,970 sq mi). The Hooghly River empties into the Bay of Bengal near Sagar
Island. Between Malda and the Bay of Bengal, the Hooghly River passes the
towns and cities of Murshidabad, Nabadwip, Kolkata and Howrah.
Only the Amazon and Congo rivers have a greater average discharge than the
combined flow of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Surma-Meghna river
system.
The Indian subcontinent lies on a top of the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate
within the Indo-Australian Plate. Its defining geological processes commenced
seventy-five million years ago, when, as a part of the southern supercontinent
Gondwana, it began a northeast wards drift lasting fifty million years across
the unformed Indian Ocean. The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the
Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's
highest mountains. In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging
Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually
been filled with sediment borne by the Indus and its tributaries and the Ganges
and its tributaries, now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
3
This river is the longest in India. During the early Vedic Age of the Rigveda,
the Indus and the Sarasvati River were the major sacred rivers, not the Ganges.
But the later three Vedas give much more importance to the Ganges. The
Gangetic Plain became the centre of successive powerful states, from the
Maurya Empire to the Mughal Empire.
In 1951 a water sharing dispute arose between India and Bangladesh (then
East Pakistan), after India declared its intention to build the Farakka Barrage.
The original purpose of the barrage, which was completed in 1975, was to
divert up to 40,000 cu ft/s (1,100 m3/s) of water from the Ganges to the
Bhagirathi-Hooghly distributary in order to restore navigability at the Port of
Kolkata. It was assumed that during the worst dry season the Ganges flow
would be around 50,000 to 55,000 cu ft/s (1,400 to 1,600 m3/s), thus leaving
10,000 to 15,000 cu ft/s (280 to 420 m3/s) for East Pakistan. East Pakistan
objected and a protracted dispute ensued. In 1996 a 30-year treaty was signed.
The terms of the agreement are complicated, but in essence they state that if
the Ganges flow at Farakka was less than 70,000 cu ft/s (2,000 m3/s) then
India and Bangladesh would each receive 50% of the water, with each
receiving at least 35,000 cu ft/s (990 m3/s) for alternating ten day periods.
However, within a year the flow at Farakka fell to levels far below the historic
average, making it impossible to implement the guaranteed sharing of water.
In March 1997, flow of the Ganges in Bangladesh dropped to its lowest ever,
6,500 cu ft/s (180 m3/s). Dry season flows returned to normal levels in the
years following, but efforts were made to address the problem. One plan is for
another barrage to be built in Bangladesh at Pangsha, west of Dhaka. This
barrage would help Bangladesh better utilize its share of the waters of the
Ganga. The following table 1.1 shows the history of Ganga, Ganga river
passes from Two Countries Bangladesh and India and this table also shows the
tributary rivers of Ganga.
4
Table 1.1 Introduction of Ganga Basin
Countries India, Bangladesh
States Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal
Tributaries
Left Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandaki, Burhi Gandak, Koshi,
Mahananda
Right Yamuna, Tamsa, Son, Punpun
Cities Haridwar, Kanpur, Jajmau, Allahabad, Varanasi, Mirzapur,
Ghazipur, Patna, Rishikesh, Munger, Bhagalpur, Baharampur,
Kolkata
Source Gangotri Glacier, Satopanth Glacier, Khatling Glacier, and
waters from melted snow from such peaks as Nanda Devi,
Trisul, Kedarnath, Nanda Kot, and Kamet.
Location Uttarakhand, India
elevation 3,892 m (12,769 ft)
coordinates 30°59′N 78°55′E
Mouth Ganges Delta
- location Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh & India
- elevation 0 m (0 ft)
coordinates 22°05′N 90°50′E
Length 2,525 km (1,569 mi)
Basin 1,080,000 km2 (416,990 sq mi)
5
1.1.2 Fertilization of Ganga River
The Ganges alone drains an area of over a million square km with a population
of over 407 million. Millions depend on water from the holy river for several
things: drinking, bathing, agriculture, industry and other household chores (J.
Pandey et. al., 2010).
After flowing 250 kilometres (160 mi) through its narrow Himalayan valley,
the Ganges emerges from the mountains at Rishikesh, then debouches onto the
Gangetic Plain at the pilgrimage town of Haridwar. At Haridwar, a dam
diverts some of its waters into the Ganges Canal, which irrigates the Doab
region of Uttar Pradesh, whereas the river, whose course has been roughly
southwest until this point, now begins to flow southeast through the plains of
northern India.
The Ganges Basin with its fertile soil is instrumental to the agricultural
economies of India and Bangladesh. The Ganges and its tributaries provide a
perennial source of irrigation to a large area (Richa Pandey et. al., 2010).
Chief crops cultivated in the area include rice, sugarcane, lentils, oil seeds,
potatoes, and wheat. Along the banks of the river, the presence of swamps and
lakes provide a rich growing area for crops such as legumes, chillies, mustard,
sesame, sugarcane, and jute. There are also many fishing opportunities to
many along the river, though it remains highly polluted. Kanpur, largest
leather producing city in the world is situated on the bank of this river ( K. R.
Beg et al, 2008).
6
The basin covers parts of four countries, India, Nepal, China, and Bangladesh,
eleven Indian states, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, West
Bengal, and the Union Territory of Delhi (A.A. Ansari et. al., 2000). The
Ganges basin, including the delta but not the Brahmaputra or Meghna basins,
is about 1,080,000 km2 (420,000 sq mi), of which 861,000 km2
(332,000 sq mi) are in India (about 80%), 140,000 km2 (54,000 sq mi) in
Nepal (13%), 46,000 km2 (18,000 sq mi) in Bangladesh (4%), and 33,000 km2
(13,000 sq mi) in China (3%). Sometimes the Ganges and Brahmaputra–
Meghna drainage basins are combined for a total of about 1,600,000 km2
(620,000 sq mi), or 1,621,000 km2 (626,000 sq mi). The combined Ganges-
Brahmaputra-Meghna basin (abbreviated GBM or GMB) drainage basin is
spread across Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and China.
The Ganges basin ranges from the Himalaya and the Trans Himalaya in the
north, to the northern slopes of the Vindhya range in the south, from the
eastern slopes of the Aravalli in the west to the Chota Nagpur plateau and the
Sunderbans delta in the east. A significant portion of the discharge from the
Ganges comes from the Himalayan mountain system. Within the Himalaya,
the Ganges basin spreads almost 1,200 km from the Yamuna-Satluj divide
along the Simla ridge forming the boundary with the Indus basin in the west to
the Singalila Ridge along the Nepal-Sikkim border forming the boundary with
the Brahmaputra basin in the east. This section of the Himalaya contains 9 of
the 14 highest peaks in the world over 8,000m in height, including Mount
Everest which is the high point of the Ganges basin.
7
42,470 m3/s (1,500,000 cu ft/s). In other cases the average annual discharges
of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna are given separately, at about
16,650 m3/s (588,000 cu ft/s) for the Ganges, about 19,820 m3/s
(700,000 cu ft/s) for the Brahmaputra, and about 5,100 m3/s (180,000 cu ft/s)
for the Meghna.
The natural forest of the upper Gangetic Plain has been so thoroughly
eliminated it is difficult to assign a natural vegetation type with certainty.
There are a few small patches of forest left, and they suggest that much of the
upper plains may have supported a tropical moist deciduous forest with sal
(Shorea robusta) as a climax species ( A.A. Ansari 2000).
The Ganges River itself supports the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris)
and the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus). The river's most famed fauna is the
freshwater dolphin Platanista gangetica gangetica, the Ganges River dolphin,
recently declared India's national aquatic animal.
In the Ganges Delta many large rivers come together, both merging and
bifurcating in a complicated network of channels. The two largest rivers, the
8
Ganges and Brahmaputra, both split into distributary channels, the largest of
which merge with other large rivers before themselves joining. This current
channel pattern was not always the case. Over time the rivers in Ganges Delta
have changed course, sometimes altering the network of channels in
significant ways.Tourism is another related activity.
The Ganges begins at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers.
The Bhagirathi is considered to be the true source in Hindu culture and
mythology, although the Alaknanda is longer. The headwaters of the
9
Alakananda are formed by snowmelt from such peaks as Nanda Devi, Trisul,
and Kamet. The Bhagirathi rises at the foot of Gangotri Glacier, at Gaumukh,
at an elevation of 3,892 m (12,769 ft). The Ganges follows an 800-kilometre
(500 mi) arching course passing through the cities of Kannauj, Farukhabad,
and Kanpur. Along the way it is joined by the Ramganga, which contributes
an average annual flow of about 500 m3/s (18,000 cu ft/s). The Ganges joins
the Yamuna at the Triveni Sangam at Allahabad, a holy confluence in
Hinduism. At their confluence the Yamuna is larger than the Ganges,
contributing about 2,950 m3/s (104,000 cu ft/s), or about 58.5% of the
combined flow (A.R. Khwaja et. al., 2001).
10
In Bangladesh, the main branch of the Ganges is known as Padma River
till it is joined by the Yamuna River the largest distributaries of the
Brahmaputra.
In downstream, the Ganges is fed by the Meghna River, the second largest
distributaries of the Brahmaputra and takes on its name.
Although many small streams comprise the headwaters of the Ganges, the six
longest and their five confluences are considered sacred. The six headstreams
are the Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, Nandakini, Pindar, Mandakini, and
Bhagirathi rivers. The five confluences, known as the Panch Prayag, are all
along the Alaknanda. They are, in downstream order, Vishnuprayag, where the
Dhauliganga joins the Alaknanda; Nandprayag, where the Nandakini joins;
Karnaprayag, where the Pindar joins, Rudraprayag, where the Mandakini
joins; and finally, Devprayag, where the Bhagirathi joins the Alaknanda to
form the Ganges River proper (V. Tare et. al., 2003).
Fanning out into the 350 km wide Ganges Delta, it empties out into the Bay of
Bengal. The delta of the Ganga, or rather, that of the Hooghly and the Padma,
is a vast ragged swamp forest (42,000 sq km) called the Sundarbans world’s
largest Ganga delta.
11
After the 16th century the Padma grew to become the main channel of the
Ganges. It is thought that the Bhagirathi-Hooghly became increasingly choked
with silt, causing the main flow of the Ganges to shift to the southeast and the
Padma River. By the end of the 18th century the Padma had become the main
distributary of the Ganges. One result of this shift to the Padma was that the
Ganges joined the Meghna and Brahmaputra rivers before emptying into the
Bay of Bengal, together instead of separately. The present confluence of the
Ganges and Meghna formed about 150 years ago.
12
Ganges shark (Glyphis gangeticus) is also found in the river and other places
in south Asia. Many types of birds are found throughout the basin, such as
myna, parrots, crows, kites, partridges, and fowls. Ducks and snipes migrate
across the Himalayas during the winter, attracted in large numbers to wetland
areas. There are no endemic birds in the upper Gangetic Plain. The Great
Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) and Lesser Florican (Sypheotides indicus)
are considered globally threatened.
The lower plains contain more open forests, which tend to be dominated by
Bombax ceiba in association with Albizzia procera, Duabanga grandiflora,
and Sterculia vilosa (Okonkwo et. al., 2011). There are early seral forest
communities that would eventually become dominated by the climax species
sal (Shorea robusta), if forest succession was allowed to proceed. In most
places forests fail to reach climax conditions due to human causes. The forests
of the lower Gangetic Plain, despite thousands of years of human settlement,
remained largely intact until the early 20th century. Today only about 3% of
the ecoregion is under natural forest and only one large block, south of
Varanasi, remains. There are over forty protected areas in the ecoregion, but
over half of these are less than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi). The fauna of
the lower Gangetic Plain is similar to the upper plains, with the addition of a
number of other species such as the Smooth-coated Otter (Lutrogale
perspicillata) and the Large Indian Civet (Viverra zibetha).
13
1.2 HEAVY METALS
The term heavy metals refer to metals and metalloids having densities greater
than 5 g/cm3, Heavy metal is a member of a loosely defined subset of elements
that exhibit metallic properties. It mainly includes the transition metals, some
metalloids, lanthanides, and actinides or the elements with a specific gravity
that is at least 5 times the specific gravity of water. The specific gravity of
water is 1 at 4°C (R.S. Boyd et. al., 2000).
14
Walker et. al., 2000). On the contrary, cadmium (Cd) is not involved in any
known biological processes (non essential metal) and may be quite toxic as it
is accumulated by organisms. It is known to disturb enzyme activities, to
inhibit the DNA-mediated transformation in microorganisms, to interfere in
the symbiosis between microbes and plants, as well as to increase plant
predisposition to fungal invasion (Bourne et. al., 2000). In humans, it may
promote several disorders in the metabolism of Ca and vitamin D leading to
bone degeneration and kidney damage (itai-itai disease) (Adriano, 2001).
The excessive uptake of heavy metals by animals and humans is the result of
the successive accumulation of these elements in the food chain, the starting
point being the contamination of the soil. Plants have the best absorbing
capability for extracting heavy metals. In submerged plants capacity of
absorbtion is even extended. The plant having high biomass have lower metal
accumulation and the plant having lower biomass absorb high quality of metal
accumulation (Smilde 1992 dushenkov 1995).
15
enzymes (Nies, 1999). In addition, at high levels, both essential and
nonessential metals can damage cell membranes; alter enzyme specificity;
disrupt cellular functions; and damage the structure of DNA (Bruins et al.,
2000). To have a physiological or toxic effect, most metal ions have to enter
the microbial cell. Many divalent metal cations (e.g. Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+, Ni2+,
Cu2+ and Zn2+) are structurally very similar. Also, the structure of oxy anions
such as chromate resembles that of sulphate, and the same is true for arsenate
and phosphate. Thus, to be able to differentiate between structurally very
similar metal ions, the microbial uptake systems have to be tightly regulated
(Moffett 2003).
Effect of Zinc
Zinc is a heavy metal found in drinking water as well as food it is a
micronutrient which required human and plant in small amount. It is necessary
for human being but excessive concentration of Zinc Causes many problems
for Human being.
16
and pre-term delivery (Kayser et. al., 2000). Zinc is vital in activating growth -
height, weight and bone development - in infants, children and teenagers.
17
zinc has been reported to have a positive effect on psoriasis and neuro dermitis
(Delorme et. al., 2001).
Zinc is also used as an anti-inflammatory agent and can help smooth the skin
tissue, particularly in cases of poison, sunburn, blisters and certain gum
diseases (Kayse et. al., 2000). Zinc is important for healthy hair. Insufficient
zinc levels may result in loss of hair, hair that looks thin and dull and that goes
grey early. There are also a number of shampoos which contain zinc to help
prevent dandruff.
18
is also concern that taking large amounts of a multivitamin plus a separate zinc
supplement increases the chance of dying from prostate cancer. Taking 450
mg or more of zinc daily can cause problems with blood iron. Single doses of
10-30 grams of zinc can be fatal.
Effect of Cadmium
Cadmium (Cd), a by-product of zinc production, is one of the most toxic
elements to which man can be exposed at work or in the environment. Once
absorbed, Cd is efficiently retained in the human body, in which it
accumulates throughout life (Brown et. al., 1995). Cd is primarily toxic to the
kidney, especially to the proximal tubular cells, the main site of accumulation.
Cd can also cause bone demineralization, either through direct bone damage or
indirectly as a result of renal dysfunction. In the industry, excessive exposures
to airborne Cd may impair lung function and increase the risk of lung cancer
(Hammer et. al., 2003). All these effects have been described in populations
with relatively high exposures to Cd in the industrial or in heavily polluted
environments. Recent studies, however, suggest that the chronic low
environmental exposure to Cd now prevailing in industrialized countries can
adversely affect the kidneys and bones of the general population (Knight et.
al., 1997). These studies show consistent associations between various renal
and bone biomarkers and the urinary excretion of Cd used to assess Cd body
burden (kayser, 2000). The public health impact of these findings are still
unknown. Further research is needed to ascertain that these associations are
truly causal and not secondary to parallel changes in Cd metabolism and in the
bone or kidney function occurring because of ageing or diseases unrelated to
Cd exposure (Smile et. al., 1992).
Effects of Copper
Copper is a trace element present in all tissues and is required for cellular
respiration, peptide amidation, neurotransmitter biosynthesis, pigment
19
formation, and connective tissue strength. Copper is a cofactor for numerous
enzymes and plays an important role in central nervous system development;
low concentrations of copper may result in incomplete development (Kayser et
al., 2000), whereas excess copper maybe injurious. Copper may be involved in
free radical production, via the Haber-Weiss reaction, that results in
mitochondrial damage, DNA breakage, and neuronal injury. Evidence of
abnormal copper transport and aberrant copper-protein interactions in
numerous human neurological disorders supports the critical importance of
this trace metal for proper neurodevelopment and neurological function
(Padmapriya et. al., 2012). The biochemical phenotypes of human disorders
that involve copper homeostasis suggest possible biomarkers of copper status
that may be applicable to general populations (Sauve et. al., 1999). An
increased concentration of copper in cerebrospinal fluid with normal plasma
copper concentrations has been noted in some patients with Alzheimer disease
neuronal damage leads to loss of muscle strength and respiratory problems,
with an eventual fatal outcome (Cavet et. al., 2003).
Effect of Lead
Lead poisoning (also known as plumbism, colica Pictonum, saturnism) is a
medical condition in humans and other vertebrates caused by increased levels
of the heavy metal lead in the body (Padmapriya 2012). Lead interferes with a
variety of body processes and is toxic to many organs and tissues including the
heart, bones, intestines, kidneys, and reproductive and nervous systems. It
interferes with the development of the nervous system and is therefore
particularly toxic to children, causing potentially permanent learning and
behaviour disorders (Voijant et. al., 2011). Symptoms include abdominal pain,
confusion, headache, anaemia, irritability, and in severe cases seizures, coma,
and death (Sauve et. al., 1999).
20
1.2.3 Origin of Heavy Metals into Water
Mineral rock weathering and anthropogenic sources provide two of the main
types of metal inputs to soils. the anthropogenic sources of metal
contamination can be divided to five main groups:
1. Metalliferous mining and smelting (arsenic,cadmium, lead and
mercury).
2. Industry (arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cobolt, copper,mercury, nickel,
zinc) (Singh et. al., 2003).
3. Atmospheric deposition (arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead,
mercury, uranium) (Pandey et. al., 2009).
4. Agriculture (arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, selenium, uranium, zinc)
(Lombi et. al., 2000).
5. Waste disposal (arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury,
zinc).
1.3.1 Bioremediation
Bioremediation is the use of micro-organism metabolism to remove pollutants.
Technologies can be generally classified as in-situ or ex-situ. In situ
bioremediation involves treating the contaminated material at the site, while ex
situ involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere
(Espinoza1995). Some examples of bioremediation related technologies are
21
phytoremediation, bioventing, bioleaching, landfarming, bioreactor,
composting, bioaugmentation, rhizofiltration, and biostimulation (Melvani et.
al. 2006).
Bioremediation can occur on its own (natural attenuation or intrinsic
bioremediation) (Dojka et. al., 1998) or can be spurred on via the addition of
fertilizers to increase the bioavailability within the medium (biostimulation).
Recent advancements have also proven successful via the addition of matched
microbe strains to the medium to enhance the resident microbe population's
ability to break down contaminants (Kunito et. al., 1998, Shubhashish et. al.,
2010). Microorganisms used to perform the function of bioremediation are
known as bioremediators.
22
Phytostimulation Plants secrete roots exudates that may be utilised by
bacteria and promote their growth and activity. This microbial stimulation
in the plant rhizosphere modifies the bioaccumulation, biological
oxidation/reduction and biomethylation of heavy metals.
1.3.3 Phytoextraction
The success of the phytoextraction process depends on three factors: the
degree of metal contamination, the metal bioavailability and the capacity of
the higher plants to accumulate the metal in the shoots (Glass et. al., 2000,
Pandey et. al., 2009). Soils with a high degree of metal pollution can be
revegetated by metal resistant plants, but their decontamination capacity is
restricted by their low biomass production so that decontamination of the soil
23
cannot be achieved in a reasonable time (Garbisu et. al., 2001). However, the
revegetation of these soils avoids further dispersal of metals by water or wind
erosion (phytostabilisation) (Kousar et. al., 2009). To overcome the limitations
due to plant characteristics, different strategies have been suggested to
improve the phytoextraction process. (Brown et. al., 1995) proposed to
transfer the metal-removal properties of hyper accumulator plants to high-
biomass producing species (Kupper et. al., 1996).
24
5. Stimulation of the microbial activity in the rhizosphere.
1.4.2 Eichornea
Water hyacinth is more suitable for the extraction of heavy metal into water.
EDTA (Kari et. al., 1996) is a chelating agent which increase the rate of
reaction of absorption of heavy metals from the plant
25
1.4.3 Lotus
Lotus is a flower and always used for the decoration but because of its bushy
characters also helps in absorption. It shows a great efficiency of absorption
of Pb material from the water.
Analyze available data and experimental data to find the present status of
river.
26