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Fault calculation Fault perhitungan

by JHNaylor oleh JHNaylor
Chapter 3 Bab 3
3.1 Introduction 3,1 Pendahuluan
3.1.I Purpose of fault calculation Tujuan 3.1.I kesalahan perhitungan
Fault calculation is the analysis of power system electrical behaviour under fault
perhitungan Fault adalah analisis sistem tenaga listrik di bawah salah perilaku
conditions, with particular reference to the effects of these conditions on the power
kondisi, dengan rujukan khusus pada dampak dari kondisi daya
system current and voltage values. sistem nilai arus dan tegangan. Together with other
aspects of system analysis, Bersama dengan aspek lain dari analisis sistem,
fault calculation forms an indispensable part of the whole function and process of
kesalahan perhitungan merupakan bagian tak terpisahkan dari keseluruhan fungsi dan
proses
power system design. daya sistem desain. Correct design depends essentially on a full
knowledge and desain yang benar pada dasarnya tergantung pada pengetahuan yang
penuh dan
understanding of system behaviour and on the ability to predict this behaviour for
memahami perilaku sistem dan pada kemampuan untuk memprediksi perilaku ini
untuk
the complete range of possible system conditions. kisaran lengkap kondisi sistem
mungkin. Accurate and comprehensive Akurat dan komprehensif
analysis, and the means and methods of achieving it, are therefore of essential
analisis, dan sarana dan metode untuk mencapainya, adalah karena itu penting
importance in obtaining satisfactory power system performance and in ensuring the
penting dalam mendapatkan kinerja daya sistem yang memuaskan dan dalam
memastikan
continued improvement in performance which results from the development and
lanjutan perbaikan kinerja yang hasil dari pengembangan dan
application of new methods and techniques. penerapan metode baru dan teknik.
The applications of power system analysis cover the full range of possible system
Penerapan sistem analisis daya mencakup berbagai sistem mungkin
conditions, these being divisible into two main classes, namely conditions in which
kondisi, ini yang dibagi menjadi dua kelas utama, yaitu kondisi di mana
the power system is operating in a normal healthy state, and others in which it is
sistem tenaga beroperasi dalam keadaan normal dan sehat, dan lain-lain di mana ia
subjected to one or more of a wide variety of possible fault conditions. dikenakan
untuk satu atau lebih dari berbagai macam kondisi kesalahan mungkin. The analysis
Analisis
of these conditions and their effects on the power system is of particular relevance
kondisi ini dan efeknya pada sistem daya adalah relevansi khusus
R) such considerations as: R) pertimbangan seperti:
(a) the choice of a suitable power system arrangement, with particular reference (A)
pilihan dari pengaturan sistem kekuasaan yang cocok, dengan referensi khusus
to the configuration of the transmission or distribution network untuk konfigurasi
jaringan transmisi atau distribusi
(b) the determination of the required load and short-circuit ratings of the power (B)
penentuan beban-sirkuit yang dibutuhkan dan peringkat singkat kekuasaan
system plant sistem tanaman
(c) the determination of the breaking capacity required of the power system (C)
penentuan kapasitas melanggar dibutuhkan dari sistem tenaga
switchgear and fusegear switchgear dan fusegear
(d) the design and application of equipment for the control and protection of the (D)
dan aplikasi desain peralatan untuk kontrol dan perlindungan
power system daya sistem
(e) the operation of the system, with particular reference to security of supply (E)
sistem operasi, dengan referensi khusus terhadap keamanan pasokan
and economic considerations dan pertimbangan ekonomi
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(f) the investigation of unsatisfactory performance of the power system or of (F) tidak
memuaskan investigasi kinerja sistem kekuasaan atau
individual items of power system plant. item individual sistem pembangkit listrik.
The present chapter is concerned principally with the analysis of system fault Bab ini
berkaitan terutama dengan analisis sistem sesar
conditions, these conditions being of direct and particular relevance to the design
kondisi, kondisi kesejahteraan dan khusus relevansi langsung untuk merancang
and application of power system protection. dan penerapan sistem proteksi tenaga.
The methods of analysis employed, Metode analisis yang digunakan,
however, are essentially applications of general analysis and, as such have equal
Namun, pada dasarnya aplikasi dari analisis umum dan, karena itu telah sama
application to a wide range of other problems whose solution is dependent on aplikasi
untuk berbagai solusi masalah-masalah lain yang tergantung pada
electrical network analysis. Analisis jaringan listrik.
3.1.2 Types of fault 3.1.2 Jenis-jenis kesalahan
In the context of electrical fault calculation, a power system fault may be defined
Dalam konteks perhitungan arus listrik, kesalahan sistem tenaga listrik dapat
didefinisikan
as any condition or abnormality of the system which involves the electrical failure
sebagai keadaan atau kelainan sistem yang melibatkan kegagalan listrik
of primary equipment, the reference to primary (as opposed to ancillary) equip-
peralatan utama, referensi untuk primer (sebagai lawan tambahan) peralatan
ment implying equipment such as generators, transformers, busbars, overhead lines an
menyiratkan peralatan seperti generator, transformator, busbars, saluran udara
and cables and all other items of plant which operate at power system voltage. dan
kabel dan semua item lainnya dari pabrik yang beroperasi pada sistem listrik
tegangan.
Electrical failure generally implies one or the other (or both) of two types of
Kegagalan Listrik umumnya menyiratkan satu atau yang lain (atau keduanya) dari dua
jenis
failure, namely insulation failure resulting in a short-circuit condition or conducting-
kegagalan, yaitu kegagalan isolasi menghasilkan kondisi sirkuit pendek atau
melakukan-
path failure resulting in an open-circuit condition, the former being by far the more
jalan yang mengakibatkan kegagalan dalam kondisi sirkuit-terbuka, yang pertama
yang jauh lebih
common type of failure. umum jenis kegagalan.
The principal types of fault are listed and classified in Table 3.1.2A, and are Jenis
utama dari kesalahan yang terdaftar dan diklasifikasikan dalam Tabel 3.1.2A, dan
discussed in greater detail below. dibahas secara lebih rinci di bawah ini.
Table 3.1.2A Types of fault Tabel 3.1.2A Jenis kesalahan
Short-circuited Hubung pendek
phases fase
Three-phase fault clear of earth Tiga-fase kesalahan yang jelas bumi
Three-phase-to-earth fault Tiga fase-ke-bumi kesalahan
Phase-to-phase fault Tahap-ke-fase kesalahan
Single-phase-to-earth fault Single-fase-ke-bumi kesalahan
Two-phase-to-earth fault Dua-fasa-ke-bumi kesalahan
Phase-to-phase plus single-phase-to-earth fault Tahap-ke-satu fasa-fasa-ke-bumi
ditambah kesalahan
Open-circuited Buka-hubung
phases fase
Single-phase open-circuit Satu-fasa terbuka sirkuit
Two-phase open-circuit Dua-fasa terbuka sirkuit
Three.phase open-circuit Three.phase sirkuit terbuka
Simultaneous Serentak
faults kesalahan
A combination of two or more faults at the same time, the faults Kombinasi dari dua
atau lebih kesalahan pada saat yang sama, kesalahan
being of similar or dissimilar type and occurring at the same or keberadaan atau
sejenis berbeda dan terjadi pada saat yang sama atau
different locations. lokasi yang berbeda. Typical examples are the cross-country earth-
Contoh-contoh umum adalah cross-negara bumi
fault and the open-circuit-with-earth-fault condition kesalahan dan sirkuit-terbuka-
dengan-bumi-kondisi kesalahan
Winding faults Berliku kesalahan
Winding-to-earth short-circuit Berliku-ke-bumi-sirkuit pendek
Winding.to-winding short-circuit Winding.to berliku-sirkuit pendek
Short-circuited turns Hubung pendek ternyata
Open-circuited winding Buka-hubung berliku
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Short-circuited phases: Hubung singkat-fase:
Faults of this type are caused by insulation failure Kesalahan jenis ini disebabkan oleh
kegagalan isolasi
between phase conductors or between phase conductors and earth, or both, the antara
konduktor fasa atau antara konduktor fasa dan bumi, atau keduanya,
result being the short-circuiting of one or more phases to earth or to one another, Hasil
menjadi hubungan arus-pendek dari satu atau lebih fase ke bumi atau satu sama lain,
or both. atau keduanya. The full range of possible fault conditions of this type is
illustrated in Kisaran penuh kondisi kesalahan yang mungkin dari tipe ini
digambarkan dalam
Fig. Gambar. 3.1.2A. 3.1.2A. The three-phase fault, which may be to earth or clear of
earth, is the The-fase tiga kesalahan, yang mungkin ke bumi atau bumi yang jelas,
adalah
only balanced or symmetrical short-circuit condition, the presence or absence of
hanya seimbang atau simetris-kondisi sirkit pendek, ada atau tidak adanya
the earth connection being normally of little or no significance unless the fault
sambungan bumi adalah normal dari sedikit atau tidak ada arti kecuali kesalahan
occurs simultaneously with a second unbalanced fault involving earth. terjadi secara
bersamaan dengan kesalahan kedua yang melibatkan bumi tidak seimbang. The three-
Ketiga-
phase short-circuit is commonly used as a standard fault condition as, for example,
fase sirkuit pendek biasanya digunakan sebagai suatu kondisi kesalahan standar,
misalnya,
in the determination of system fault-levels, these levels being normally quoted as
dalam penentuan tingkat-kesalahan sistem, tingkat ini adalah normal dikutip sebagai
three-phase short-circuit values. tiga fase-sirkuit pendek nilai.
Three-phase clear 1" earth Tiga-tahap yang jelas 1 "bumi
"l'hree-phase-tt-earth "L'hree-fase-tt-bumi
------
tt
I Aku
i aku
Phase-to-phase Tahap-ke-fase
Single+phase-to-earth Single-+ fase ke-bumi
ii ii
Tw, o-phase-to-earth Tw, o-fase-ke-bumi
Phase-to-phase plus Tahap-ke-fase plus
single-phase-to-earth satu-fase-ke-bumi
44
........
I Aku
--
--- ---
i aku
Fig. Gambar.
3.1.2A 3.1.2A
Shorpcircuited-phase faults Shorpcircuited-fase kesalahan
Open-circuited phases: Buka-hubung fase:
This type of fault, illustrated in Fig. Jenis kesalahan, diilustrasikan pada Gambar.
3.1.2B, is the failure 3.1.2B, adalah kegagalan
of one or more phases to conduct. dari satu atau lebih tahap untuk melakukan. The
more common causes of this type of fault Semakin umum penyebab jenis kesalahan
are joint failures on overhead lines and cables, and the failure of one or more adalah
kegagalan bersama pada saluran udara dan kabel, dan kegagalan dari satu atau lebih
phases of a circuit-breaker or isolator to open or close. fase sebuah pemutus-rangkaian
atau isolator untuk membuka atau menutup. The single-phase and two- Fase-tunggal
dan dua-
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phase conditions are of particular interest because they both tend to produce un-
kondisi fase yang menarik khususnya karena keduanya cenderung menghasilkan un-
balance of the power system currents and voltages with consequent risk of damage
keseimbangan sistem arus listrik dan tegangan dengan risiko akibat kerusakan
to rotating plant. untuk memutar tanaman.
Simultaneous faults: A Simultan kesalahan: A
simultaneous fault condition, sometimes termed a kondisi kesalahan simultan,
kadang-kadang disebut sebuah
multiple fault condition, is defined as the simultaneous presence of two or more
beberapa kondisi kesalahan, yang didefinisikan sebagai kehadiran simultan dari dua
atau lebih
faults of similar or dissimilar types at the same or different points on the power
kesalahan atau berbeda jenis yang sama di titik yang sama atau berbeda daya
system. sistem. Such conditions may result from a common cause, from different but
Kondisi tersebut dapat hasil dari penyebab umum, dari berbeda tetapi
consequential causes or, extremely rarely, from quite separate and independent
menyebabkan konsekuensial atau, sangat jarang, dari cukup terpisah dan independen
causes. penyebab. The commonest simultaneous fault condition is undoubtedly the
double- Kesalahan paling umum adalah kondisi simultan diragukan lagi dua kali
circuit overhead-line fault in which a common cause (for example lightning or sirkuit
overhead-line kesalahan di mana penyebab umum (misalnya petir atau
accidental contact) results in a fault on each of the two circuits concerned. kebetulan
kontak) menghasilkan kesalahan di masing-masing dari dua sirkuit yang
bersangkutan. These Ini
Single-phase Fase tunggal
()pen-circuit () Pena-sirkuit
,pcn-circui! , PCN-circui!
Three-phast. Tiga-phast.
tlt.n-circuil tlt.n-circuil
Fig. Gambar. 3.1.2B 3.1.2B
Open-circuited-phase faults Buka-hubung-fase kesalahan
two faults, although possibly geographically coincident, will be electrically separate
dua kesalahan, meskipun mungkin secara geografis bertepatan, akan elektrik terpisah
to an extent determined by the point of fault and the particular power system sampai
batas yang ditentukan oleh titik kesalahan dan sistem kekuasaan tertentu
configuration. konfigurasi. A simultaneous fault condition of particular interest is that
Sebuah kondisi kesalahan simultan kepentingan tertentu adalah
known as the cross-country earth-fault, in which a single-phase-to-earth fault at
dikenal sebagai negara-bumi-kesalahan silang, di mana-fase-ke-bumi kesalahan
tunggal pada
one point in the power system occurs coincidentally with a second single-phase-to-
satu titik dalam sistem kekuasaan terjadi secara kebetulan dengan single kedua fase-
ke-
earth fault on another phase and at some other point in the system. bumi kesalahan
pada tahap yang lain dan pada beberapa titik lain di dalam sistem. This condition
Kondisi ini
is most commonly experienced on impedance-earthed systems where the second ini
paling sering dialami pada sistem dibumikan-impedansi dimana kedua
earth-fault may be initiated by the increased healthy-phase voltage resulting from
bumi-kesalahan yang dapat diawali oleh fase tegangan yang sehat meningkat akibat
the neutral displacement produced by the first. perpindahan netral yang dihasilkan
oleh yang pertama. As already stated, a simultaneous Seperti telah dinyatakan, sebuah
simultan
fault condition may consist of two different types of fault at the same point, and
kondisi kesalahan dapat terdiri dari dua jenis kesalahan pada titik yang sama, dan
one example of this is the open-circuit-with-earth-fault condition in which two salah
satu contoh dari ini adalah rangkaian-terbuka-dengan tanah-kesalahan-kondisi di
mana dua
faults, namely a kesalahan, yaitu
single-phase fase tunggal
open-circuit and a single-phase-to earth fault, occur rangkaian-terbuka dan satu-fase-
untuk kesalahan bumi, terjadi
coincidentally on the same phase and at the same point in the power system.
kebetulan pada tahap yang sama dan pada titik yang sama dalam sistem kekuasaan.
Such Seperti itu
a condition can occur on an overhead line for example, due to a phase conductor
Kondisi ini dapat terjadi pada saluran udara misalnya, karena konduktor fasa
breaking at a point near to a tower, the conductor on the tower side of the break
melanggar pada titik dekat sebuah menara, konduktor di sisi menara break
being held by the suspension insulator and that on the other side falling to ground.
ditahan oleh isolator suspensi dan bahwa di sisi lain jatuh ke tanah.
The fault conditions described are divisible into two distinct classes, namely kondisi
gangguan yang dijelaskan terbagi menjadi dua kelas yang berbeda, yaitu
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balanced or symmetrical fault conditions and unbalanced or unsymmetrical fault
seimbang atau kondisi gangguan simetris dan tidak seimbang atau simetris kesalahan
conditions, the former class comprising all conditions which are symmetrical with
kondisi, mantan kelas yang terdiri dari semua kondisi yang simetris dengan
respect to the three phases and the latter class the remainder. hormat kepada tiga fase
dan kelas kedua sisanya. Of the faults listed. Dari kesalahan yang terdaftar.
only the three-phase short circuit (to earth or clear of earth) and the three-phase hanya
sirkuit-pendek fase tiga (ke bumi atau menghapus bumi) dan tiga fasa
open-circuit are balanced fault conditions, the normal balanced three-phase load
sirkuit terbuka kondisi kesalahan seimbang, fase beban seimbang tiga-normal
condition being a further example of the balanced or symmetrical condition. kondisi
menjadi contoh lebih lanjut dari kondisi seimbang atau simetris.
Winding faults: The Berliku kesalahan: The
types of fault which can occur on machine and transformer jenis kesalahan yang dapat
terjadi pada mesin dan transformator
windings are illustrated in Fig. gulungan diilustrasikan pada Gambar. 3.1.2C and
consist mainly of short-circuits, from one 3.1.2C dan terutama terdiri dari pendek-
sirkuit, dari satu
phase winding to earth, from one phase winding to another or from one point to fase
berliku-liku ke bumi, dari satu tahap berliku-liku ke lain atau dari satu titik ke titik
another on the same phase winding. lain pada tahap yang sama berliku. The last
mentioned condition is known as a Kondisi yang disebutkan terakhir dikenal sebagai
short-circuited turns fault, and is of particular interest from the protection stand-
hubung singkat-kesalahan berubah, dan kepentingan tertentu dari perlindungan stand-
point in that the fault current in the short-circuited turns may be very large and titik
dalam kesalahan saat di-hubung singkat dapat berubah sangat besar dan
that in the remainder of the winding very small. bahwa dalam sisa gulungan sangat
kecil. The open-circuited winding condi- Open-hubung berliku Condi-
tion is quite rare in practice and is usually the result of damage to the winding as a SI
cukup langka dalam praktek dan biasanya merupakan akibat dari kerusakan gulungan
sebagai
consequence of a preceding winding short-circuit at or near the point of fault.
konsekuensi dari berliku-sirkuit pendek sebelumnya pada atau dekat titik kesalahan.
Open Buka
circuits in transformers may also occur as a result of failure of the tap-change equip-
sirkuit transformator juga dapat terjadi sebagai akibat dari kegagalan dari perubahan-
tap peralatan
ment. an.
Phase-to-earth fault Tahap-ke-bumi kesalahan
Phase-to-phase fault Tahap-ke-fase kesalahan
__ __
t'Y'V'V'g'v"r t'Y'V'V'g'v "r
..
..
..
..
¢'V"WY% 'V ¢ WY% "
_. _.
Short-circuited turns Hubung pendek ternyata
Open-circuited winding Buka-hubung berliku
Fig, 3.1.2C Gambar, 3.1.2C
Winding faults Berliku kesalahan
Changing-fault conditions: The Mengubah-kesalahan kondisi: The
types of fault which have been referred to can all jenis kesalahan yang telah disebut
dapat semua
be regarded as fixed fault conditions, in that the type of fault remains unchanged
dianggap sebagai kondisi kesalahan tetap, dalam jenis kesalahan tetap tidak berubah
for the duration of the fault. selama kesalahan. The great majority of fault conditions
are of this type Sebagian besar kondisi kesalahan adalah dari jenis ini
but there are bthers, known as changing-fault conditions, in which the type of fault
tetapi ada bthers, dikenal sebagai salah-kondisi yang berubah, di mana jenis kesalahan
changes during the course of the fault. perubahan sepanjang kesalahan. Such
changing-fault conditions can result Tersebut berubah-kesalahan kondisi dapat
mengakibatkan
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from a number of causes, the most common being the spreading of a fault arc, or dari
beberapa penyebab, yang paling umum adalah penyebaran dari busur kesalahan, atau
of the ionised gases from a fault arc, to other phases and even to other circuits. gas
terionisasi dari busur kesalahan, dengan tahapan lain dan bahkan untuk sirkuit
lainnya. A A
typical example is a single-phase-to-earth fault which develops into a two-phase-to-
contoh khas adalah fase-ke-bumi kesalahan tunggal yang berkembang menjadi dua-
fase-ke-
earth fault and possibly, later, into a three-phase fault. bumi dan kemungkinan
kesalahan, kemudian, menjadi tiga fase kesalahan. The analysis of a changing
Analisis suatu perubahan
fault condition presents no particular difficulty, since the condition can be menyajikan
kondisi kesalahan ada kesulitan khusus, karena kondisi dapat
considered as a succession of fixed fault conditions, each of which can be analysed
dianggap sebagai suksesi kondisi kesalahan tetap, masing-masing yang dapat
dianalisis
individually. individual.
3.1.3 Factors affecting fault severity 3.1.3 Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi
tingkat keparahan kesalahan
The severity of a power system fault condition may be assessed in terms of the
Tingkat keparahan kesalahan kondisi daya sistem dapat dinilai dari segi
disturbance produced and the fault damage caused, the magnitude of the fault
gangguan diproduksi dan kerusakan yang disebabkan kesalahan, besarnya kesalahan
current and its duration being of particular interest, especially in relation to the saat ini
dan durasi yang menjadi kepentingan tertentu, terutama dalam kaitannya dengan
design and application of power system protection. desain dan penerapan sistem
proteksi tenaga. The factors which affect fault Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi
kesalahan
severity must therefore be given due consideration in all aspects of power system
keparahan karena itu harus dipertimbangkan dalam semua aspek sistem tenaga
analysis in order to ensure results which are truly representative of the conditions
analisis untuk memastikan hasil yang benar-benar mewakili kondisi
which can occur in practice. yang dapat terjadi dalam praktek. The factors which
normally require to be considered Faktor-faktor yang biasanya perlu dipertimbangkan
are: adalah:
(a) Source conditions: These (A kondisi Sumber): ini
relate to the amount and disposition of all connected berhubungan dengan jumlah dan
disposisi semua terhubung
generation (including all other power sources such as interconnections with generasi
(termasuk semua sumber daya lainnya seperti interkoneksi dengan
other systems), the two extremes of minimum and maximum connected plant lain
sistem), dua ekstrim maksimum dan minimum terhubung tanaman
being of particular interest. menjadi kepentingan tertentu. The minimum and
maximum plant conditions are Dan kondisi tanaman maksimum minimum
normally those corresponding to the conditions of minimum and maximum biasanya
yang sesuai dengan kondisi minimum dan maksimum
connected load. beban tersambung.
(b) Power system configuration: (B) Power konfigurasi sistem:
This is determined by the items of plant, namely Hal ini ditentukan oleh item
tanaman, yaitu
generators, transformers, overhead-line and cable circuits etc., assumed to be
Generator, transformator, overhead-line dan kabel dll sirkuit, diasumsikan
in service for the particular condition being investigated and by such other dalam
pelayanan untuk kondisi tertentu yang sedang diselidiki dan lain seperti itu
factors as have a bearing on the topology of the equivalent system network. faktor
seperti memiliki bantalan pada topologi jaringan sistem setara.
The system configuration may change during the course of a fault with conse-
Konfigurasi sistem dapat berubah selama berlangsungnya kesalahan dengan
konsekuensi-
quent changes in the magnitude and distribution of the fault current, typical quent
perubahan besar dan distribusi kesalahan saat ini, khas
causes being the sequential tripping of the circuit.breakers at the two ends of
menyebabkan menjadi tersandung berurutan dari circuit.breakers pada kedua ujung
a faulted transmission line and the sequential clearance of multiple fault garis
transmisi menyalahkan dan clearance berurutan beberapa kesalahan
conditions. kondisi.
(c) Neutral earthing:Faults (C) dibumi Netral: Kesalahan
which involve the flow of earth current (for example, yang melibatkan aliran bumi
saat ini (misalnya,
a singie-phase or two-phase fault to earth, a single-phase or two-phase open sebuah
singie-fase-fase atau kesalahan dua ke bumi, fase-tunggal atau dua-fasa terbuka
circuit, etc.) may be influenced considerably by the system neutral-earthing sirkuit,
dll) sangat mungkin dipengaruhi oleh sistem pentanahan netral-
arrangements, particularly by the number of neutral earthing points and the
pengaturan, terutama oleh jumlah titik pentanahan netral dan
presence or absence of neutral earthing impedances. ada atau tidak adanya impedansi
pentanahan netral. Power systems may be Power sistem mungkin
single-point or multiple-point earthed and such earthing may be direct (that tunggal
atau beberapa titik-titik dibumikan dan pentanahan tersebut dapat langsung (yang
is, solid earthing) or via impedance, typical examples being the direct multiple-
adalah, dibumi padat) atau melalui impedansi, contoh-contoh yang khas langsung
ganda
earthing employed on the British 132 kV, 275 kV and 400 kV systems and dibumi
yang dipekerjakan pada sistem Inggris 132 kV, 275 kV dan 400 kV dan
the single-point and sometimes multiple-point resistance-earthing commonly titik-
tunggal dan kadang-kadang beberapa point-pentanahan umumnya resistensi
employed at 66 kV and below. bekerja pada 66 kV dan di bawah ini. Earthing
impedance can be used to limit the Impedansi pentanahan dapat digunakan untuk
membatasi
earth-fauit current to a very low and even negligibly small value, as in the case bumi-
fauit saat ini untuk yang sangat rendah dan bahkan diabaikan nilai kecil, seperti dalam
kasus
of a system earthed through a Petersen coil or a generator earthed through a suatu
sistem dibumikan melalui kumparan Petersen atau generator dibumikan melalui
Page 7 Page 7
Fault calculation 59 Fault perhitungan 59
voltage transformer. transformator tegangan.
(d) Nature and type of fault: (D) Sifat dan jenis kesalahan:
From what has already been said, it will be evident Dari apa yang telah dikatakan,
maka akan jelas
that the type of fault and its position in the power system may have a con- bahwa jenis
kesalahan dan posisinya dalam sistem kekuasaan mungkin memiliki con-
siderable effect on the magnitude and distribution of the system fault current,
siderable berpengaruh pada besarnya dan distribusi kesalahan sistem saat ini,
this being particularly the case in respect of earth-faults as compared with ini
khususnya menjadi kasus dalam hal bumi-kesalahan dibandingkan dengan
phase faults, open-circuits as compared with short-circuits and faults within fase
kesalahan, terbuka dibandingkan dengan sirkuit-sirkuit pendek dan kesalahan dalam
machine and transformer windings as compared with similar faults at the mesin dan
gulungan transformator dibandingkan dengan kesalahan yang sama di
winding phase-terminals. belitan fase-terminal. Similarly, the effects of a given fault
condition may Demikian pula, efek dari suatu kondisi kesalahan mungkin diberikan
be considerably modified by the simultaneous presence of one or more other akan
sangat dimodifikasi oleh kehadiran simultan dari satu atau lebih lainnya
fault conditions as, for example, in the combination of a short-circuit and an kondisi
sebagai kesalahan, misalnya, dalam kombinasi dari sirkuit-pendek dan
open-circuit phase condition. buka-fase kondisi sirkuit. A further factor which may
require considera- Faktor selanjutnya yang mungkin memerlukan pertimbangan-
tion is the possible effect of fault impedance (for example, fault-arc resistance SI
adalah efek yang mungkin timbul dari impedansi kesalahan (misalnya,-busur
resistensi kesalahan
and the ohmic resistance of any metallic or non-metallic fault path, etc.), this dan
ketahanan ohmik dari setiap non-logam kesalahan path atau logam, dll), ini
being of particular importance in matters relating to the design and application yang
penting dalam hal yang berkaitan dengan desain dan aplikasi
of distance protection. perlindungan jarak.
The wide range of possible system fault conditions and the many factors Beragam
kondisi gangguan sistem mungkin dan banyak faktor
which influence them result in a wide range of possible levels of fault severity, yang
mempengaruhi mereka menghasilkan berbagai kemungkinan tingkat keparahan
kesalahan,
ranging from extremely low levels up to the maximum levels possible for the mulai
dari tingkat yang sangat rendah sampai tingkat maksimum yang mungkin untuk
system being considered. sistem yang dipertimbangkan. It is therefore of value, in
referring to fault severity Oleh karena itu nilai, dengan mengacu kesalahan keparahan
generally, to be able to refer to a standard fault condition, namely the three-
umumnya, untuk dapat merujuk pada suatu kondisi kesalahan standar, yaitu tiga
phase short-circuit, and to the level of fault severity produced by this fase-sirkuit
pendek, dan tingkat keparahan kesalahan yang dihasilkan oleh
particular fault condition, namely the three-phase fault level. kesalahan kondisi
tertentu, yaitu fase tingkat kesalahan tiga. This level may Tingkat ini mungkin
be expressed in amperes or, as is more usual, in three-phase MVA correspond-
diekspresikan dalam satuan ampere atau, seperti yang lebih biasa, dalam tiga-tahap
MVA sesuai-
ing to the rated system voltage and the symmetrical value of the three-phase ing
dengan tegangan sistem nilai dan fase simetris nilai tiga-the
fault current. arus gangguan. The three-phase short-circuit can normally be regarded
as the Tiga-fasa sirkuit pendek biasanya dapat dianggap sebagai
most severe condition from the point of view of fault severity, and it is kondisi paling
parah dari sudut pandang keparahan kesalahan, dan itu
accordingly the maximum possible value of the three-phase fault level which sesuai
dengan nilai maksimum yang mungkin fasa tiga tingkat kesalahan yang
normally determines the required short-circuit rating of the power-system biasanya
menentukan peringkat sirkuit pendek yang diperlukan dari sistem-daya
switchgear. switchgear. A factor which may also have to be taken into account is the
Faktor yang juga mungkin harus dipertimbangkan adalah
maximum value of the single-phase-to-earth fault current which, in a solidly- nilai
maksimum fasa-ke-bumi arus gangguan-tunggal yang, dalam sebuah solid-
earthed system, may exceed the maximum three-phase fault current. sistem
dibumikan, dapat melebihi kesalahan tiga fase maksimum saat ini.
The three-phase fault levels experienced in this country range up to 35 Sampai dengan
35 tiga fase tingkat kesalahan di negeri ini mengalami berbagai
MVA at the lowest distribution voltage of 415 V up to some 35 000 MVA MVA pada
tegangan distribusi terendah dari 415 V sampai dengan sekitar 35 000 MVA
at the highest supergrid transmission voltage of 400 kV, the maximum fault pada
tegangan transmisi supergrid tertinggi 400 kV, kesalahan maksimum
current in the latter case being of the order of 50 000 A for a three-phase fault saat ini
dalam kasus terakhir menjadi dari urutan 50 000 A untuk sebuah kesalahan fasa-tiga
and 60 000A for a single-phase-to-earth fault. dan 60 000A untuk fase-ke-bumi
kesalahan tunggal. Fault clearance times range Fault clearance kali rentang
from less than a tenth of a second to one second or more depending on the dari kurang
dari sepersepuluh dari satu detik detik atau lebih tergantung pada
protective arrangements employed, low clearance times being of particular pelindung
pengaturan bekerja, kali clearance rendah makhluk tertentu
importance at the higher fault levels. penting di tingkat kesalahan yang lebih tinggi.
3.1.4 Methods of fault calculation 3.1.4 Metode kesalahan perhitungan
The information normally required from a fault calculation is that which gives the
Informasi yang biasanya dibutuhkan dari seorang perhitungan kesalahan adalah
bahwa yang memberikan
values of the currents and voltages at stated points in the power system when the nilai
arus dan tegangan pada titik-titik dinyatakan dalam sistem tenaga ketika
latter is subjected to a given fault condition, the fault location and system operating
terakhir ini mengalami kondisi kesalahan tertentu, lokasi kesalahan dan sistem operasi
Page 8 Page 8
60 60
conditions being specified. kondisi yang ditentukan. Fault calculation is therefore
essentially a matter of Oleh karena itu perhitungan Fault dasarnya masalah
network analysis and can be achieved by a number of alternative methods, namely:
analisis jaringan dan dapat dicapai dengan beberapa metode alternatif, yaitu:
(a) direct solution of the network equations obtained from the mesh-current or (Solusi
langsung) dari persamaan yang diperoleh dari jaringan-mesh saat ini atau
nodal-voltage methods, tegangan nodal-metode,
(b) solution by network reduction and back-substitution and, (B) solusi dengan
pengurangan jaringan dan back-substitusi dan,
(c) solution by simulation using a fault calculator or network analyser. (C) larutan
dengan simulasi menggunakan kalkulator kesalahan atau network analyzer.
The choice of method will normally depend on the size and complexity of Pilihan
metode biasanya akan tergantung pada ukuran dan kompleksitas
network and on the amount of information required from the analysis, a further
jaringan dan pada jumlah informasi yang diperlukan dari analisis, lebih jauh
important factor being the availability of suitable computing facilities. menjadi faktor
penting ketersediaan fasilitas komputer yang sesuai. Direct Langsung
solution of the network equations is now commonly employed using suitable solusi
dari persamaan jaringan umum digunakan sekarang menggunakan cocok
digital-computer facilities and appropriate computer programs, such use of the digital-
fasilitas komputer dan program komputer yang tepat, penggunaan tersebut dari
computer making it possible to study a wide range of system and fault conditions
komputer sehingga memungkinkan untuk mempelajari berbagai sistem dan kondisi
gangguan
speedily and economically, particularly in the case of the larger networks. cepat dan
ekonomis, terutama dalam hal jaringan yang lebih besar.
Solution by network reduction using manual (that is slide rule or desk-calculator
Solusi dengan pengurangan jaringan menggunakan manual (yang slide aturan atau
meja-kalkulator
computation) is widely used for such problems as involve, or can be represented by,
komputasi) secara luas digunakan untuk masalah seperti melibatkan, atau dapat
diwakili oleh,
a network of limited size and complexity, there being a large number of fault calcu-
jaringan ukuran dan kompleksitas yang terbatas, ada menjadi sejumlah besar
kesalahan calcu-
lations which fall into this class. lations yang jatuh ke dalam kelas ini. Its use in more
complicated cases, however, is Penggunaannya dalam kasus-kasus yang lebih rumit,
bagaimanapun, adalah
limited only by the amount of time required to obtain a solution, the cost of such
hanya dibatasi oleh jumlah waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk mendapatkan solusi, biaya
tersebut
time being a not altogether unimportant consideration. waktu menjadi pertimbangan
penting sama sekali tidak. Solution by simulation Solusi dengan simulasi
using a fault calculator or network analyser has the advantage of simplicity of
menggunakan kalkulator kesalahan atau penganalisa jaringan memiliki keuntungan
dari kesederhanaan
application due to the one-to-one correspondence between the real and the simu-
antara aplikasi karena satu-ke-satu korespondensi yang nyata dan Simu-
lated system, but although widely used in the past, prior to the advent of computer
lated sistem, tetapi walaupun banyak digunakan di masa lalu, sebelum munculnya
komputer
methods, its use is now generally limited to smaller networks and to situations
metode, penggunaannya sekarang pada umumnya terbatas pada jaringan yang lebih
kecil dan untuk situasi
where computer facilities may not be readily available. dimana fasilitas komputer
mungkin tidak tersedia.
An essential part of power system analysis and fault calculation is that which Sebuah
bagian penting dari sistem kekuasaan dan perhitungan analisis kesalahan adalah yang
concerns the determination of the equivalent system network for the system
menyangkut penentuan sistem jaringan yang setara untuk sistem
operating conditions and fault conditions under consideration. kondisi operasi dan
kondisi gangguan dalam pertimbangan. As already seen, the Seperti yang telah dilihat,
fault conditions to be analysed normally fall into one or other of two classes, kondisi
kesalahan yang akan dianalisis biasanya jatuh ke dalam satu atau lain dari dua kelas,
namely balanced or symmetrical fault conditions (for example the three-phase yaitu
seimbang atau kondisi gangguan simetris (misalnya tiga-fase
short-circuit) and unbalanced or unsymmetrical fault conditions, the latter class sirkuit
pendek) dan tidak seimbang atau kondisi gangguan tidak simetris, kelas terakhir
being normally analysed by the symmetrical-component method. yang biasanya
dianalisa dengan metode-komponen simetris. As will be seen Seperti akan kita lihat
later, both classes of fault are analysed by reducing the power system, with its
kemudian, kedua kelas kesalahan dianalisis dengan mengurangi sistem kekuasaan,
dengan perusahaan
fault condition, to an equivalent single-phase network. kondisi kesalahan, ke jaringan
tunggal-fase setara.
3.2 Basic principles of network analysis 3,2 Prinsip dasar analisis jaringan
3.2.1 Fundamental network laws 3.2.1 hukum jaringan Fundamental
The great majority of fault calculations are concerned with the behaviour of the
Sebagian besar kesalahan perhitungan prihatin dengan perilaku
power system under steady-state conditions or conditions which, from the point of
daya sistem di bawah kondisi negara stabil atau kondisi yang, dari titik
view of analysis, may be regarded as steady-state conditions. melihat analisis, dapat
dianggap sebagai kondisi negara stabil. It can also usually be Hal ini juga dapat
biasanya menjadi
assumed that all the power system currents and voltages vary sinusoidally with time
berasumsi bahwa semua aliran sistem tenaga dan tegangan sinusoidal dengan waktu
bervariasi
at a common constant frequency and can therefore be treated as vector quantities pada
frekuensi konstan umum dan karenanya dapat dianggap sebagai besaran vektor
and be expressed, together with the power system impedances and admittances, in dan
diekspresikan, bersama-sama dengan impedansi sistem kekuasaan dan admittances, di
complex-number form. kompleks-nomor formulir.
Page 9 Page 9
61 61
The relationship between the currents, voltages and impedances in any linear
Hubungan antara arus, tegangan dan impedansi dalam setiap linier
network is governed by the three basic network laws, namely Ohm's Law and the
jaringan diatur oleh tiga jaringan dasar hukum, yaitu Hukum Ohm dan
two laws of Kirchhoff, a formal statement of these laws in terms of vector quantities
dua hukum Kirchhoff, pernyataan formal dari hukum dalam hal jumlah vektor
being given below. yang diberikan di bawah ini.
Ohm's Law: Ohm's Law states that the vector voltage drop V produced by a Ohm
Hukum: Hukum Ohm menyatakan's bahwa vektor drop tegangan V yang dihasilkan
oleh
vector current I flowing through a complex impedance Z is given by the vector vektor
arus I mengalir melalui suatu impedansi kompleks Z diberikan oleh vektor
equation persamaan
V = IZ V = IZ
3.2.1.1 3.2.1.1
An alternative form is Bentuk alternatif
I= VY I = V
3.2.1.2 3.2.1.2
where Y is the reciprocal of Z and is the complex admittance. di mana Y adalah
kebalikan dari Z dan pengakuan kompleks. The law is illustrated Hukum digambarkan
in Fig. pada Gambar. 3.2.1A from which it will be noted that the sense of the voltage-
drop Vis in 3.2.1A dari yang akan mencatat bahwa perasaan-drop tegangan Vis di
opposition to that of the current I. oposisi dengan yang saat ini I.
Kirchhoff's First Law: Kirchhoff's First Law states that the vector sum of all the
Hukum Pertama Kirchhoff: Hukum Pertama Kirchhoff menyatakan bahwa jumlah
vektor semua
currents entering any junction or node in a network is zero or, stated in equation arus
memasukkan persimpangan atau node dalam sebuah jaringan adalah nol atau,
dinyatakan dalam persamaan
form bentuk
Z Ii Z Ii
==
00
3.2.1.3 3.2.1.3
i aku
where I i is the vector current flowing into the node from branch i, the summation di
mana saya i adalah vektor saat ini mengalir ke node dari cabang i, penjumlahan yang
extending over all the branches connected to the node. memperpanjang atas semua
cabang terhubung ke node. Outflowing currents with Arus mengalir keluar dengan
respect to the node are simply treated as negative inflowing currents. terhadap node
hanya diperlakukan sebagai arus pemasukan negatif.
The law, also known as the Junction Law is illustrated in Fig. Hukum, juga dikenal
sebagai Hukum Junction diilustrasikan pada Gambar. 3.2.1B. 3.2.1B.
Kirchhoff's Second Law." Kirchhoff's Second Law states that the vector sum of
Hukum Kedua Kirchhoff negara.'s Kedua Kirchhoff Hukum "bahwa jumlah vektor
all the driving voltages (that is source voltages) acting round any closed path or semua
mengemudi tegangan (yang adalah sumber tegangan) putaran bertindak setiap lintasan
tertutup atau
mesh in a network is equal to the vector sum of the voltage drops in the impedances
mesh dalam jaringan adalah sama dengan jumlah vektor dari tegangan turun di
impedansi
of the component branches of the path. komponen cabang jalan. Thus, in equation
form Jadi, dalam bentuk persamaan
L Ei = . L EI =. llZl llZl
3.2.1.4 3.2.1.4
i aku
i aku
Fig. Gambar.
3.2.1A 3.2.1A
Ohrn'$ Law Ohrn '$ UU
!!
zz
,. ,. z z
I Aku
;;
oo
--
vv
v =lZ v = LZ
where Ei is the vector driving mana EI adalah vektor mengemudi
voltage voltase
in branch i, Ii the vector current in the di cabang i, Ii vektor arus di
branch and Z i the complex impedance of the branch, the summation extending
cabang dan Z i impedansi kompleks cabang, penjumlahan memperluas
over all the component branches of the path or mesh. atas semua cabang komponen
path atau mesh. The driving voltages and Menyetir tegangan dan
currents must all be measured in the same direction round the path. arus semua harus
diukur di putaran jalan arah yang sama. Expressed in Disajikan dalam
another way, the law simply states that the vector sum of all the voltages (that is cara
lain, hukum hanya menyatakan bahwa jumlah vektor dari semua tegangan (yang
driving voltages and voltage drops) acting round a closed path or mesh is zero.
tegangan dan tegangan) tetes bertindak bulat mengendarai lintasan tertutup atau mesh
adalah nol.
Page 10 Page 10
62 62
The law, illustrated in Fig. Hukum, diilustrasikan pada Gambar. 3.2.1 C, is also
known as the Mesh Law. 3.2.1 C, juga dikenal sebagai Hukum Mesh.
These three basic network laws applied to the branches, nodes and meshes of Ketiga
undang-undang dasar jaringan diterapkan pada cabang, node dan jerat dari
any linear network (that is, a network in which the impedances are constant and setiap
jaringan linear (yaitu, jaringan di mana impedansi yang konstan dan
independent of the currents through them), enable the branch currents to be found
independen dari arus melalui mereka), memungkinkan arus cabang dapat ditemukan
if the branch driving voltages and branch impedances are known. jika cabang yang
menggerakkan tegangan dan impedansi cabang diketahui.
I h Saya h
I d Aku d
Kirchhoff'$ First Law Kirchhoff '$ Pertama Hukum
\\
I a + I b + I c + I d : 0 Aku a + b + I aku c + aku d: 0
I." 2 I. "2
j'/ j '/
ElEl
E3E3
ZsZs
Z3Z3
E5E5
I Aku
i aku
!!
E l + E 2 + E 3 + E 4 + E 5 = IIZ I + 12Z 2 + 13Z 3 + 14Z 4 + 15Z $ E l + E 2 + E 3 +
4 + E E 5 = IIZ I + 13Z 12Z 2 + 3 + 14z 4 + $ 15Z
Fig. Gambar.
3.2.1C 3.2.1C
Kirchhoff'$ Second Law Kirchhoff '$ Kedua Hukum
As a simple example consider the elementary two-machine system shown in Sebagai
contoh sederhana mempertimbangkan sistem dua-mesin dasar yang ditunjukkan pada
Fig. Gambar. 3.2.1D and comprising a generator and a synchronous motor, the former
3.2.1D dan terdiri dari generator dan motor sinkron, mantan
represented by a driving voltage of 118 +j24 V behind an impedance of 1 +]4 [2
diwakili oleh tegangan mengemudi dari 118 + j24 V balik impedansi 1 +] 4 [2
and the latter by a driving voltage of 100 +/0 V behind an impedance of 2 +/'5 f2. dan
yang terakhir oleh tegangan mengemudi 100 + / 0 V balik impedansi 2 + / '5 f2.
The current flowing from the generator to the motor is 3 - j 1 A, and this satisfies
Mengalir arus dari generator untuk motor adalah 3 - j 1 A, dan ini memenuhi
Kirchhoff's Second Law because the total voltage drop in the path is Hukum Kedua
Kirchhoff karena jatuh tegangan total di jalan adalah
Page 11 Page 11
63 63
(3 - / 1 X3 +/'9) v, that is 18 + j 24 V, this being equal to the total driving voltage (3
- / 1 + X3 / '9) v, yaitu 18 + j 24 V, hal ini menjadi sama dengan tegangan total
mengemudi
acting round the path, namely 118 ÷/24 V minus 100 +/0 V. bertindak putaran jalan,
yaitu 118 ÷ / minus 24 V 100 + / 0 V.
118 +j24V 118 + j24V
100 +j0V 100 + j0V
3 -jlA 3-JLA
I11 +jI3V I11 + jI3V
NN
Fig. Gambar. 3.2.1D 3.2.1D
Assume now that a short-circuit occurs at the generator terminals, this short-
Asumsikan sekarang bahwa arus pendek listrik terjadi pada terminal generator, ini
pendek
circuit path having an impedance of 1 + ]0 I. The conditions are then as shown in
sirkuit jalan memiliki impedansi 1 +] 0 I. Kondisi ini kemudian seperti ditunjukkan
pada
Fig. Gambar. 3.2.1E where 11 is the current from the generator, 12 the current from
the 3.2.1E di mana 11 adalah arus dari generator, 12 arus dari
motor (now acting as a generator) and motor (sekarang bertindak sebagai generator)
dan
13 13
the current through the impedance of the arus melalui impedansi dari
short-circuit path. pendek sirkuit jalan.
It is required to determine 11,12 and 13, and hence applying Kirchhoff's First Hal ini
diperlukan untuk menentukan 11,12 dan 13, dan karenanya menerapkan Pertama
Kirchhoff
Law we obtain the equation Hukum kita memperoleh persamaan
11 +I2 - 11 + I2 -
13 = 0 13 = 0
3.2,1.5 3.2,1.5
while application of the Second Law to each of the two meshes in turn gives the
sedangkan penerapan UU Kedua untuk masing-masing dari dua jerat pada gilirannya
memberikan
equations persamaan
(1 +j4)11 + (1 +j0)I3 = 118 +j24 (1 + j4) 11 + (1 + j0) I3 = 118 + j24
3.2.1.6 3.2.1.6
(2 +j5)I2 + (1 (2 + j5) I2 + (1
+/0)13 + / 0) 13
= 110 +j0 = 110 + j0
3.2.1.7 3.2.1.7
the first of these equations relating to the generator mesh and the second to the
pertama dari persamaan yang berhubungan dengan mesh generator dan yang kedua ke
motor mesh. motor mesh.
118 +j24V 118 + j24V
I00 +jOV I00 + jOV
!!33
I + jO I + JO
Fig. Gambar. 3.2.1E 3.2.1E
Page 12 Page 12
64 64
Eliminating 13 from eqns. Menghilangkan 13 dari eqns. 3.2.1.6 and 3.2.1.7 by use
ofeqn. 3.2.1.6 dan 3.2.1.7 oleh ofeqn digunakan. 3.2.1.5, we obtain 3.2.1.5, kita
memperoleh
the two equations kedua persamaan
(2 +/4)11 +(I (2 + / 4) 11 + (I
+/0)12 + / 0) 12
= 118 +/24 = 118 + / 24
(I (Aku
+/0)11 + / 0) 11
+(3 +jSY2 = II0+/0 + (3 + jSY2 = II0 + / 0
3.2.1.8 3.2.1.8
3.2.1.9 3.2.1.9
these being a pair of simultaneous equations in the two unknowns 11 and 12.
pasangan ini menjadi persamaan simultan dalam dua diketahui 11 dan 12.
Eliminating/2 from these equations so as to solve for 11 we obtain Menghilangkan / 2
dari persamaan tersebut sehingga untuk memecahkan 11 kita memperoleh
[(3 +jSX2 +]'4)- (1 +/oX1 +/0)] I, [(3 + jSX2 +] '4) - (1 + / oX1 + / 0)] I,
= [(3 +j5XI18 +j24)- (1 +j0)(ll0+j0)] = [(3 + j5XI18 + j24) - (1 + j0) (ll0 + j0)]
which reduces to yang mengurangi ke
(-15 +/22)I = 134 +/662 (-15 + / 22) I = 134 + / 662
giving pemberian
I1 = 17.7-/18.1 A I1 = 17.7-/18.1 A
The value of I1 can now be used in eqn. Nilai I1 sekarang dapat digunakan dalam eqn.
3.2.1.9 to obtain 12, thus 3.2.1.9 untuk mendapatkan 12, sehingga
(100 +j0)- (1 +/0X17-7 -i18.1) (100 + j0) - (1 + / 0X17-7-i18.1)
I2= I2 =
3 +/5 3 + / 5
82.3 +/18.1 82,3 + / 18,1
3 +/5 3 + / 5
giving pemberian
la = 9.9-/10.5A la = 9.9-/10.5A
Finally, substituting the values Ofll and 12 in eqn. Akhirnya, menggantikan nilai-nilai
Ofll dan 12 di eqn. 32..1.5 gives 32 .. 1,5 memberikan
Is = 27.6 -/28.6 A Apakah = 27,6 -/28.6 A
The voltage at the point of fault, namely the product of I3 and Za, is seen to be
Tegangan pada titik kesalahan, yaitu produk I3 dan Za, ini terlihat
giving pemberian
/:3 = (27.6 -/28.6X1 +/0) /: 3 = (27,6 -/28.6X1 + / 0)
v3 = 27.6 -/28.6 V v3 = 27,6 V -/28.6
This simple example has been solved by treating the network branch currents as the
Contoh sederhana ini telah diselesaikan dengan memperlakukan arus jaringan cabang
sebagai
unknowns in the network equations, and while this is obviously the most direct tidak
diketahui dalam persamaan jaringan, dan sementara ini jelas yang paling langsung
approach, it nevertheless suffers from certain disadvantages if the number of meshes
pendekatan, itu tetap menderita kerugian tertentu jika jumlah jerat
in the network is at all large. dalam jaringan sama sekali besar. These disadvantages
stem from the fact that the Kelemahan ini berasal dari kenyataan bahwa
number of unknowns, namely the branch currents, will generally be larger than is
jumlah yang tidak diketahui, yaitu arus cabang, umumnya akan lebih besar daripada
yang
necessary for the solution of the problem and that the equations containing these
diperlukan untuk pemecahan masalah dan bahwa persamaan yang mengandung
unknowns will not generally be amenable to a systematic method of solution.
umumnya tidak diketahui tidak akan dapat menerima untuk suatu metode sistematis
solusi. To Untuk
avoid these difficulties, network analysis is better carried out using mesh-current
menghindari kesulitan-kesulitan ini, analisis jaringan yang lebih baik dilakukan
dengan menggunakan mesh-saat ini
analysis and nodal-voltage analysis. analisis dan analisis nodal tegangan. These
methods are briefly described in the Metode ini secara singkat dijelaskan dalam
following two Sections. Bagian berikut dua.
Page 13 Page 13
65 65
3.2.2 Mesh-current analysis 3.2.2 Mesh-saat analisis
This method of analysis can be understood by considering the simple network Metode
analisis ini dapat dipahami dengan mempertimbangkan jaringan sederhana
shown in Fig. ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 3.2.2A. 3.2.2A. It will be noted that each
mesh of the network is assumed to Ini akan dicatat bahwa setiap mesh jaringan
diasumsikan
carry a circulating current, and it is these so-called mesh currents which are treated
membawa beredar saat ini, dan inilah disebut mesh arus-begitu yang diperlakukan
as the unknowns in the problem, the current in any given branch being readily sebagai
tidak diketahui dalam masalah ini, arus dalam setiap cabang tertentu yang mudah
obtained once the mesh currents associated with that branch have been determined.
diperoleh setelah arus mesh terkait dengan cabang telah ditentukan.
Because the mesh currents associated with any given node flow through that node it
Karena arus mesh yang terkait dengan aliran node diberikan melalui node yang
can easily be seen that they satisfy Kirchhoff's First Law. dengan mudah dapat dilihat
bahwa mereka memenuhi Hukum Pertama Kirchhoff. We can therefore proceed Oleh
karena itu kita dapat melanjutkan
to write down the equations which result from application of the Second Law,
menuliskan persamaan yang hasil dari penerapan UU Kedua,
there being one such equation for each mesh of the network. ada yang satu persamaan
tersebut untuk setiap lubang jaringan.
Za f Za f
Ea() Ea ()
ZC ZC
ZbZb
( ) Eb () Eb
Fig. Gambar.
3.2.2A 3.2.2A
Mesh-current notation Mesh-saat notasi
Thus, remembering that the current in any branch is the vector sum (taking due
Dengan demikian, mengingat bahwa saat ini di cabang manapun adalah jumlah vektor
(mengambil karena
account of direction) of the mesh currents flowing in that branch, we obtain the
rekening arah) dari arus mesh yang mengalir di cabang itu, kami memperoleh
following equations for meshes 1, 2 and 3, respectively: persamaan berikut untuk jerat
1, 2 dan 3, masing-masing:
zJ, + za(,q - I2) + zN, - I3) --, zJ, + za (, q - I2) Zn +, - I3) -,
Za(I2 - 11) + ZcI2 + Ze(I2 - la) =-Ec Za (I2 - 11) + ZcI2 + Ze (I2 - la) =- Ec
Zf(13 - 11 ) + Ze (I3 - 12 ) + Zb ZF (13 - 11) + Ze (I3 - 12) + ZB
13 = Ec - El, 13 = Ec - El,
3.2.2.1 3.2.2.1
Rearranging these Menata ulang ini
where dimana
equations in a more systematic form, we obtain persamaan dalam bentuk yang lebih
sistematis, kita memperoleh
Z111 +Z1212 Z1212 Z111 +
+Z1313 =El ] + Z1313 = El]
Z211 + Z212 + Z2ala = E2 Z211 Z212 + + = E2 Z2ala
Za111 + Za]2 + Z3ala = Ea Za111 + Za] 2 Z3ala + = Ea
ZI =Z, +Z, +Z r ZI = Z, Z +, + Z r
Z22 = Zc + Za + Ze Zc + Z22 = Za + Ze
Z33 = Za + Z + ZI Z33 = Za + Z + ZI
3.2.2.2 3.2.2.2
3.2.2.3 3.2.2.3
Page 14 Page 14
66 66
ZI2 =Z21 ='-Zd / ZI2 = Z21 = '-ZD /
Z23 = Z32 =--Ze Z23 = Z32 =-- Ze
Z31 = Zl3 = -Z: Z31 = Zl3 =-Z:
3.2.2.4 3.2.2.4
E 2 -- -Ee E 2 --Ee
Es --Ec- El, Es - Ec-El,
3.2.2.5 3.2.2.5
It will be noted that Zl i is the sum of the impedances of the branches forming Ini
akan dicatat bahwa Zl i adalah jumlah dari impedansi cabang membentuk
mesh 1, Z22 the sum of those forming mesh 2, and Z33 the sum of those forming
mesh 1, Z22 jumlah dari pembentukan 2 mesh, dan Z33 jumlah dari pembentukan
mesh 3. mesh 3. It will also be noted that Z2, equal to Z21, is equal to minus the
branch Hal ini juga akan mencatat bahwa Z2, sama dengan Z21, sama dengan minus
cabang
impedance common to meshes 1 and 2, that Z23, equal to Z32, is equal to minus
impedansi umum untuk jerat 1 dan 2, bahwa Z23, sama dengan Z32, sama dengan
minus
the branch impedance common to meshes 2 and 3, and Z3, equal to Z13, is equal
impedansi cabang umum untuk jerat 2 dan 3, dan Z3, sama dengan Z13, sama
to minus the branch impedance common to meshes 3 and 1. untuk dikurangi
impedansi cabang umum untuk jerat 3 dan 1. Finally it will be noted Akhirnya akan
dicatat
that El is the sum of the driving voltages in the branches forming mesh 1, E2 the
bahwa El adalah jumlah tegangan mengemudi di cabang-cabang membentuk mesh 1,
E2
sum of those in the branches forming mesh 2, and E3 the sum of those in the jumlah
orang-orang di cabang-cabang membentuk mesh 2, dan E3 jumlah mereka yang
berada di
branches forming mesh 3. cabang membentuk mesh 3. It should be noted that the
branch driving voltages are Perlu dicatat bahwa cabang mengemudi tegangan adalah
treated as positive when they act in the same direction as the mesh current in the
diperlakukan sebagai positif ketika mereka bertindak dalam arah yang sama dengan
mesh lancar pada
mesh to which the equation refers, namely, in a clockwise direction, and are treated
mesh yang mengacu persamaan, yaitu, searah jarum jam, dan diperlakukan
as negative when they act in the opposite, anti-clockwise direction. sebagai negatif
ketika mereka bertindak bertentangan anti-arah searah jarum jam,.
Eqns. Eqns. 3.2.2.2 are a set of three simultaneous equations in the three unknown
3.2.2.2 adalah seperangkat tiga persamaan simultan di tiga tidak diketahui
mesh currents lt,/2 and/3 and it will be evident that the general case of a network arus
mesh lt, / 2 dan / 3 dan itu akan menjadi jelas bahwa kasus umum jaringan
of n meshes will result in a similar set of n simultaneous equations in terms of the dari
jerat n akan menghasilkan serangkaian serupa n persamaan simultan dalam hal
n unknown mesh currents. n arus mesh diketahui. Knowing the branch driving-
voltages and impedances, Mengetahui mengemudi cabang-tegangan dan impedansi,
this set of equations can be virtually written down by inspection from the rules
himpunan persamaan ini dapat hampir ditulis oleh inspeksi dari aturan
already given. sudah diberikan. The solution of these equations to obtain the mesh
currents can be Solusi persamaan ini untuk mendapatkan arus mesh dapat
achieved by a number of different methods, each branch current being then dicapai
dengan beberapa metode yang berbeda, masing-masing cabang yang kemudian saat
ini
obtained from its component mesh currents. diperoleh dari komponen arus mesh
tersebut.
3.2.3. 3.2.3. Nodal-voltage analysis Tegangan nodal analisis
In this method of analysis one of the network nodes is chosen as the reference node
Dalam metode analisis salah satu node jaringan dipilih sebagai simpul referensi
and the voltages of the remaining nodes, measured with respect to the reference dan
tegangan dari node yang tersisa, diukur sehubungan dengan referensi
node, are treated as the unknowns in the problem. node, diperlakukan sebagai tidak
diketahui dalam masalah. The voltage across any branch of Tegangan di setiap cabang
a given mesh is equal to the difference between the node voltages at the two ends of
jaring yang diberikan adalah sama dengan perbedaan antara tegangan simpul di kedua
ujung
the branch in question. cabang yang bersangkutan. It is seen, therefore, that the
summation of the component Hal ini terlihat, oleh karena itu, bahwa penjumlahan
komponen
branch voltages round the mesh must be zero because the node voltages, whose
tegangan mesh cabang bulat harus nol karena tegangan node, yang
difference constitutes any given branch voltage, will be cancelled out in the summa-
Perbedaan merupakan cabang diberikan tegangan apapun, akan dibatalkan dalam
summa-
tion by the contributions which the same node voltages, but reversed in sign, make SI
oleh kontribusi yang tegangan simpul yang sama, tapi dibalik tanda, membuat
to the voltages across the adjacent branches of the mesh. ke tegangan di cabang yang
bersebelahan mesh. The node voltages thus Tegangan node sehingga
satisfy Kirchhoff's Second Law and we can therefore proceed to apply the First
memenuhi Hukum Kedua Kirchhoff dan karena itu kita dapat melanjutkan untuk
menerapkan Pertama
Law to each node of the network, in turn, with the single excepton of the reference
Hukum untuk setiap node jaringan, pada gilirannya, dengan excepton referensi
tunggal
node. node.
Thus, for the simple network shown in Fig. Dengan demikian, untuk jaringan
sederhana ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 3.2.3A, we obtain the following 3.2.3A, kita
mendapatkan berikut
equations for nodes 1, 2 and 3, respectively: persamaan untuk node 1, 2 dan 3,
masing-masing:
Page 15 Page 15
67 67
Fig, 3.2.3A Gambar, 3.2.3A
Ya Ya
11
Yc Yc
22
v 3f3 v 3f3
))
I Aku
((
oo
Nodal-voltage notation Notasi tegangan nodal-
Yb Yb
EbEb
(O+Ea- V,)Y. (O + Ea-V,) Y. +(V2- V,)Yc+(V3- + (V2-V,) + YC (V3-
V,)Ya =0 / V,) Ya = 0 /
(0 + Eb - V2 ) Yt, + ( V, - V2) Ye + (V3 + Ec - V) Ye = 0 (0 + Eb - V2) Yt, + (V, - V2)
+ Ye (V3 + Ec - V) Ye = 0
(0- V3)Yf+(V 1 - V3)Ya (0 - V3) YF + (V 1 - V3) Ya
+(V2- + (V2-
Ec- V3)Ye Ec-V3) Ye
=0 = 0
3.2.3.1 3.2.3.1
It will be noted that these equations are written in terms of the branch admittances Ini
akan dicatat bahwa persamaan ini ditulis dalam hal admittances cabang
as compared with the branch impedances used in the mesh-current method of
dibandingkan dengan impedansi cabang yang digunakan dalam metode-arus mesh
analysis. analisis.
Rearranging the equations in a more systematic form, we obtain Menata ulang
persamaan dalam bentuk yang lebih sistematis, kita memperoleh
where dimana
YllVt + YIiV2 + YI3Va =11 YllVt + YIiV2 + YI3Va = 11
Y21 gl + Y22 V2 Gl + Y22 Y21 V2
+ Y23 V3 + Y23 V3
=12 = 12
Y31 VI + Y32V2 + YaaVa =Ia Y31 VI + Y32V2 YaaVa + = IA
YIl = Ya + Ye + Yd ] YIl = Ya + + Ye yd]
Y22 = Yb + Ye + }re Y22 = Yb + Ye +) re
Y33 = Yd + Ye + Yf Y33 = yd + Ye + YF
3.2.3.2 3.2.3.2
3.2.3.3 3.2.3.3
YI2 = Y21 = - YI2 = Y21 = -
Y¢ Y ¢
||
Y23 = Y32 = - Y23 = Y32 = -
Ye Kamu
Y31 = Y13 =- Y31 = Y13 =-
Yd Yd
3.2.3.4 3.2.3.4
I1 = Ea Ya I1 = Ea Ya
]]
I2 = Eb Yb + Ee ]re I2 = Eb Yb + Ee] kembali
I Aku
3.2.3.5 3.2.3.5
13 = -Ec }re 13 =-Ec) kembali
It will be noted that Yt i is the sum of the admittances of the branches connected Ini
akan dicatat bahwa Yt i adalah jumlah dari admittances cabang terhubung
to node 1, Y22 the sum of those connected to node 2, and Y33 the sum of those untuk
node 1, Y22 jumlah dari node terhubung ke 2, dan Y33 jumlah dari
connected to node 3. terhubung ke node 3. It will also be noted that Y12, equal to Y2,
is equal to minus Hal ini juga akan mencatat bahwa Y12, sama dengan Y2, sama
dengan minus
Page 16 Page 16
68 68
the admittance of the branch connecting nodes 1 and 2, that Y2a, equal to Yaz, is
pengakuan dari cabang yang menghubungkan node 1 dan 2, bahwa Y2a, sama dengan
Yaz, adalah
equal to minus the admittance of the branch connecting nodes 2 and 3, and that sama
dengan minus pengakuan dari cabang yang menghubungkan node 2 dan 3, dan bahwa
Fax, equal to Yla, is equal to minus the admittance of the branch connecting Fax,
sama dengan Yla, adalah sama dengan minus pengakuan dari cabang yang
menghubungkan
nodes 3 and 1. node 3 dan 1. Finally it will be noted that I is the sum of the products
of driving Akhirnya akan dicatat bahwa saya adalah jumlah dari produk mengemudi
voltage and admittance for each of the branches connected to node 1,!z the sum
tegangan dan penerimaan untuk masing-masing cabang terhubung ke node 1, jumlah!
z
of these products for each of the branches connected to node 2, and la the sum of
produk ini untuk masing-masing cabang terhubung ke node 2, dan la jumlah
these products for each of the branches connected to node 3, the branch driving
produk ini untuk masing-masing cabang yang terhubung ke node 3, cabang
mengemudi
voltages being treated as positive when they act towards the node in question and
tegangan diperlakukan sebagai positif ketika mereka bertindak terhadap node tersebut
dan
negative when they act in the opposite direction, namely away from the node. negatif
bila mereka bertindak dalam arah yang berlawanan, yaitu jauh dari node.
Eqns. Eqns. 3.2.3.2 are a set of three simultaneous equations in the three unknown
3.2.3.2 adalah seperangkat tiga persamaan simultan di tiga tidak diketahui
node voltages VI, V2 and Va and it will be evident that the general case of a tegangan
node VI, V2 dan Va dan akan menjadi jelas bahwa kasus yang umum dari
network of n nodes, excluding the reference node, will result in a similar set of n n
node jaringan, termasuk node acuan, akan menghasilkan satu set serupa n
simultaneous equations in terms of the n unknown node voltages. persamaan simultan
dalam hal tegangan node n tidak diketahui. Knowing the Mengetahui
branch driving voltages and admittances, this set of equations can be virtually
tegangan cabang mengemudi dan admittances, himpunan persamaan ini dapat hampir
written down by inspection from the rules already given. ditulis oleh inspeksi dari
aturan yang sudah diberikan.
The set of simultaneous linear equations obtained is identical in general form
Himpunan persamaan linier simultan diperoleh identik dalam bentuk umum
with that obtained using the mesh-current method of analysis and is amenable to
dengan yang diperoleh menggunakan metode-arus mesh analisis dan setuju untuk
the same methods of solution. sama metode solusi. Having solved the equations to
obtain the node Setelah memecahkan persamaan untuk mendapatkan node
voltages, each branch current is then readily obtained from the node voltages at its
tegangan, setiap cabang saat ini maka dengan mudah diperoleh dari tegangan node
pada level daya
two ends, the branch current being given by the product of the branch admittance dua
ujung, cabang saat ini yang diberikan oleh produk pengakuan cabang
and the voltage across this admittance. dan tegangan di seluruh penerimaan ini. In
obtaining this latter mentioned voltage Dalam memperoleh tegangan yang disebutkan
terakhir ini
from the node voltages, due account must, of course, be taken of the driving dari
tegangan node, account karena harus, tentu saja, diambil dari mendorong
voltage, if any, in the branch in question. tegangan, jika ada, di cabang yang
bersangkutan.
3.2.4 Application of mesh-current and nodal-voltage analysis 3.2.4 Aplikasi-arus
dan tegangan nodal analisis mesh
The mesh-current and nodal-voltage methods of analysis have both been shown to
The-saat ini dan tegangan nodal-metode analisis mesh memiliki keduanya telah
terbukti
result in a set of simultaneous linear equations, the solution of which leads to a
menghasilkan satu set persamaan linear simultan, solusi yang mengarah ke
complete determination of all the network branch currents. penentuan lengkap semua
cabang arus jaringan. As already stated, the Seperti telah disebutkan di atas
rules for the formulation of the equations are such that, with either of the two aturan
untuk perumusan persamaan seperti itu, dengan salah satu dari dua
methods, the resulting set of equations can be virtuaUy written down by inspection
metode, yang dihasilkan set virtuaUy persamaan dapat ditulis oleh inspeksi
once the network meshes or nodes have been numbered. sekali jerat jaringan atau
node telah bernomor.
The solution of a set of simultaneous linear equations is a standard computa- Solusi
dari persamaan linier simultan adalah standar computa-
tional procedure and may be achieved by a number of methods including elimina-
prosedur nasional dan dapat dicapai dengan beberapa metode termasuk elimina-
tion, determinant and matrix methods and iterative methods. SI, penentu dan metode
matriks dan metode iteratif. Details of these Rincian ini
methods will be found in a number of the references given in the bibliography.
metode akan ditemukan dalam beberapa referensi diberikan dalam bibliografi. With
Dengan
all methods of solution, however, the use of manual computation, even with the
semua metode larutan, Namun, penggunaan perhitungan manual, bahkan dengan
aid of a desk computer, is not normally a practical proposition if the number of
bantuan komputer meja, biasanya tidak proposisi praktis jika jumlah
equations is at all large, since the computation time tends to be considerable and
persamaan sama sekali besar, sejak waktu komputasi cenderung cukup besar dan
increases rapidly with the number of equations. meningkat pesat dengan jumlah
persamaan. Solution by high-speed digital Solusi oleh digital berkecepatan tinggi
computer is however, very much a practical proposition, such computers being
komputer Namun, sangat banyak proposisi praktis, komputer tersebut menjadi
capable of handling very large sets of equations (that is, simultaneous equations
mampu menangani set sangat besar persamaan (yaitu, persamaan simultan
representing a large number of meshes or nodes) and of providing a rapid and
mewakili sejumlah besar jerat atau node) dan penyediaan yang cepat dan
accurate solution. solusi akurat.
Page 17 Page 17
69 69
The choice between the mesh-current and nodal-voltage methods will normally
Pilihan antara arus dan tegangan nodal-metode mesh biasanya akan
be determined by the need to reduce computing time to a minimum. ditentukan oleh
kebutuhan untuk mengurangi waktu komputasi untuk minimum. It is of Ini adalah
interest to note, therefore, that the great majority of networks have fewer nodes
menarik untuk dicatat, karena itu, bahwa sebagian besar jaringan telah node lebih
sedikit
than meshes and are therefore more suited to solution by the nodal-voltage method.
dari jerat dan karenanya lebih cocok untuk solusi yang dilakukan oleh tegangan-
metode nodal.
This is readily demonstrated by the simple two-machine network of Fig. Hal ini
mudah dibuktikan dengan jaringan dua-mesin yang sederhana pada Gambar. 3.2.1E
3.2.1E
which, it will be noted, has two meshes but only one node, apart from the reference
yang akan dicatat, memiliki dua jerat tetapi hanya satu node, selain dari referensi
node. node. Thus, applying the mesh-current method we obtain the two equations
Dengan demikian, menerapkan metode-saat mesh kita memperoleh dua persamaan
(2 +j4)/, - (1 +/0)/2 = 118 +/24 (2 + j4) /, - (1 + / 0) / 2 = 118 + / 24
//
=(I +]O)/l +(3 +/5)/2 = (I +] O) / l + (3 + / 5) / 2
=- =-
I00-]0 I00-] 0
I Aku
3.2.4.1 3.2.4.1
where I and/2 are the left-hand and right-hand mesh currents, respectively and are di
mana saya dan / 2 adalah tangan kiri dan kanan arus mesh, masing-masing dan
assumed to act in a clockwise direction. diasumsikan untuk bertindak dalam arah
searah jarum jam.
Applying the nodal-voltage method, on the other hand, gives the single equation
Menerapkan metode-tegangan nodal, di sisi lain, memberikan persamaan tunggal
[[
11
11
l ] l]
+j24 100+/0 l + J24 100 + / 0 l
,,
l+j4 1+/0 2+/5 l + j4 1 + / 0 2 + / 5
+/4 + / 4
22
where Vx is the voltage at the point of short-circuit, and is denoted by V3 in mana VX
adalah tegangan pada titik-sirkuit pendek, dan dilambangkan oleh V3 di
Section 3.2.1. Bagian 3.2.1.
It will be left to the reader to verify that Equation 3.2.4.1 and Equation 3.2.4.2 Ini
akan diserahkan kepada pembaca untuk memverifikasi bahwa Persamaan dan
Persamaan 3.2.4.1 3.2.4.2
both give the same results, these having already been obtained in Section 3.2.1. baik
memberikan hasil yang sama, karena ini sudah diperoleh dalam Bagian 3.2.1.
3.2.5. 3.2.5. Network theorems and reduction formulas Jaringan teorema dan formula
pengurangan
The mesh-current and nodal-voltage methods of analysis are both a means of ob- The-
saat ini dan tegangan nodal-metode analisis mesh keduanya alat ob-
taining the complete analytical solution to any linear network problem. taining solusi
analisis lengkap untuk setiap masalah jaringan linier. They are Mereka
being used to an increasing extent, their use being limited only by the availability
digunakan sampai batas meningkat, penggunaannya hanya dibatasi oleh ketersediaan
of suitable computing facilities and the fact that an analytical solution can also be
fasilitas komputer yang sesuai dan fakta bahwa solusi analisis juga dapat
achieved by other means, which in many cases may be simpler and more direct.
dicapai dengan cara lain, yang dalam banyak kasus mungkin lebih sederhana dan
lebih langsung.
This alternative means of analysis, known as the network-reduction method,
Alternatif ini berarti analisis, yang dikenal sebagai metode pengurangan jaringan,
depends on the reduction of the network to a simpler equivalent form, the method
tergantung pada pengurangan jaringan ke bentuk yang ekuivalen sederhana, metode
being particularly useful where the solution is required to give the values of only a
yang sangat berguna di mana larutan yang diperlukan untuk memberikan nilai-nilai
hanya
limited number of branch currents. terbatas jumlah arus cabang.
Network reduction is the process of combining network branches so as to reduce
Jaringan reduksi adalah proses penggabungan jaringan cabang sehingga mengurangi
the given network to an equivalent network with fewer branches, this equivalent
jaringan yang diberikan ke jaringan setara dengan cabang-cabang yang lebih sedikit,
setara ini
network being amenable to direct and simple solution. jaringan yang setuju dengan
solusi yang langsung dan sederhana. Thus, a complete and Jadi, yang lengkap dan
complex network, as viewed from any given pair of nodes, may be reduced in this
jaringan yang kompleks, seperti dilihat dari setiap pasangan node tertentu, dapat
dikurangi dalam
way to its simplest equivalent form, namely a single equivalent branch. cara untuk
membentuk setara sederhana, yaitu setara cabang tunggal. The network Jaringan
theorems and reduction formulae most commonly required are described below.
teorema dan formula pengurangan diperlukan paling sering dijelaskan di bawah ini.
Combination of series branches: Kombinasi seri cabang:
Taking first the general case of any number of Mengambil pertama kasus umum
sejumlah
branches connected in series, any given branch i comprising a driving voltage E t and
cabang yang terhubung secara seri, setiap cabang yang diberikan terdiri dari i t
tegangan E mengemudi dan
series impedance Zl, the equivalent single branch comprises a driving voltage
impedansi seri Zl, cabang tunggal setara terdiri dari tegangan mengemudi
E r in E r di
Page 18 Page 18
70 70
series with an impedance Zr where seri dengan suatu impedansi Zr mana
Er= . Er =. EI= Ex + E2 + ... EI = Ex + E2 + ... + En + En
i aku
and dan
Zr = . Zr =. Zt =ZI +Z2 + ... Zt = ZI + Z2 + ... +Zn + Zn
i aku
3.2.5.1 3.2.5.1
3.2.5.2 3.2.5.2
and n is the number of branches. dan n adalah jumlah cabang. The driving voltages
are all measured in the same Tegangan mengemudi semua diukur dalam konteks yang
sama
direction with respect to the end nodes of the series combination. arah sehubungan
dengan node akhir seri kombinasi. These rules, Aturan-aturan ini,
applied to the combination of three series-connected branches, are illustrated in
diterapkan pada kombinasi dari tiga cabang yang terhubung seri, yang diilustrasikan
dalam
Fig. Gambar. 3.2.5A. 3.2.5A.
ZZ
ZZ
Z3Z3
pp
oo
qq
__
pp
Zr")---oq Zr ")--- OQ
Fig. Gambar.
3.2.5A 3.2.5A
Combination of series branches Kombinasi seri cabang
Combination of parallel branches: Taking, again, the general case of any number
Kombinasi cabang paralel: Mengambil, sekali lagi, kasus umum nomor apapun
of branches but now connected in parallel, any given branch i comprising a driving
cabang tapi sekarang terhubung secara paralel, setiap cabang yang diberikan terdiri
mengendarai i
voltage E i and series admittance Yi (that is series impedance l[Yi), the equivalent
tegangan seri E i dan penerimaan Yi (yaitu impedansi seri l [Yi), setara
single branch comprises a driving voltage Er in series with an admittance Yr (that is,
cabang tunggal terdiri dari mengemudi tegangan Er secara seri dengan sebuah yr
pengakuan (yaitu,
an impedance 1/Yr), where impedansi 1/Yr), dimana
Er=(l/Yr) EiYt=(I[Yr)(EIY +EY2 + ... +EnYn) Eh = (l / yr) EiYt = (I [yr) (EIY + EY2
+ ... + EnYn)
3.2.5.3 3.2.5.3
i aku
and dan
Yr = Z Yi = Y1 + Y2 +... Yr = Z Yi = Y1 + Y2 + ... + Yn + Yn
3.2.5.4 3.2.5.4
i aku
and n is the number of branches. dan n adalah jumlah cabang. The driving voltages
are all measured in the same Tegangan mengemudi semua diukur dalam konteks yang
sama
direction with respect to the common nodes of the parallel combination. arah
sehubungan dengan node umum dari kombinasi paralel. These Ini
rules, applied to the combination of three parallel-connected branches, are illustrated
aturan, diterapkan pada kombinasi dari tiga cabang yang terhubung paralel,
diilustrasikan
in Fig. pada Gambar. 3.2.5B. 3.2.5B.
Star-to-delta transformation: The star-to-delta transformation permits any set of
Delta-untuk-transformasi Star: The-untuk-transformasi delta bintang izin setiap
himpunan
three star-connected branches with isolated star-point to be replaced by an equiva-
tiga cabang terhubung dengan bintang-bintang titik terisolasi untuk diganti oleh
equiva-
lent set of three delta-connected branches. meminjamkan set tiga cabang terhubung
delta. Thus, let a, b and c denote the three Jadi, mari a, b dan c menunjukkan tiga
terminals of the star and its equivalent delta, and let the star-connected branches
terminal bintang dan delta yang setara, dan membiarkan cabang-terhubung bintang
comprise driving voltages Ea, E and E c and impedances Z a, Z b and Z c respect-
terdiri mengemudi tegangan Ea, E dan c E dan impedansi Z a, b, Z dan Z c-
menghormati
ively, the voltages being measured in the direction away from the star point. ively,
tegangan yang diukur dalam arah yang jauh dari titik bintang. Then Kemudian
denoting the driving voltages and impedances of the equivalent delta-connected yang
menunjukkan tegangan mengemudi dan impedansi dari setara delta-terhubung
Page 19 Page 19
71 71
PoPo
y3l_. y3l_.
<) q <) Q
Combination of parallel branches Kombinasi cabang paralel
Yr Yr
"---p "--- P
I Aku
I,oq Aku, OQ
branches by cabang dengan
Eab , Et, c Eab, Et, c
and Eta and dan Eta dan
Zab, Zbc Zab, Zbc
and Zca respectively, the latter values dan Zca masing, yang kedua nilai-nilai
are given in terms of the former by the equations diberikan dalam hal yang pertama
oleh persamaan
Eab = E a Eab = E a
--
EbEb
+ IZab + IZab
Ebc = .E b - E c + .[Zbc EBC = b. E - E c +. [Zbc
Eca= E e - E a + 1Zea ECA = E e - E a + 1Zea
3.2.5.5 3.2.5.5
((
co / co /
ZaZa
Fig. Gambar. 3.2.5C 3.2.5C
Star and delta circuits Rangkaian bintang dan delta
and dan
ZaZb + ZoZc + ZcZa ZaZb + ZoZc + ZcZa
Zat - Zat -
Zc Zc
ZaZ b -I- ZbZ c ..I- ZcZ a ZaZ b-aku-ZbZ c .. I-ZcZ sebuah
Zbc - Zbc -
Za Za
ZaZb + ZbZc + ZcZa ZaZb + ZbZc + ZcZa
Z ea -- Z ea -
Zb ZB
a sebuah
3.2.5.6 3.2.5.6
Page 20 Page 20
72 72
where I, equal to di mana saya, sama dengan
(Eab + Ebc + Eca)/(Zab + Zbc + (Eab + EBC + ECA) / (Zab + + Zbc
Zca), is any arbitrarily chosen Zca), adalah setiap sewenang-wenang dipilih
current assumed to be circulating in an anticlockwise direction through the saat ini
diasumsikan beredar dalam arah berlawanan arah jarum jam melalui
branches of the delta. cabang delta. It is normally convenient to assume this current to
be zero. Hal ini biasanya mudah untuk menganggap ini saat ini menjadi nol.
The driving voltages Menyetir tegangan
Eab, Ebe Eab, EBE
and Eta act from b to a, c to b and a to c, respect- dan Eta bertindak dari b ke c ke b
dan c untuk, menghormati-
ively, in the branches concerned. ively, di cabang-cabang yang bersangkutan. These
rules are illustrated in Fig. Peraturan-peraturan ini diilustrasikan pada Gambar.
3.2.5C. 3.2.5C.
Delta-to-star transformation: The Delta-untuk-bintang transformasi: The
delta-to-star transformation permits any set of Bintang-untuk-transformasi delta izin
setiap himpunan
three delta-connected branches to be replaced by an equivalent set of three star- tiga
cabang terhubung delta untuk diganti oleh setara set tiga bintang-
connected branches with isolated star-point, the relationships between the star and
cabang terhubung dengan titik bintang-terisolasi, hubungan antara bintang dan
delta quantities, using the nomenclature of the previous section, being given by the
delta jumlah, menggunakan nomenklatur bagian sebelumnya, yang diberikan oleh
equations persamaan
and dan
E a - E b = Eab - [Zab E a - E = [- b Eab Zab
E# - E c = Ebc - 1Zoc E # - E c = EBC - 1Zoc
E c -E a = Eta - 1Zca E c-E a = Eta - 1Zca
ZatZca ZatZca
Za=Za=
Zab + Zbc + Zca Zab + Zbc + Zca
Z bcab Z bcab
Z# = Z # =
Zab + Zb + Z Zab + ZB + Z
Z caZ bc Z Caz bc
Zc = Zc =
Zab + Zbc + Z Zab + + Zbc Z
3.2.5.7 3.2.5.7
3.2.5.8 3.2.5.8
where I, equal to di mana saya, sama dengan
(Eab + Ebc + Eca)/(Zab + Zbc + Zca), (Eab + EBC + ECA) / (Zab + Zbc + Zca),
is the current circulating in adalah beredar saat ini di
an anticlockwise direction through the branches of the delta. arah berlawanan arah
jarum jam melalui cabang delta.
It should be noted that any one of the three driving voltages Perlu dicatat bahwa salah
satu dari tiga tegangan mengemudi
E a, E b E a, b E
or atau
EcEc
can be dapat
chosen quite arbitrarily, this value being then used to determine the remaining two
dipilih cukup sewenang-wenang, nilai ini yang kemudian digunakan untuk
menentukan dua sisa
driving voltages. tegangan mengemudi. It is normally convenient to arrange that the
sum of the three Hal ini biasanya mudah untuk mengatur bahwa jumlah tiga
driving voltages is equal to zero, in which case mengemudi tegangan sama dengan
nol, dalam hal
Eo -- '/3 [Eb - E, - I(Z,b - Eo - '/ 3 [Eb - E, - I (Z, b -
Z)] Z)]
Eb = t/3[Ebc - Eab - I(Zbc - Eb = t / 3 [EBC - Eab - I (Zbc -
Z,,t,)l Z,, t,) l
E, = '/ [E - Eb, - S(Z, - Zbc)] E, = '/ [- Eb E, - S (Z, - Zbc)]
3.2.5.9 3.2.5.9
where I, as already stated, is given by di mana saya, sebagaimana telah dinyatakan,
diberikan oleh
a +Eb+E, a + Eb + E,
I= I =
Zab + Zbc + Zca Zab + Zbc + Zca
3.2.5.10 3.2.5.10
For the special case in which Untuk kasus khusus di mana
Eab + Ebc Eab + EBC
+ Eta = 0, giving I = 0, the star driving + Eta = 0, memberikan saya = 0, bintang
mengemudi
voltages then become tegangan kemudian menjadi
Page 21 Page 21
73 73
Ea = ]/3(Eat- Eca) Ea =] / 3 (Makan-ECA)
Eb = t/3 (Eric- Eb = t / 3 (Eric-
Eat,) Makan,)
Ec = R/3 (Eca - Ebe) Ec = R / 3 (ECA - EBE)
3.2.5.11 3.2.5.11
33
I Aku
* iOZ * IOZ
--K i3V / ¢ 6Z - I3V K / ¢ 6Z
2- lOW 2 - RENDAH
Fig. Gambar. 3.2.5D 3.2.5D
Example of equivalent star and delta circuits Contoh bintang rangkaian delta setara
dan
The transformation rules are illustrated by the circuit shown in Fig. Aturan-aturan
transformasi diilustrasikan oleh rangkaian ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 3.2.5D. 3.2.5D.
Combination of equal driving-voltages: If two or more branches have a common
Kombinasi tegangan mengemudi-sama: Jika dua atau lebih cabang memiliki
kesamaan
node and identical driving-voltages with respect to this node, then the individual node
dan identik mengemudi-tegangan sehubungan dengan node ini, maka individu
branch driving-voltages can all be removed and replaced by a single external driving
cabang mengemudi-tegangan semua dapat dihapus dan diganti dengan mengemudi
eksternal tunggal
l'J q J l'q
"'% r "'% R
Fig. Gambar. 3.2.gE 3.2.gE
qq
/a / A
PP
ff
Combination of equal driving voltages Kombinasi mengemudi sama tegangan
voltage connected to the common node, the latter driving voltage being equal to the
tegangan terhubung dengan node umum, mengemudi tegangan terakhir menjadi sama
dengan
common value of the original branch driving-voltages. umum nilai mengemudi
cabang asli-tegangan. The theorem is illustrated in teorema ini digambarkan dalam
Fig. Gambar. 3.2.5E and follows readily from the fact that equipotential points can be
3.2.5E dan mengikuti mudah dari kenyataan bahwa poin ekuipotensial dapat
joined together without any resultant change in the electrical state of the network.
bergabung bersama-sama tanpa ada perubahan yang dihasilkan di negara jaringan
listrik.
The theorem is particularly useful in power system analysis in the reduction of a
Teorema ini sangat berguna dalam analisis sistem kekuasaan di suatu pengurangan
multiple-source network to its single-source equivalent. beberapa sumber-jaringan
tunggal setara sumbernya.
Superposition Theorem:The Superposition Theorem, applicable to any linear
Teorema superposisi: The Teorema Superposisi, berlaku untuk setiap linier
network, states that the current which flows in any branch of a network as a result
jaringan, menyatakan bahwa arus yang mengalir dalam cabang jaringan sebagai
hasilnya
of the simultaneous action of several driving voltages is equal to the vector sum of
dari tindakan simultan dari beberapa mengemudi tegangan adalah sama dengan
jumlah vektor
Page 22 Page 22
74 74
118 , i24V 118, i24V
©©
I " j4, Aku "j4,
15.6- j2 1.2A 15,6-j2 1.2A
I' Aku '
2 + j5Z 2 + j5Z
AA
..
]]
NN
1.7 - j4.2A 1,7 - j4.2A
17.3 17,3
jl7.0A jl7.0A
I + jO I + JO
vv
I " j4,:' Aku "j4,: '
--2.1 - j3.1A - 2.1 - j3.1A
I' Aku '
2 + jSl2 2 + jSl2
-- -
"- "-
))
8.2 - j14.7A 8,2 - j14.7A
10.3 -.il 1.6A -. Il 10,3 1.6A
I + ,iOSZ I +, iOSZ
I00 + jOV I00 + jOV
@@
118 i24V 118 i24V
I00 +jOV I00 + jOV
17.7 17,7
ilt.lA ilt.lA
9.9 -- jlO.SA 9,9 - jlO.SA
"-- 27.6 "- 27,6
j28.6A j28.6A
I + jO I + JO
NN
Fig. Gambar. 3.2.5F 3.2.5F
Illustration of the superposition theorem Ilustrasi dari teorema superposisi
the currents which would flow in the branch in question with each driving voltage
arus yang akan mengalir di cabang yang bersangkutan dengan masing-masing
mengemudi tegangan
acting individually and all the remaining driving voltages equal to zero, that is,
bertindak secara individu dan semua sisa mengemudi tegangan sama dengan nol,
yaitu,
short-circuited. hubung pendek. The theorem is illustrated in Fig. teorema ini
diilustrasikan pada Gambar. 3.2.5F using the simple two- 3.2.5F sederhana dengan
menggunakan dua
machine problem of Section 3.2.1. masalah mesin Bagian 3.2.1.
Thevenin's Theorem: Thevenin's Theorem, similarly applicable to any linear Teorema
Thevenin: Teorema Thevenin, juga berlaku untuk setiap linier
network, states that any such network containing driving voltages, as viewed from
jaringan, menyatakan bahwa setiap jaringan seperti mengandung tegangan
mengemudi, dilihat dari
any two terminals, can be replaced by a single driving voltage acting in series with a
setiap dua terminal, dapat digantikan oleh tegangan mengemudi tunggal bertindak
secara seri dengan
single impedance. tunggal impedansi. The value of this driving voltage is equal to the
open-circuit Nilai tegangan ini mengemudi adalah sama dengan sirkuit-terbuka
voltage between the two terminals, and the series impedance is the impedance of
tegangan antara dua terminal, dan impedansi seri adalah impedansi
the network as viewed from the two terminals with all the driving voltages equal to
jaringan ditinjau dari dua terminal dengan semua tegangan mengemudi sebesar
zero, that is short-circuited. nol, yaitu hubung pendek. The theorem is illustrated in
Fig. teorema ini diilustrasikan pada Gambar. 3.2.5G and its appli- 3.2.5G dan yang
Appli-
cation to the simple two-machine circuit of Section 3.2.1 is shown in Fig. kation
dengan rangkaian dua-mesin sederhana dari Bagian 3.2.1 ditunjukkan pada Gambar.
3.2.5H. 3.2.5H.
Page 23 Page 23
75 75
Active network Aktif jaringan
,,0 ,, 0
qq
TVoc TVoc
Same network with Sama jaringan dengan
all semua
source voltages sumber tegangan
removed and replaced dihapus dan diganti
by short circuits oleh arus pendek
PP
oo
00
qq
n°- n ° -
tt
i aku
PP
I Aku
!!
OO
V°c V ° C
i aku
00
I Aku
.j . J
qq
Fig. Gambar. 3.2.5G 3.2.5G
Thevenin's Theorem Teorema Thevenin
II1 II1
+jl3V + Jl3V
I +j412 I + j412
22
+ jSs2 + JSs2
!!
JJ
I Aku
I Aku
jj
PP
JJ
00
!!
;;
!!
I Aku
''
I + j012 I + j012
I Aku
i aku
i aku
oo
i aku
ll
NN
Fig. Gambar. 3.2.5H 3.2.5H
Thevenin's Theorem applied to the example of Fig. Teorema Thevenin diterapkan
pada contoh Gambar. 3.2.1E 3.2.1E
Norton's Theorem: Norton's Theorem is the dual of Thevenin's Theorem and Teorema
Norton: Norton Teorema adalah ganda Teorema Thevenin dan
states that any linear network containing driving voltages, as viewed from any two
menyatakan bahwa setiap jaringan linear yang mengandung tegangan mengemudi,
seperti yang dilihat dari setiap dua
terminals, can be replaced by a single driving current shunted by an impedance.
terminal, dapat diganti dengan mengemudi tunggal saat ini didorong oleh sebuah
impedansi. The Itu
value of this driving current is equal to the short-circuit current which will flow nilai
ini saat mengemudi adalah sama dengan arus-pendek yang akan mengalir
between the two terminals when connected together, and the shunt impedance is
antara dua terminal ketika terhubung bersama-sama, dan impedansi shunt adalah
the impedance of the network as viewed from the two terminals with all the driving
impedansi jaringan dilihat dari dua terminal dengan semua mengemudi
voltages equal to zero, that is short-circuited. tegangan sama dengan nol, yang
pendek-hubung. The theorem is illustrated in Fig. teorema ini diilustrasikan pada
Gambar.
Page 24 Page 24
76 76
Active network Aktif jaringan
PP
qq
lsc LSC
Same network with Sama jaringan dengan
all source voltages semua sumber tegangan
removed and replaced dihapus dan diganti
by short circuits oleh arus pendek
PP
00
• 4-'-" • 4-'-"
ZZ
,,
qq
rr
I Aku
i aku
pp
I Aku
!!
oo
0i0i
i aku
lsc LSC
zz
i aku
i aku
i aku
oo
Fig. Gambar. 3.2.51 3.2.51
Norton's Theorem Teorema Norton
3.2.5I and its application to the simple two-machine circuit of Section 3.2.1 is 3.2.5I
dan aplikasinya pada rangkaian dua-mesin sederhana dari Bagian 3.2.1 adalah
shown in Fig. ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 3.2.5J. 3.2.5J. It is important to note that the
driving current is constant in Penting untuk dicatat bahwa saat mengemudi adalah
konstan dalam
value irrespective of the voltage across it, just as a given driving voltage is constant
terlepas dari nilai tegangan di atasnya, seperti mengemudi diberikan tegangan konstan
in value irrespective of the current through it. nilai terlepas dari arus melewatinya. A
constant driving current can be Sebuah mengemudi konstan arus dapat
PP
i aku
I + j4F I + j4F
2 + j51"I i 2 + j51 "Aku i
I + j0D, I + j0D,
i aku
io io
.; N N.;
F" F "
[[
19.S - j43.6A 19.S - j43.6A
[[
i aku
"" ""
i aku
i aku
-@ - @
i aku
i aku
i aku
i aku
i aku
i aku
L.. L..
Fig. Gambar. 3.2.5,) 3.2.5,)
Norton's Theorem applied to the example of Fig. Teorema Norton diterapkan pada
contoh Gambar. 3.2. 3.2. IE IE
regarded in physical terms, as the current produced by an infinite voltage acting
in dianggap dalam hal fisik, sebagai arus yang dihasilkan oleh tegangan tak
terbatas bertindak
series with an infinite impedance, the ratio of the voltage to the impedance being
seri dengan suatu impedansi yang tak terbatas, rasio tegangan ke impedansi
yang
the required driving current. menyetir yang dibutuhkan saat ini.
Page 25 Page 25
77 77
A number of other useful theorems and reduction formulae will be found in the
Sejumlah teorema berguna lainnya dan formula pengurangan akan ditemukan dalam
references given in the bibliography. referensi diberikan dalam bibliografi.
33 Calculation of balanced fault conditions 33 Perhitungan kondisi gangguan
seimbang
3.3.1 Single-phase representation 3.3.1 Single-tahap representasi
The component items of electrical plant which together form a three-phase power
Item komponen tanaman listrik yang bersama-sama membentuk tiga fase daya
system, namely generators, transformers, overhead-line and cable circuits, etc., can
sistem, yaitu generator, transformator, overhead-garis dan rangkaian kabel, dll, dapat
all be regarded, for most practical purposes, as having electrical characteristics semua
dianggap, untuk sebagian besar tujuan praktis, memiliki karakteristik listrik
which are balanced or symmetrical with respect to the three phases. yang seimbang
atau simetris terhadap tiga fase. Thus, the plant Dengan demikian, tanaman
impedance characteristics are usually such that the phase self-impedance values can
karakteristik impedansi biasanya seperti yang fase impedansi diri-nilai dapat
be regarded as the same for all three phases and the phase-to-phase mutual- dianggap
sebagai hal yang sama untuk ketiga fase dan fase-ke-fase saling
impedance values regarded as symmetrical with respect to the three phases. dianggap
sebagai nilai-nilai impedansi simetris terhadap tiga fase. Simi- Simi-
larly, the driving voltages produced by the generators and any other synchronous
larly, yang menggerakkan tegangan yang dihasilkan oleh generator dan lain sinkron
machines are balanced in that the three phase-to-neutral emfs produced by any mesin
seimbang dalam tiga fase-ke-netral emfs diproduksi oleh
given machine are all equal in magnitude and symmetrically spaced, at 120 °
intervals, mesin yang diberikan semuanya sama besar dan simetris spasi, pada 120 °
interval,
in time-phase, the phase order beingthe same for all the machines. dalam waktu-fasa,
maka urutan beingthe fase yang sama untuk semua mesin. This phase order, Perintah
fase,
namely the order in which the instantaneous phase voltages attain their maximum
yaitu urutan fasa sesaat tegangan mencapai maksimum
values in the cycle, is termed the positive-sequence phase-order. nilai dalam siklus,
yang disebut-urutan-urutan fase positif. It readily follows Ini mudah berikut
from this system phase-symmetry that conditions which are themselves balanced dari
fase-simetri sistem yang kondisi yang seimbang sendiri
with respect to the three phases (for example, balanced4oad and three-phase short-
sehubungan dengan tiga fase (misalnya, balanced4oad dan tiga fase pendek
circuit conditions) will preserve this phase symmetry in that the resulting phase
kondisi sirkuit) akan mempertahankan simetri ini fase dalam fase yang dihasilkan
currents and similarly, the resulting phase voltages at any point in the system will arus
dan sama, fase tegangan yang dihasilkan pada setiap titik dalam sistem akan
also be balanced with respect to the three phases. juga diimbangi dengan hormat
kepada tiga fase. Thus, for the conditions referred Dengan demikian, untuk kondisi
dimaksud
to, the three phase currents and, similarly, the three phase-to-neutral voltages at untuk,
arus fase tiga, sama, tiga fasa-ke-netral tegangan di
any given point in the system will be equal in magnitude and equally spaced at suatu
titik tertentu dalam sistem akan sama besarnya dan sama spasi di
120 ° intervals in time-phase, the phase order being the same as that of the generated
120 ° interval waktu-fase, urutan fase menjadi sama dengan yang dihasilkan
phase-to-neutral voltages, namely the positive-sequence phase-order. fase-ke-netral
tegangan, yaitu urutan-urutan fase positif. These currents Arus ini
and voltages are termed positive-sequence currents and voltages and are represented
dan tegangan yang disebut-urutan arus positif dan tegangan dan diwakili
in vector-diagram form in the manner shown in Fig. dalam bentuk diagram vektor
dengan cara yang ditunjukkan dalam Gambar. 3.3.1A. 3.3.1A.
The mathematical relationships between these balanced (positive-sequence)
Hubungan matematis antara seimbang (positif-urutan)
phase values at any given point in the power system are the same for both current
tahap nilai pada suatu titik tertentu dalam sistem kekuasaan yang sama untuk kedua
saat ini
.and voltage, namely yaitu. dan tegangan,
and dan
i = cao i = Cao
V b =aVa V b = Ava
v =aVo v = avo
3.3.1.1 3.3.1.1
where the subscripts a, b and c denote the three phases in positive-sequence phase-
dimana subskrip a, b dan c menunjukkan tiga fase dalam tahap positif-urutan-
order and the symbol a (not to be confused with the phase reference) is a constant
ketertiban dan simbol yang (tidak harus bingung dengan referensi fasa) adalah
konstan
Page 26 Page 26
78 78
given by diberikan oleh
1 .V3 1. V3
a . sebuah. . . . . . .
1 [120 ° 1 [120 °
2+/"--2 "- 2 +/"-- 2 "-
and in known as the 120°operator. dan dikenal sebagai operator sebesar 120 °.
VcVc
VV
h•h•
a sebuah
IC IC
1 h 1 jam
3.3.1.2 3.3.1.2
Fig. Gambar.
3.3.1A 3.3.1A
Phasor-diagrarn representation of positive-sequence voltages and currents Fasor-
diagrarn representasi-urutan tegangan positif dan arus
It will be noted that multiplication of any given vector by a gives a resultant Ini akan
dicatat bahwa multiplikasi dari setiap vektor yang diberikan oleh memberikan resultan
vector equal in magnitude to the given vector but advanced in phase (that is rotated
vektor besarnya sama dengan vektor yang diberikan tetapi maju dalam fase (yang
diputar
in an anticlockwise direction) by 120 ° with respect to the given vector. dalam arah
berlawanan arah jarum jam) dengan 120 ° terhadap vektor diberikan. Similarly
Demikian pula
multiplication by aa give a phase-advance of 240 °, because perkalian oleh aa
memberikan fase-muka 240 °, karena
( 1 _.3)( 1 ./3) (1 _.3) (1 3. /)
i aku
x/3 x / 3
32 = 2"+1 32 = 2 "1
-7 +I 7 Aku -7 + 7
=-'2- j 2 = 1[240° =- '2 - J 2 = 1 [240 °
3.3.1.3 3.3.1.3
JJ
Further multiplication gives perkalian lebih lanjut memberikan
aS = - 7 +'i "2-; 2-1 '-= 1/360° = 1[0° AS = - 7 + '2 "i -; 2-1' -= 1 / 360 ° = 1 [0 °
3.3.1.4 3.3.1.4
and so on. dan sebagainya. It should be noted that Perlu dicatat bahwa
a = 1 [120 ° = 1/-240 ° a = 1 [120 ° = 1/-240 °
a 2=1[240 °=l[- 120 ° 2 = 1 [240 ° = [l - 120 °
1 +a +a 2 =0 1 + + a 2 = 0
3.3.1.5 3.3.1.5
bearing in mind that a vector rotation forward through any given angle is the same
mengingat bahwa rotasi vektor maju melalui sudut yang diberikan adalah sama
as a rotation backwards through an angle equal to 360* minus the given angle.
sebagai rotasi mundur melalui sudut sebesar 360 * minus sudut diberikan.
The balanced conditions referred to are illustrated by Fig. Kondisi seimbang
dimaksud diilustrasikan oleh Gambar. 3.3.1B which shows 3.3.1B yang menunjukkan
an 11 kV generator with an impedance of 0 +]1 I2 per phase supplying a balanced
sebuah kV generator 11 dengan impedansi 0 +] 1 I2 per fase memasok seimbang
load of 20 + ]5 2 per phase through a transmission line of 2 +/3 I2 per phase, the
beban 20 +] 5 2 per fase melalui jalur transmisi dari 2 + / 3 I2 per fasa, maka
generator neutral point being earthed, as shown, and the transmission line having a
generator titik netral yang dibumikan, seperti yang ditunjukkan, dan jalur transmisi
memiliki
three-phase fault clear of earth at 0ae end F remote from the generator. tiga-tahap
yang jelas kesalahan bumi pada akhir F 0ae jauh dari generator. Denoting Yang
menunjukkan
Page 27 Page 27
79 79
--0 - 0
,--4m,, , - 4m,,
@@
©©
0 I jl$ 0 Saya jl $
L....-J ...- L. J
0+0+
illl illl
I Aku
;;
I Aku
i aku
CC
(; (;
22
j3l j3l
I Aku
]]
22
j3l j3l
;;
]]
22
+ .i3$Z + $. I3 Z
20 20
j55l j55l
;;
") ")
20 4 i55 20 4 i55
20 20
j5-l j5-l
I c Aku c
Ec Ec
c Ea c Ea
z,-"" VI z, - "" VI
VbVb
I a Aku seorang
Illustration of a balanced three-phase fault condition Ilustrasi kondisi kesalahan
tiga fase seimbang
the three phases, in positive-sequence phase order, by the subscripts a, b and c,
the tiga fase, di urutan-urutan fase positif, oleh subskrip a, b dan c,
generator phase-to-neutral driving-voltages are given by generator fasa-ke-
netral mengemudi-tegangan yang diberikan oleh
E a E sebuah
= 6350 +/0 = 6.350 + / 0
= 6350/0 ° V = 6.350 / 0 ° V
E b = - 3175 -/5500 = 6350/- 120 ° V E b = - 3175 -/5500 = 6.350 / - 120 ° V
EcEc
= - 3175 +/5500 = 6350/120°V = - 3175 + / 5500 = 6350/120 V °
the magnitude of the phase to neutral voltage namely 6350 V, being the line-to-
line besarnya tegangan fase ke netral yaitu 6.350 V, menjadi garis-untuk-line
voltage of 11 000 V divided by /3. tegangan 000 V 11 dibagi dengan / 3. It will be
noted that emf Ini akan dicatat bahwa ggl
E a E sebuah
has been telah
arbitrarily chosen to have zero phase-angle. sewenang-wenang memilih untuk
memiliki fase-sudut nol.
Using the rule given in Section 3.2.5 for the combination of parallel branches it
Menggunakan aturan yang diberikan dalam Bagian 3.2.5 untuk kombinasi
cabang paralel itu
will be seen that the voltage to earth, at F, of the three short-circuited phases is
akan terlihat bahwa tegangan ke bumi, pada F, dari hubung pendek tiga fase
adalah
Page 28 Page 28
80 80
2+i4[E. 2 + i4 [E. +eb + Eb
oo
IrF=- IRF =-
33
2+14 .j= 2 14. J =
because the three phase driving-voltages sum to zero and neutral current being karena
ketiga fase mengemudi-tegangan jumlah ke nol dan netral saat ini sedang
absent, the neutral point N and the earth are equipotential points. absen, titik netral N
dan bumi adalah poin ekuipotensial. The impedance impedansi yang
voltage-drop in each phase must therefore be equal to the phase-to-neutral driving-
tegangan-drop di setiap fase sehingga harus sama dengan fase-ke-netral mengemudi-
voltage in the phase in question and, hence, the three phase currents in the tegangan
dalam fase tersebut dan, karenanya, arus fase tiga pada
generator and transmission line are given by generator dan saluran transmisi yang
diberikan oleh
6350 +10 10 6350
Ia IA
==
= 635 - 11270 = 1420/-63.4°A = 635-11270 = 1420/-63.4 a °
2+14 2 14
-3175 -/5500 = - 1418 +i85 = 1420[176.6 ° A -3.175 -/5500 = - 1.418 + i85 = 1420 [a
° 176,6
/'b = / 'B =
2+/4 2 + / 4
-3175 +/5500 -3.175 + / 5500
I c Aku c
==
= 783 +11185 = 1420[56"6 ° A = 783 11185 = 1420 [56 "6 ° A
2+/4 2 + / 4
The phase-to-earth (and phase-to-neutral) voltages at the generator terminals G are
Fase-ke-bumi (dan fase-ke-netral) tegangan pada terminal generator G
equal to the phase voltage drops in the transmission line and are therefore given by
sama dengan tegangan fase tetes di jalur transmisi dan karenanya diberikan oleh
Ir a Ir a
= (635 -/1270) (2 +i3) = 5080 -/635 = (635 -/1270) (2 + I3) = 5.080 -/635
= 5119/-7.1"v = 5119/-7.1 "v
vb = (- 1418 +i85) (2 +/'3) = - 3091 - 14084 = 5119[ - 127.1°v vb = (- 1418 + i85) (2
+ / '3) = - 3.091-14.084 = 5.119 [- 127,1 ° v
vc vc
= (783 +11185) (2 +13) = - 1989 +/4179 = 5119[112.9°v = (783 11185) (2 13) = -
1989 + / 4.179 = 5.119 [112,9 ° v
The three-phase short-circuit at F has been assumed to be clear of earth in this Tiga-
fase pendek sirkuit F telah dianggap jelas bumi ini
example but it will be evident that, because contoh tetapi ini akan menjadi jelas
bahwa, karena
VF VF
has been shown to be zero, a three- telah terbukti menjadi nol, tiga-
phase-to-earth fault at F would result in zero current in the earth connection and -Ke-
bumi di F kesalahan fase akan menghasilkan nol saat ini di bumi dan sambungan
would thus give precisely the same results as those already obtained for the fault
dengan demikian akan memberikan hasil yang sama persis dengan yang sudah
diperoleh untuk kesalahan
clear of earth. yang jelas bumi. The three-phase vector diagrams of the currents and
voltages are Vektor diagram fase-tiga dari arus dan tegangan adalah
shown in Fig. ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 3.3.1B. 3.3.1B.
Now, it will be evident from Eqns. Sekarang, itu akan terbukti dari Eqns. 3.3.1.1 that
a knowledge of the phase 3.3.1.1 bahwa pengetahuan tentang fase
currents and voltages relating to any one chosen reference phase will enable the arus
dan tegangan yang berhubungan dengan salah satu fasa referensi dipilih akan
mengaktifkan
corresponding values of current and voltage in the other two phases to be deter- sesuai
nilai-nilai arus dan tegangan pada fase dua lainnya akan menghalangi-
mined. ditambang. Thus, if phaso-a is chosen as the reference phase then the phase-b
values of Jadi, jika sebuah phaso-dipilih sebagai referensi maka fase-fase nilai b
current and voltage are simply the corresponding phase-a values multiplied by a 2
arus dan tegangan secara sederhana adalah sebuah fase yang sesuai-nilai dikalikan
dengan 2
and the phase-c values the corresponding phase-a values multiplied by a, where a is
dan fase-fase nilai c-suatu nilai yang sesuai dikalikan dengan suatu, di mana a adalah
the 120 ° operator. operator sebesar 120 °. For the purposes of analysis, therefore, the
power system of Untuk keperluan analisis, oleh karena itu, sistem kekuasaan
Fig, 3.3.1B can be represented by the single-phase network shown in Fig. Gambar,
3.3.1B dapat diwakili oleh fase jaringan tunggal ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 3.3.1C,
3.3.1C,
this single-phase network and the associated single-phase vector diagram both ini-fase
jaringan tunggal dan vektor diagram fase tunggal terkait baik
relating to the chosen reference phase, namely phase a. berkaitan dengan fase
referensi dipilih, yaitu fase a.
The single.phase representation, although demonstrated for the extremely simple
Representasi single.phase, meskipun menunjukkan untuk yang sangat sederhana
system of Fig. Gambar sistem. 3.3.1B, is equally applicable to any balanced three-
phase network 3.3.1B, sama-sama berlaku untuk setiap jaringan tiga fase seimbang
Page 29 Page 29
81 81
operating under balanced conditions, for example balanced4oad or three-phase
beroperasi dalam kondisi seimbang, untuk balanced4oad misalnya atau tiga-fasa
short-circuit conditions. kondisi sirkuit pendek. The single-phase network obtained is
termed the system The-fase jaringan tunggal yang diperoleh disebut sistem
positive-sequence network, and the impedances represented in the network are the
Jaringan urutan-positif, dan impedansi terwakili dalam jaringan adalah
impedances appropriate to positive sequence conditions, termed the positive-
impedansi urutan sesuai dengan kondisi positif, disebut positif-
sequence impedances. impedansi urutan. It will be noted from Fig. Ini akan dicatat
dari Gambar. 3.3.1C that the three-phase short- 3.3.1C bahwa tiga fase pendek
circuit is represented in the positive-sequence network by the short-circuiting sirkuit
diwakili dalam jaringan urutan-positif oleh arus pendek
connection from the point of fault F to the zero-potential (neutral) bar represented
sambungan dari titik F kesalahan ke netral) bar-potensi (nol diwakili
by the thick horizontal fine. oleh baik horisontal tebal. With this short-circuiting
connection absent, the Dengan hubungan arus pendek koneksi tidak ada, yang
conditions represented are those corresponding to the balanced-load condition kondisi
diwakili adalah mereka yang sesuai dengan kondisi beban seimbang
existing before the application of the three-phase short circuit. yang ada sebelum
penerapan fase sirkuit pendek-tiga.
_•• _ • •
OO
.il . Il
FF
21) jS 21) JS
ff
;;
r-'-I r-'-aku
GG
2 i3fl 2 i3fl
||
I Aku
VV
Single-phase representation of Fig. Single-tahap representasi dari Gambar. 3.3.1B
3.3.1B
3.3.2 Use of a common voltage base 3.3.2 Penggunaan dasar tegangan umum
The simple example of the previous Section was solved by direct analysis of the
Contoh sederhana dari Bagian sebelumnya diselesaikan dengan analisis langsung dari
given network using actual values of plant impedance together with actual values of
diberikan untuk jaringan dengan nilai yang sebenarnya dari impedansi tanaman
bersama-sama dengan nilai aktual
the power-system currents and voltages. dengan sistem arus listrik dan tegangan. This
direct application of the network laws Aplikasi ini langsung dari jaringan hukum
was possible because the network interconnections were direct (that is, not through
mungkin karena jaringan interkoneksi adalah langsung (yaitu, tidak melalui
transformers) or, put in another way, because the whole system had the same
transformer) atau, menaruh dengan cara lain, karena seluruh sistem telah sama
nominal rated voltage for all its component items of plant. tegangan nominal untuk
semua item komponen tanaman. The power systems Sistem listrik
which have to be considered in practice, however, almost invariably consist of a yang
harus dipertimbangkan dalam prakteknya, hampir selalu terdiri dari
number of sections operating at different nominal rated voltages, the interconnec-
jumlah bagian yang beroperasi pada voltase berbeda nominal, yang interconnec-
tions between sections being by means of transformers. tions antara bagian yang
melalui transformator. The analysis of such Analisis tersebut
multiple-section systems is achieved by representing the given network by an -Bagian
sistem beberapa dicapai dengan mewakili jaringan yang diberikan oleh
equivalent network whose several sections all have the same nominal rated voltage.
jaringan yang setara beberapa bagian semua memiliki tegangan nominal yang sama.
This procedure allows the transformer interconnections to be replaced by equiva-
Prosedur ini memungkinkan interkoneksi transformator akan digantikan oleh equiva-
lent direct interconneetions, the resulting network being then amenable to direct
interconneetions langsung dipinjamkan, sehingga jaringan yang kemudian setuju
untuk langsung
solution using the normal methods of network analysis. solusi menggunakan metode
analisis jaringan normal.
Page 30 Page 30
82 82
The derivation of this so-called common-voltage equivalent network can be
Penurunan ini biasa disebut jaringan tegangan setara sehingga dapat
readily understood by considering the two network sections, P and Q, shown in
mudah dipahami dengan mempertimbangkan dua bagian jaringan, P dan Q, yang
ditunjukkan pada
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.2A, the two sections being interconnected by an ideal transformer of
turns 3.3.2A, dua bagian yang saling berhubungan oleh ternyata trafo ideal
ratio M (= rasio M (=
Np/Nq) Np / Nq)
where dimana
nominal rated voltage of network-section P nominal tegangan jaringan-bagian P
M= M =
3.3.2.1 3.3.2.1
nominal rated voltage of network-section Q tegangan nominal jaringan-bagian Q
The two network sections are each represented, for simplicity, by a single branch
Kedua bagian jaringan masing-masing diwakili, untuk kesederhanaan, dengan satu
cabang
consisting of a driving voltage and an impedance in series, their values being terdiri
dari tegangan mengemudi dan impedansi seri, maka nilai yang
Ep Ep
and dan
Zp Zp
for network-section P and untuk jaringan-bagian P dan
Eq Persamaan
and dan
Zq Zq
for network-section Q. The ideal- untuk jaringan-bagian Q. ideal
transformer terminal-voltages and currents are similarly denoted by terminal
transformator tegangan dan arus sama-sama dilambangkan dengan
Vp Vp
and dan
lp lp
and dan
Vq Vq
and dan
1q, 1Q,
where dimana
I t, Aku t,
is the current flowing out of network-section P and adalah arus yang mengalir keluar
dari jaringan-bagian P dan
lq LQ
that bahwa
flowing into network-section Q. Now, because the transformer is ideal (that is has
mengalir ke bagian jaringan T. Sekarang, karena trafo ideal (yang memiliki
windings of zero leakage.impedance and takes zero exciting current), it follows that
gulungan dari nol leakage.impedance dan mengambil nol saat ini menarik), maka
yang
Vp = MVq = V; Vp = MVq = V;
say I kataku
= Iq/M Iq = / M
--
''
--
I say Kataku
3.3.2.2 3.3.2.2
I Aku
and it is easily seen that these same equations are satisfied by the equivalent system-
dan mudah dilihat bahwa persamaan yang sama dipenuhi oleh sistem setara
network of Fig. Gambar jaringan. 3.3.2B in which the ideal transformer is represented
by a direct 3.3.2B di mana transformator ideal adalah diwakili oleh langsung
zero-impedance interconnection. impedansi nol-interkoneksi. This equivalent network
has the same nominal Jaringan ini setara memiliki nominal yang sama
rated voltage throughout, namely that of network-section P, and consists of the
tegangan di seluruh, yaitu bahwa bagian jaringan-P, dan terdiri dari
given network-section P and the equivalent or referred network-section Q'. diberikan
bagian jaringan P dan setara atau disebut jaringan-bagian Q '. It will Ini akan
be noted that the referred network-section Q' contains the referred values dicatat
bahwa bagian jaringan disebut-Q 'berisi nilai-nilai dimaksud
E = MEq E = mEq
==
lq'= Iq/M LQ '= IQ / M
Zq Zq
= M 2 Zq M = 2 Zq
PP
F . F. . . . . . .
i aku
!!
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.2A 3.3.2A
3. 3. :2.3 : 2.3
..
..
..
..
..
"7 "7
i aku
Ip Ip
M : I M: Aku
Iq Zq Iq Zq
[[
'; tl i '; Tl i
i aku
Vp I Vp Saya
Vq Vq
!!
_1 _1
JJ
Simplified representation of two networks with ideal-transformer interconnection
Sederhana representasi dari dua jaringan interkoneksi dengan-transformator ideal
in place of the actual network values, the expression for the referred impedance di
tempat nilai-nilai jaringan yang nyata, ekspresi untuk impedansi dimaksud
following from the fact that the voltages in the referred network are all M times the
berikut dari kenyataan bahwa tegangan di jaringan dimaksud adalah kali M semua
corresponding voltages in the actual network. sesuai tegangan di jaringan yang
sebenarnya. Thus, the voltage-drop across Jadi, tegangan drop di
Zq in Zq di
the actual network is jaringan sebenarnya adalah
lqZq lqZq
and the corresponding voltage-drop in the referred net- dan penurunan tegangan yang
sesuai-sebagaimana dimaksud dalam net-
Page 31 Page 31
83 83
ff
i aku
i aku
i aku
i aku
i aku
!!
k.. k..
11
rr
/p Ii, [ / P Ii, [
i aku
r--1 ; I r - 1; saya
i aku
li li
''
i aku
i aku
oo
i aku
i aku
Q, Q,
Itt/M M2Zq Itt / M M2Zq
I Aku
vv
ff
i aku
i aku
I MVq Aku MVq
00
Fig. Gambar.
3.3.2B 3.3.2B
Common-voltage equivalent of Fig. Common-tegangan setara Gambar. 3.3.2.4
3.3.2.4
work is kerja
IqZq, IqZq,
so that sehingga
MIqZq MIqZq
zi, = zi, =
= MZq = MZq
Now, eqns. Sekarang, eqns. 3.3.2.3 will apply to all the voltages, currents and
impedances in 3.3.2.3 akan berlaku untuk semua tegangan, arus dan impedansi di
network-section Q when the latter is considered as a general network rather than as
jaringan-bagian Q saat terakhir dianggap sebagai jaringan umum daripada sebagai
a single branch. cabang tunggal. For this general case, therefore, the voltages, currents
and Untuk kasus yang umum, karena itu, tegangan, arus dan
impedances given in eqns. impedansi diberikan dalam eqns. 3.3.2.3 can now be
regarded as general network values, 3.3.2.3 sekarang dapat dianggap sebagai nilai
jaringan umum,
the equations given representing the relationships between actual values and their
diberikan persamaan yang mewakili hubungan antara nilai yang sebenarnya dan
mereka
referred equivalents. disebut setara. This general case is represented in block-diagram
form in Ini kasus yang umum direpresentasikan dalam bentuk blok-Diagram dalam
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.2C. 3.3.2C.
I' Aku '
QI QI
rr
i aku
FF
]]
i aku
i aku
io io
,, ,,
,o , O
i aku
i aku
%%
'" '"
°i ° i
I Aku
<<
i aku
i aku
i aku
i aku
i aku
I Aku
I Aku
I Aku
i aku
i aku
i aku
i aku
i aku
v, v,
,, ,,
,,
i aku
VV
pp
ZZ
il il
t I Aku t
"t I "Saya t
o I o Aku
,o , O
I Aku
i aku
JJ
tt
JJ
Generalised representation of Fig. Generalised representasi Gambar. 3.3.28 3.3.28
Consider, now, an ideal-transformer interconnection between network-section Q
Pertimbangkan, sekarang, sebuah transformator-interkoneksi yang ideal antara
jaringan-bagian Q
and a third network-section S, the turns ration N (-- dan bagian ketiga jaringan S,
ternyata ransum N (-
Nq/Ns) Nq / Ns)
of this transformer transformator ini
being given by yang diberikan oleh
nominal rated voltage of network section Q tegangan nominal bagian jaringan Q
N=N=
3.3.2.4 3.3.2.4
nominal rated voltage of network section S nominal tegangan bagian jaringan S
By similar reasoning to that already described, the two network sections Q and S
Dengan alasan serupa dengan yang sudah dijelaskan, kedua jaringan bagian Q dan S
can be represented by an equivalent network consisting of the given network- dapat
diwakili oleh jaringan setara yang diberikan terdiri dari jaringan-
section Q and an equivalent or referred network-section S', the referred network-
bagian Q dan setara atau disebut jaringan-bagian S ', yang disebut jaringan
Page 32 Page 32
84 84
section S' containing the referred values bagian S 'yang memiliki nilai-nilai dimaksud
E; = NEs E; = Nes
v; =NG v; = NG
z; = NZ z; = NZ
3.3.2.5 3.3.2.5
in place of the actual network values. di tempat nilai-nilai jaringan yang nyata. The
ideal-transformer interconnection The-trafo ideal interkoneksi
between network-sections Q and S is now represented as previously by a direct antara
jaringan-bagian Q dan S sekarang diwakili seperti sebelumnya dengan langsung
zero-impedance interconnection in the equivalent system-network. impedansi nol-
interkoneksi di jaringan-sistem setara.
The equivalent system-network is shown in block-diagram form in Fig. Jaringan
setara sistem ditampilkan dalam bentuk diagram blok pada Gambar. 3.3.2D. 3.3.2D.
Suppose, now, that all three network sections are interconnected through the
Misalnya, sekarang, bahwa ketiga bagian jaringan saling berhubungan melalui
given ideal transformers. diberikan transformator ideal. Then it will be evident that
the equivalent network con- Maka akan tampak jelas bahwa jaringan setara con-
sisting of Q and S' can itself be replaced by another equivalent network consisting
sisting Q dan S 'sendiri bisa diganti dengan jaringan lain setara yang terdiri
of Q' and S", this latter equivalent network being directly connected through zero- Q
'dan S ", jaringan ini setara terakhir secara langsung terhubung melalui nol
impedance to the network-section P. Now the values in the network-section Q' are
impedansi ke bagian-jaringan P. Sekarang nilai-nilai di bagian-jaringan Q 'adalah
(.) (.)
SS
rr
I Aku
rr
11
''
I Aku
I Aku
I Aku
,,
i aku
i aku
i I i saya
I Aku
ee
jj
I:,t I:, t
Il Il
o . o.
[[
oo
I Aku
I Aku
!!
i aku
i aku
i aku
I Aku
;;
i aku
i aku
ss
''
i aku
i aku
vv
''
;;
I Aku
I Aku
i aku
I Aku
vv
,. ,.
i aku
io io
!!
oo
,,
-._ -. _
JJ
tt
,, ,,
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.20 3.3.20
those already given by eqns. mereka yang sudah diberikan oleh eqns. 3.3.2.3 while
those in S", are given by applying these 3.3.2.3 sementara mereka yang di S ", yang
diberikan dengan menerapkan ini
same equations to the values in S'. persamaan yang sama dengan nilai dalam S '.
Hence, it follows that Oleh karena itu, berikut bahwa
E' = M.NE, E '= M. NE,
G' =MVG G '= MVG
q' q '
= ;,/Mlv =;, / Mlv
z;' = (.v)z z; '= (. v) z
3.3.2.6 3.3.2.6
CC
l'.p l '. p
I p Saya p
Vp Vp
/p / P
QiTi
S" S "
||
rr
I Aku
ii ii
if jika
ll
,i,I
oi oi
i aku
i aku
i aku
':, ':,
':, ':,
ii ii
': ':
'" i '"I
ii ii
ii ii
i aku
oo
oo
oo
I Aku
oo
I Aku
vlq vlq
''
""
''
,' , '
!!
I Aku
v, v,
""
I Aku
oo
oo
ii ii
I ! Aku!
I Aku
jL°L°j
°j ° j
tt
i aku
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.2E 3.3.2E
Page 33 Page 33
85 85
the resulting equivalent network for the full three-section system being represented
jaringan setara dengan yang dihasilkan untuk sistem tiga-bagian diwakili penuh
in block-diagram form by Fig. dalam bentuk diagram-blok oleh Gambar. 3.3.2E.
3.3.2E.
From eqns. Dari eqns. 3.3.2.1 and 3.3.2.4 it is seen that 3.3.2.1 dan 3.3.2.4 terlihat
bahwa
nominal rated voltage of network section P nominal tegangan bagian jaringan P
MN = MN =
nominal rated voltage of network section S nominal tegangan bagian jaringan S
and it thus follows that the rules for referring any given network section to a given
dan dengan demikian berarti bahwa aturan untuk merujuk semua bagian yang
diberikan kepada suatu jaringan yang diberikan
common nominal rated voltage, termed the common voltage base, are tegangan
nominal yang sama, disebut tegangan dasar umum, adalah
where dimana
E' = KE E '= EK
V'=KV V '= KV
I' = I/K Aku '= I / K
Z' = IZ Z '= IZ
3.3.2.7 3.3.2.7
common voltage base umum tegangan basis
K=K=
3.3.2.8 3.3.2.8
nominal rated voltage of given network section nominal tegangan dari bagian jaringan
yang diberikan
and the primed and unprimed symbols represent referred and actual values dan prima
dan unprimed simbol mewakili nilai-nilai dimaksud dan aktual
respectively. masing. It will be noted that these equations are simply a more general
state- Ini akan dicatat bahwa persamaan ini hanyalah negara yang lebih umum
ment of eqns. bangan eqns. 3.3.2.3 and 3.3.2.5. 3.3.2.3 dan 3.3.2.5.
Although these conversion equations have been derived by considering network-
Meskipun persamaan konversi telah diturunkan dengan mempertimbangkan jaringan
sections interconnected as a single point it is not difficult to see that they are equally
bagian yang saling berhubungan sebagai titik tunggal maka tidak sulit untuk melihat
bahwa mereka sama
valid for any number of interconnection points. berlaku untuk jumlah titik
interkoneksi.
The process of network analysis by the use of a common voltage base can now Proses
analisis jaringan dengan menggunakan dasar tegangan umum sekarang dapat
be seen to consist of three stages: terlihat terdiri dari tiga tahap:
(a) the conversion of the given system network to an equivalent network having (A)
konversi jaringan sistem diberikan ke jaringan setara memiliki
a single common nominal rated voltage, namely the chosen base voltage, for yang
umum tegangan nominal tunggal, yaitu tegangan dasar dipilih, untuk
all its sections semua nya bagian
(b) the solution of this equivalent network in terms of its common-base values of (B)
solusi jaringan ini setara dalam hal bersama-dasar nilai-nilai dari
voltage, current and impedance tegangan, arus dan impedansi
(c) the reconversion of the equivalent network, with its now determined (C)
reconversion jaringan setara, dengan kini ditentukan
common-base values of current and voltage, to its original actual form con- umum-
nilai dasar arus dan tegangan, dengan bentuk aslinya sebenarnya con-
taining actual values of current, voltage and impedance. taining nilai yang sebenarnya
arus, tegangan dan impedansi.
Eqns. Eqns. 3.3.2.7, used to determine the referred values of driving voltage and
3.3.2.7, digunakan untuk menentukan nilai-nilai dimaksud berkendara tegangan dan
impedance for the equivalent system network, are, of course, equally valid for the
impedansi untuk jaringan sistem setara, tentu saja, sama-sama berlaku untuk
final stage of reconversion from referred values to actual values. tahap akhir
reconversion dari nilai-nilai dimaksud nilai yang sebenarnya. These equations, Ini
persamaan,
rewritten in the form appropriate to this reconversion, are ditulis ulang dalam bentuk
yang sesuai dengan reconversion ini, adalah
E= Et/K E = Et / K
v = V'/K v = V '/ K
I =KI' I = KI '
z = z'/x z = z '/ x
3.3.2.9 3.3.2.9
Page 34 Page 34
86 86
where the primed symbols represent common-base values and the unprimed dimana
simbol-dasar prima merupakan nilai-nilai bersama dan unprimed
symbols actual values. simbol nilai-nilai aktual. The symbol K is the ratio of common
base voltage to actual simbol K adalah rasio dari tegangan dasar umum untuk aktual
nominal rated voltage, as already defined. tegangan nominal, sebagaimana telah
didefinisikan.
The use of the common voltage base is illustrated by the simple example Penggunaan
dasar tegangan umum digambarkan oleh contoh sederhana
shown in Fig. ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 3.3.2F. 3.3.2F.
It is important to note that the use of the common voltage base, as so far des- Penting
untuk dicatat bahwa penggunaan tegangan dasar umum, sejauh des-
cribed, has assumed ideal-transformer interconnections between the different cribed,
telah diasumsikan-transformator interkoneksi yang ideal antara yang berbeda
network sections, the voltage-transformation ratios of these transformers being
jaringan bagian, transformasi rasio tegangan dari transformator yang
11/33 kV 11/33 kV
3316.6 kV 3.316,6 kV
3 + j6S i' 3 + j6S i '
4 jS.L 4 jS.L
/.-.... /.-....
[[
12 kV 12 kV
phase-to-phase fase-ke-fase
I Aku
l/6.6 kV l/6.6 kV
I -i jill Aku-i Jill
4160 4.160
+.i0v +. I0v
0.12 + 0,24Sg SG 0,12 + 0,24
oo
oo
1.44 + jl,80, 1,44 + jl, 80,
!!
;;
oo
I Aku
I + jlS I + jlS
4160 + jOY 4.160 + JOY
j0.72 S. j0.72 S.
0.11 + .iO.21 0,11 +. IO.21
+ jl. + Jl.
4 160 + 4 160 +
jOY JOY
I.II , j1.'43S I. II, J1. '43S
31 31
j1620A j1620A
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.2F 3.3.2F
Application of the common voltage base for a system with ideal-transformer Aplikasi
dasar tegangan umum untuk sistem dengan ideal-transformator
interconnections (common base voltage 6.6 k V) interkoneksi (tegangan umum dasar
6,6 k V)
Page 35 Page 35
87 87
identical to the ratios of the nominal rated voltages of their associated network identik
dengan rasio dari voltase nominal yang terkait jaringan mereka
sections. bagian. As already shown, such ideal-transformer intercormections are
represented Seperti telah ditunjukkan, intercormections ideal-trafo tersebut diwakili
in the common-voltage equivalent circuit by direct intereonnections of zero di sirkuit
tegangan setara-umum oleh intereonnections langsung dari nol
impedance. impedansi. The representation necessary ha the case of practical
transformers is Representasi ha diperlukan kasus transformator praktis
discussed in the following section. dibahas pada bagian berikut.
3.3.3 Representation of nominal-ratio transformer circuits 3.3.3 Representasi
rasio transformator sirkuit-nominal
Practical transformer circuits differ from the ideal transformers of the previous
rangkaian transformator Praktis berbeda dengan transformator ideal sebelumnya
section in that they have non-hat'mite values of exciting impedance and non-zero
values of leakage impedance. From the point of view of their representation in a
common voltage equivalent circuit they may ha addition, have transformation ratios
which differ from the nominal ratios so far considered.
Two-winding transformers:
The common-voltage equivalent circuit of two-
winding transformer can be derived by considering the single-phase transformer
shown ha Fig. 3.3.3A, where H and L denote the high-voltage and low-voltage
windings, respectively. The transformer is assumed to have a high-voltage-to-low-
voltage turns-ratio N (=
NH/NL)
equal to the ratio of the nominal rated voltages of
the associated network sections. As shown in the figure, the given transformer can
be represented completely by an ideal transformer of this same turns-ratio N
together with the lumped impedances
ZH, ZL
and dan
Ze. The Itu
impedances Zt4 and ZL
are the leakage impedances of the windings H and L, respectively, and
Ze
the itu
exciting impedance,
Ze + Ztt
being the impedance which would be measured by an
open-circuit test on the high-voltage winding.
N:I
I"-
"" ""
i" i "
I,,,,.
HH
LL
.<
,. ,.
IH IH
ZH ZH
N:I
ZL
]L
c "; "
:- : -
tt
;';
oo
TI' IIITr
VH VH
ZeZe
EH EH
EL EL
VL VL
C .....
,,
OO
Fig. Gambar.
3.3.3A
Equivalent circuit of a two-winding transformer
Page 36 Page 36
88 88
Now, the voltage
EL EL
across the low-voltage winding of the ideal transformer is
EL EL
==
Vz,
+ ILZL
3.3.3.1
where dimana
VL VL
is the voltage and/i, the outflowing current at the terminal of winding L.
The voltage across the high-voltage winding of the ideal transformer is therefore
EH =
NEL
= IV(VL + IL ZL )
3.3.3.2
which can be rearranged to read
EH = NVL + (IL/N)N2 ZL
3.3.3.3 3.3.3.3
It will be noted that
NVL NVL
and dan
IL/N
are the equivalent values of
V'L and IL
when ketika
referred to the nominal rated voltage of the high.voltage winding, so that
EH EH
==
VL + fLZ
3.3.3.4
where Z (= N:ZL)is the referred value ofZL.
From Eqn. Dari Eqn. 3.3.3.4 it will be evident that the equivalent T circuit of Fig.
3.3.3B
is the required common-voltage equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to
the nominal rated voltage of the high-voltage winding H.
The exciting impedance Ze can be ignored in the great majority of calculations
because the exciting current le can normally be considered to be negligibly small.
iHiH
ZH ZH
cc
..
;;
;;
--
V HI
ZeZe
z (=N2Z L )
=[(=L/N)
EH(=EL)
V'L(=NV L)
oo
!!HH
ZHL(=ZH+N2ZL)
I Aku
>>
r-'-I
>>
OO
%%
Fig. Gambar.
3.3,3B
Common-base equivalent circuit of a two-winding transformer
In such cases, therefore the common-voltage equivalent circuit reduces to the
single series impedance
ZH + NaZL = ZHL ,
say mengatakan
3.3.3.5
shown in Fig. ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 3.3.3B. It will be noted that
ZHL
is the short-circuit impedance of
the transformer as measured from the high-voltage side with the low-voltage
winding short-circuited. The equivalent impedance of the transformer referred to
the nominal rated voltage of the low-voltage winding, namely ZLH is readily
Page 37 Page 37
89 89
obtained from the fact that
ZHL = ZLH
Ving Ving
ZLH
==
ZL
++
(I/N). ZH ZH
3.3.3.6
The impedance
ZLH
is, of course, the short-circuit impedance of the transformer as
measured from the low-voltage side with the high-voltage winding short-circuited.
Auto-transformers: The
auto-transformer differs from the two.winding trans-
former in that a single tapped winding is used in place of two separate windings, the
arrangement being as shown in Fig. 3.3.3C. The full winding, which constitutes the
high.voltage winding, is assumed to have 2V H turns and the common portion, which
constitutes the low-voltage winding, is assumed to have
NL NL
turns. berubah. As before, the Seperti sebelumnya,
transformer is assumed to have a high-voltage-to-low-voltage turns-ratio
N (=
NH/NL)
equal to the ratio of the nominal rated voltages of the associated
network sections. As shown in the figure, the given transformer can be represented
completely by an ideal auto-transformer of this same turns-ratio N together with
N:I
LL
VH VH
IH IH
ZS
1L1L
ff
zel It L
ZC .,I
00
00
VL VL
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.3C
Equivalent circuit of an auto-transformer
lumped impedances
Zs, Z e
and Ze. The impedance
ZsZs
is the leakage impedance of
that portion of the winding which lies between the high-voltage terminal and the
tapping point, the series portion, this portion having NH - Nt. turns. berubah.
Similarly, Demikian pula,
Zc is the leakage impedance of the remaining portion of the winding, namely that
between the tapping point and the common terminal. The impedance Z¢ is the
Page 38 Page 38
90 90
exciting impedance, Zs + Ze + Ze being the impedance which would be measured
by an open-circuit test on the high-voltage winding. The tapping point, it will be
noted, constitutes the low-voltage terminal of the transformer.
Now, the voltage EL across the low-voltage (common) winding of the ideal
transformer is given by
Ez, = VL + (1 L - 1H)Zc
3.3.3.7
where VL is the voltage and IL the outflowing current at the low-voltage terminal
of the winding L and 1H the inflowing current at the high-voltage terminal of
winding H. The terminal voltage VH of the high-voltage winding H is given by
VH = VL +(N- 1)EL +IHZs
3.3.3.8
Substituting for EL in this latter equation usin eqn. 3.3.3.7 gives
VH =NVL +IH[Zs- (N- 1)Zc] +IL (N- 1)Ze
3.3.3.9
which, rearranged, gives
VH =NVL +IH[Zs- (N- 1)Zc] + (IL/N)N(N- 1)Z e
3.3.3.10
It will be noted, as before, that NVL and IL/N are the equivalent values of VL
and I£ when referred to the nominal rated voltage of the high-voltage winding,
so that sehingga
VH VH
==
If L +IH[Z s- (N- 1)Zc] +N(N- 1)Z c
3.3.3.11
Now the open-circut impedance of the auto-transformer as measured from the
high-voltage side is
Zs + Ze + Zc
3.3.3.12
and that measured from the low-voltage side, but referred to the high-voltage side,
is adalah
N 2 Ze + Ze
IH IH
ZS-(NZ)Z c
N(NI)Z c
ll
qq
;;
i aku
;;
;;
>>
ZeZe
++
NZ c
3.3.3.13
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.3D
IH IH
ZHL [= Zs+(N- I)2Zc]
I. I.
c>
I--"l
>>
VH VH
Common-base equivalent circuits of an auto-transformer
Page 39 Page 39
91 91
The required common-voltage equivalent-circuit for the auto-transformer can now
be obtained using eqns. 3.3.3.11, 3.3.3.12 and 3.3.3.13 and is as shown in
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.3D, this equivalent circuit being that referred to the nominal rated
voltage
of the high-voltage winding.
If the magnetising impedance
Ze
can be ignored, as is usually the case, the
common-voltage equivalent circuit reduces to the single series impedance
ZsZs
++
(N-
1)2Ze =
ZHL
3.3.3.14
shown in Fig. 3.3.3D. It will be noted that
ZHL
is the short-circuit impedance of
the transformer as measured from the high-voltage side with the low-voltago wind-
ing short-circuited. The equivalent impedance of the transformer referred to the
low-voltage side is obtained by dividing the above value by N a , as before, the result
being menjadi
ZLH = (1]N)2 Zs + (N- 1)2 Zc/N 2
3.3.3,15
As before, the impedance
ZLH
is the short-circuit impedance of the transformer as
measured from the low-voltage side with the high.voltage winding short-circuited.
Three-winding transformers: The
common-voltage equivalent-circuit of a single.
phase three-winding transformer can be obtained by similar reasoning to that
already employed, the result being the equivalent-star circuit shown in Fig. 3,3.3E,
It is assumed, as before, that the turns ratio of each pair of windings is equal to the
ratio of the nominal rated voltages of the associated network sections. The letters
H, L and T denote the high-voltage, low-voltage and tertiary-voltage windings,
respectively, and the component branch impedances
ZH, Z'L and Z'T
are all assumed
to be values referred to the high voltage side. (Note that primed symbols denote
referred values.) These component branch impedances are obtained by similar
oo
oo
TT
H-
z, L
I Aku
!!
|U
ZH ZH
]]
I Aku
;;
jj
z'T
T'
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.3E
Common-base equivalent circuit of a Chree-winding ransforrnet
Page 40 Page 40
92 92
short-circuit impedance measurements to those used for two-winding transformers
and autotransformers. Thus, let
ZH/
==
effective impedance of winding
winding T open-circuited
Z, =
winding H open-circuited
ZH ZH
==
winding L open-circuited
H with winding L short-circuited and
L with winding T short-circuited and
T with winding H short-circuited and
all three values being referred to the high-voltage side. Then, from the equivalent
circuit it is seen that
ZHL = ZH +
Z'L
Z'Lr
==
Z'L +
Zr Zr
tt
grH
==
Zr Zr
++
ZH ZH
3.3.3.16
from which dari yang
zH
==
I(ZHL + ZH
--
ZT)
Z' L = I (zL + Z'Lr - Z'rH)
tt
1t
ZT = 2(Zr +ZH - ZL)
3.3.3.17
Fig, 3.3.3F
ZH ZH
HC HC
."'1-----
z,,.
LI LI
||
"1 "1
0 T'
ZeZe
Common.base equivalent circuit of a three-winding transformer with exciting
impedance impedansi
included. disertakan.
The equivalent-star representation of Fig. 3.3.3E is equally valid whether the three
windings are electrically separate or not and is therefore also applicable to the quite
common case in which two of the windings form an auto-transformer, the third
winding only being electrically separate.
If it is required to represent exciting impedance in the equivalent circuit this can
be done by adding an impedance of appropriate value between the star-point of the
Page 41 Page 41
Fault calculation
93 93
12 12
kV kV
phase-to-phase fase-ke-fase
4160 4.160
+ j0V
.-n.lm-
I Aku
1/33 kV
ZHL=J1.512,
33
+ j6,$I
I Aku
I Aku
44
+ jS [.
jO.06l
0.12 + jO.241Z
1.44 1,44
+jI.8012
33/6.6 kV
ZHL=J2,
ll
i +jl,
ZHL=JI ,I
11
I/6.6 kV
jO.O8l
4160 4.160
+jOV
j0.7212
O.12 + j0.33
1 +jill
II II
E::::3-
4160 + jOV
1.12 + j2.OSlZ
r'-"l
855 -jlS6SA
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.3G
Example of Fig. 3.3.2F but with practical transformer Interconnectlona.
(common base voltage 6.6 k W
impedances impedansi
ZH, Z'L
and Z- and neutral, as shown in Fig. 3.3.3F. This exciting
impedance must, of course, be to the same common voltage base as th¢ other
impedances.
The representation of transformer impedance is illustrated by the simplo
example shown in Fig. 3.3.3G, this being the same as that given in Fig. 3,3,2F
except that the transformers, previously assumed ideal, now have the given
values
of winding impedance.
Page 42 Page 42
94 94
It might be expected that transformers having more than three windings would
be represented by an equivalent-star circuit similar to that shown in Fig. 33.3E
but with the number of branches in the star (exciting impedance ignored) equal to
the number of windings. This form of representation is not normally valid,
however, for transformers having more than three windings, and such transformers
normally require to be represented by an equivalent-mesh circuit. This mesh circuit
oo
cc
oo
cc
00
(, (,
1) I
oo
BI BI
(,e
00
AA
cc
oo
EE
¢¢
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.3H
BB
00
00
IJl IJl
AA
EI EI
DI DI
(,i
Common-base equivalent circuits of four-winding and five-winding transformers
with exciting impedance ignored
has one terminal per winding with every pair of terminals interconnected by an
impedance. impedansi. Thus, a four-winding transformer would be represented by
four
terminals interconnected by six impedances and a five-winding transformer by five
terminals interconnected by ten impedances. This form of representation is shown
in Fig. pada Gambar. 3.3.3H.
3.3,4 Representation of off-nominal-ratio transformer circuits
It has so far been assumed that the transformers are all nominal-ratio transformers,
that is that the turns ratio of each transformer is equal to the ratio of the nominal
rated voltages of its associated network sections. Put in another way, it has been
Page 43 Page 43
95 95
assumed that the nominal rated voltage of each transformer winding is identical to
that of the network section to which it is connected. This assumption is commonly
made in fault calculations but it is nevertheless sometimes necessary to consider
cases in which the transformer ratio is different from this nominal value, the most
common cause of such a difference being the ratio change produced by transformer
tap-change equipment. A treatment of off-nominal-ratio transformers is given in
Appendix 3.8.1.
3.3.5 Transformer phase-shifts
The single-phase (reference-phase) representation of three-phase transformers, as
required for the system positive-sequence network, has so far proceeded on the
tacit assumption that all the transformer windings are star connected. It is necessary,
Itu perlu,
R (a)
vv
(b) (B)
a(c)
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.5A
r (a)
r"y"y'"y
y(h)
r*'T*'TY
b (c)
therefore, to examine the validity of this single-phase representation for those cases
where other winding connections (for example delta and interconnected-star
connections) are employed. The point at issue arises from the fact that, for a power
system without transformers, the three system phases have an identity which
extends throughout the network. With transformers present, however, the identity
of a given phase conductor is limited to the particular network section concerned,
this identity terminating at each and every transformer interconnection between
that network section and the rest of the system.
The single-phase representation is valid if all the transformers are star connected
since the phase references a, b and c can then apply to the corresponding phases of
all the network sections, the reference phase (phase a) then having an identity
which extends throughout the network. These conditions are shown in Fig. 3.3.5A.
Consider, however, the star-delta transformer shown in Fig. 3.3.5B in which the
star-side and delta-side phase-terminals are denoted by the phase letters R, Y, B and
r, y, b, respectively, allocated as shown. The relationship between the star-side and
the delta-side currents and voltages can be obtained by considering each limb of
the transformer core and its associated two windings to constitute a single-phase
transformer, and combining the delta-side phase-winding voltages and currents to
Page 44 Page 44
96 Fault calculation
obtain the phase-terminal values. The vector diagrams show the resulting relation-
ship between the star-side and delta-side positive-sequence voltages under no-load
conditions and that between the star-side and delta-side positive-sequence currents,
exciting current ignored. The delta-side currents and no-load voltages, it wig be
noted, all lag their corresponding star-side values by 30 ° , this phase shift being
caused by the particular star-delta connection of the windings and the given alloca-
tion of the phase references. It readily follows, therefore, that with the transformer
providing the interconnection between two network sections, the effect of the
star-delta connection as compared with the star-star connection is that the currents
and voltages at any point in the delta-side network-section are all retarded in phase
by 30 ° with respect to any reference vector in the star-side network. Now, all the
RR
YY
BB
rE1
VbVb
No-Load Voltages
1B1B
Iy 0
Ib
illl illl
l\x [
Currents Arus
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.6B
Phase-shifts introduced by a star/delta transformer
Page 45 Page 45
97 97
transformers in an interconnected power system must have compatible phase-shifts.
In other words, the phase-shift introduced between any two network sections as a
result of transformer winding.connections must be the same for all the inter-
connecting paths between the two sections. This means, in effect, that the phase-
shifts introduced by the transformer winding-connections have no effect on the
magnitudes of the current and voltage values, these magnitudes being identical to
those which would be obtained if all the transformer windings were star-connected.
The only effect of the transformer winding-connections, therefore, is to shift the
vector phase.positions of the currents and voltages in any given network section
with respect to those in any other network section or with respect, for example, to
the chosen common reference vector for the whole power system. The amount of
Jumlah
this phase-shift is known if the winding connections of the interconnecting trans-
formers are known, the total phase-shift introduced by a number of transformers
in series being the algebraic sum of their individual phase-shifts.
The effect of transformer winding-connections can now be seen to be readily
obtained by simply analysing the system network with all the transformer windings
treated as if they were star-connected (that is by using the single-phase equivalent
circuits already described) and using the phase reference a, b and c to denote the
phases of this hypothetical system, these phase references denoting actual phase
conductors in one, or possibly more, of the network sections. The phase currents
and voltages so obtained can then be corrected in phase, as necessary, to allow for
the transformer phase-shifts, the resulting values then being correct in both magni-
tude and phase.
Thus, considering the particular case of a two-section system interconnected by the
star-delta transformer of Fig. 3.3.5B, let it be assumed that the reference phase
(phase a) has been chosen to correspond to phase R on the star side of the trans.
former. mantan. Then, at any given point in the star-side network-section, the phase
voltages
and currents are given by
vs = Vo
zs = I°
Vy=a2Va
I r = a2 Ia
VB =aV°
18 =a/o
where Va and Ia are the values of the reference-phase positive-sequence voltage and
current at the point in question. The symbol a is the 120 ° operator already defined.
Now the reference phase on the delta side of the transformer is a hypothetical con-
tinuation of that on the star side based on the assumed star-star transformer-inter-
connection and hence, for any point in the delta-side network-section, the phase
voltages and currents are given by
v, = 1/- 30°1I,
Vy = 1[- 300a 2 Va
Vb = 1/- 30*aV a
i,= l/- 30%
ly =
1/-
30°aZ la
/b = 1/-3O°a/.
Page 46 Page 46
98 98
where dimana
Va
and dan
Ia IA
are now the values of the reference-phase positive-sequence voltage
and current at the point in question in the delta-side network section. The symbol a
is the 120 ° operator, as before, the vector multiplier l/s_._* representing the
necessary phase-shift correction.
The phase correction required in any given network-section is determined from a
knowledge of the winding connections of the transformers present in any inter-
connecting path between that particular network-section and the network-section
containing the chosen system reference vector. The phase-shifts are normally
known from the system phasing diagram but can otherwise be obtained from a
knowledge of the vector-symbol reference (for example, Ydl, Dyl 1, Yy0, etc.)of
the transformers concerned and their phase markings. The vector-symbol references
are defined in British Standard BS 171:1978, the first (capital)letter denoting the
connection of the high-voltage winding (Y for star, D for delta and Z for inter-
connected-star), the second (small) letter the connection of the low-voltage winding
using similar small-letter symbols (y, d and z) and the remaining figure (0, I, 6 or
11) being the clock-dial reference representing the hour position of the low-voltage
phase-vector in relation to that of the corresponding (similarly lettered) high-voltage
phase-vector, the latter being assumed to occupy the 0 (that is 12 o'clock) position.
In determining the network-section phase-shifts due account must, of course, be
taken of the actual phase references employed, usually red, yellow and blue, and
their allocation with respect to the BS transformer phase-terminal references. The Itu
latter are A, B and C for the high-voltage winding and a, b and c for the low-voltage
winding and should not be confused with the general phase references a, b and c
employed in the network analysis.
In so far as balanced-load and three-phase short-circuit conditions are concerned,
it is of interest to note that correction for transformer phase-shifts is not normally
of any practical interest or value, since such correction merely ensures the correct
relative phase displacements of the currents and voltages in different network-
sections. bagian. The currents and voltages in any given network-section have correct
phase
angles with respect to each other whether phase correction is applied or not, since
the effect of phase correction is merely to shift all the voltage and current vectors
in any network-section by the same fixed amount. In analysing balanced-load or
three-phase short-circuit conditions, therefore, phase correction is usually ignored
and the network analysed by assuming star-connected transformer windings.
As will be seen in later sections, however, the effect of transformer phase-shifts
must be considered in obtaining the correct analysis of unbalanced-fault conditions.
3.3.6 Representation of synchronous machines
The representation of a synchronous machine in the positive-sequence network is
by means of the single-phase (reference-phase) circuit shown in Fig. 3.3.6A, the
Page 47 Page 47
99 99
ZZ
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.6A
Positive-sequence equivalent circuit ofa synchronous machine
oo
ru ru
oo
.... .... q.%%.
JVVVVVUVUVVI
--A --
Stead y-state va|ue
••
L___ JV'J",
VVVUvvuuvv
I h Saya h
oo
Steady-state value
-----'u
uvv
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.6B
Instantaneous phase-currents of a synchronous machine during a three-phase
short-circuit at its terminals
Page 48 Page 48
100 100
circuit comprising a positive-sequence driving.voltage in series with the machine
positive-sequence impedance. The values of voltage and impedance to be employed
in the representation, however, are dependent on the machine operating conditions
at the instant in question and on whether the condition to be analysed is a steady-
state condition or a condition following a sudden change in electrical conditions,
for example a system short-circuit.
The factors which determine the required representation can be understood by
considering the effect of a three-phase terminal short-circuit on an unloaded
machine as shown by the osciUograms of Fig. 3.3.6B, the field excitation voltage
being assumed constant at the value required to produce rated voltage at the
machine terminals prior to the application of the fault. The variation with time of
Stead y-state value
0:2 0:2
oY3
0:,
Time in seconds
Fig. Gambar.
3.3.6C
Variation with time of the rms, ac component of short=circuit current of
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.6B
the rmsac, component of the phase current is shown in Fig. 3.3.6C, this value
being the same in each of the three phases. It will be noted that the reduction in
the short-circuit current magnitude with time is exponential in form, and this
reduction is caused by the effects of mutual coupling between the stator and rotor
windings, as represented by armature reaction, and of similar coupling between
each of these windings and another effective winding representing induced-current
paths in the body and poles of the rotor and in any damping windings which might
be present. hadir.
The rms, current magnitude at any time t after the instant of short-circuit is
tt
tt
Est
Et Et
Tst
Et Es
Tt E s
I=I=
ee
++
ee
+-- + -
3.3.6.1
Zst Zt
Zt Zs
ZsZs
and is seen to consist of a constant component and two exponentially-decaying
components. komponen. The first exponentially-decaying component is a rapidly-
decaying
component of time-constant Tst and the second a more slowly decaying component
of time-constant T t. The machine impedances Zs, Zt and Z s are termed the sub-
transient, transient and synchronous impedances, respectively, and can be regarded
Page 49 Page 49
Fault calculation 101
for most practical purposes as purely reactive, that is as/Xst,/Xt and/Xs. The Itu
voltages Est, Et and E s are the voltages behind these impedances, their values being
the vector sum of the machine terminal voltage and the appropriate impedance
voltage-drop in the machine immediately prior to the short-circuit. The time-
constants Tst and T t are termed the sub-transient and transient short-circuit time-
constant, respectively, the former usually being of the order of twenty or thirty
milli-seconds and the latter of the order of one or two seconds. For the case of a
Untuk kasus
short-circuit on an unloaded machine, the voltages Est, Et and E s would, of course,
all be equal to the pre-fault value of the open-circuit phase-to-neutral terminal
voltage of the machine.
Es
I"'..,
p/
"'.7
Fig. Gambar.
3.3.6D
Phasor diagram for a round-rotor synchronous machine
It will be noted from eqn. 3.3.6.1 that the current at the instant of short-circuit
(t = 0) is equal to Est/Zst and is69thus determined by the sub-transient impedance
only. saja. Similarly, the current under steady-state conditions (t' much greater than
Tst
and Tt) is given by Es/Z s and is determined by the synchronous impedancE only. If
Jika
the initial, rapidly-decaying, transient component is ignored, the Initial current is
effectively given by Et/Z t and is thus determined by the transient impedance only.
The vector diagram for a synchronous machine (cyliNdrical-rotoR type assumed) iS
shown in Fig. ditunJukkan pada Gambar. 3.3.6D where V represents the phase-to-
neutral terminal-voltage of
the machine and I the current flowing out of the machine.
In addition to the ac components of short-circuit current, two at least of the
three phases will have an exponentially-decaying dc component of current as
shown by the off-set of the current waves with respect to the zero axis in Fig.
3.3.6B. The initial value of this dc component in any given phase depends on the
instantaneous value of the phase voltage at the instant of short-circuit and is a maxi-
mum (equal to the peak value of the initial ac component of the phase-current)
when the instant of short-circuit (t -- O) coincides with an instant at which the
voltage behind the sub-transient impedance is instantaneously zero for the phase in
Page 50 Page 50
102 102
question. pertanyaan. Conversely, the dc component of current will be completely
absent
when the instant of short-circuit coincides with an instant at which the voltage
behind the subtransient impedance is at its maximum (peak) value. The time-
constant of the dc component of current is practically the same as the sub-transient
short-circuit time-constant Tst. Because the dc currents in the rotor field-winding
and damping-circuits are associated with ac machine-frequency currents in the
stator windings, it follows that the transient dc component of current in the stator
phases will be associated with a corresponding ac machine-frequency component
of current in the rotor field winding and damping-circuits. The variation in the
field-current of a short-circuited machine operating with constant field voltage is
shown in Fig. ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 3.3.6E.
If Jika
Stead y-sigHt, value
00
0I
0202
0.3 0,3
0.4 0,4
I'Jlllt"
ill sakit
eCcbllds
Fig. Gambar.
3.3.6E
Field current of a synchronous machine during a three-phase short-circuit at its
terminals terminal
Effect of automatic voltage regulators: The
consideration of synchronous-
machine performance presented so far has assumed constant field voltage. In Di
practice, however, machines are commonly equipped with automatic voltage
regulators whose function is to control the excitation and thereby attempt to main-
tain the machine terminal-voltage at a constant pre-set value. Under short-circuit
conditions, therefore, the regulator will increase the field voltage in an attempt to
restore the terminal voltage to its normal pre-fault value and will thus increase the
short-circuit current to a higher value corresponding to the higher field current. The
Itu
effect of a typical regulator for a terminal three-phase short-circuit on an unloaded
generator is shown in Fig. 3.3.6F, the variation in the short-circuit current with
time being a function of the response characteristics of the regulator, the field-
circuit time-constant and the maximum available field-supply voltage.
Saturation effects."
The synchronous reactance of a synchronous machine is
normally defined, in per.unit value (see Section 3.3.7), as the ratio of the field
current required to produce rated armature current on sustained three-phase
terminal short.circuit to that which would be required to produce rated armature
voltage on no-load if no saturation were present, that is with the open-circuit-
voltage/field-current characteristic assumed to be an extrapolation of its initial
straight-line form. (See Fig. 3.3.6G.) The synchronous reactance is thus, by defini-
tion, an unsaturated value and is therefore applicable to those steady-state condi-
tions in which the main flux paths of the machine can be assumed to be unsaturated.
Page 51 Page 51
CC
cJ Cj
.m . M
EE
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.6F
66
Without AVR
........
With AVR
Generator excited to gnve
rated voltage on No-Load
!!
22
33
44
Time in seconds
In the case of the sub-transient and transient reactance, the flux paths concerned
are leakage-flux paths which are partly in iron and partly in air. These reactances
are therefore not strictly constant but are dependent on the degree of saturation of
the iron paths, it being necessary, for precision, to know the conditions for which
the stated values apply. The values obtained from a terminal short-circuit test with
rated pre-fault terminal voltage are known as the rated-voltage values of sub-
transient and transient reactance, the values being saturated values because of the
high value of armature current for this condition. Unsaturated values are obtained
by performing the short-circuit test at reduced pre-fault terminal voltage, for
example, at 50% of rated voltage.
Quoted values of sub-transient and transient reactance can usually be assumed to
be unsaturated values, unless otherwise stated, these values usually being some 10
or 15% higher than the saturated values.
Salient-pole machines: The
equivalent circuit of Fig. rangkaian setara Gambar. 3.3.6A is, strictly speaking,
only valid for the case of round-rotor machines, there being no equivalent represen-
tation for salient-pole machines, the analysis of which requires the use of the two-
Page 52 Page 52
1.5 1,5
mm
:= .o
¢-,
EE
.o.5
Open-circuit test
••
.(o..
-y -Y
If I Jika saya
If 2
Field Lapangan
current arus
io io
._. . _.
EE
--
0.5 0,5
r- r-
PP
Short-circuit test
If3
Field Lapangan
current arus
Per unit synchronous impedance = lf3
ifl
Short-circuit ratio = lf.-.2
l f3
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.6G
Open-circuit and short-circuit characteristics of a synchronous machine
axis theory. The given representation is, however, sufficiently valid for most
practical cases of fault calculation provided the impedances used are the direct-axis
values. nilai-nilai.
3.3.7 Use of per-unit and per-cent values
The network analysis described so far has all been in terms of actual or referred
values of voltage, current and impedance. In the great majority of cases, however,
the plant impedance values are given in per-unit or per-cent value, and it is accord-
ingly normally preferable to employ such values directly in the analysis rather than
convert them to their actual or referred ohmic equivalents.
Per-unit values: The basis of the per-unit method can be understood by consider-
ing the application of Ohm's Law to a single impedance of Z ohms, the voltage-drop
V in volts produced by a current of Iamps flowing through the impedance being
V=IZ
3.3.7.1
where V and I are vector values and Z is the complex impedance, all values being
expressed by complex numbers. Now, letting Vbase and lt, ase be real numbers
representing stated values of voltage in volts and current in amps, the above equa-
Page 53 Page 53
105 105
tion may be written
"I ' 1I'-1
==
7= 7 =
==
which, in per-unit notation is written
3.3.7.2
V pu = (I puX Z pu)
3.3.7.3
The per-unit values of voltage, current and impedance are thus defined by
VV
V pu =
3.3.7.4
Vse
I Aku
I pu =
3.3.7.5
Zp.u. =m = M
-- -
ZZ
Zbase
3.3.7.6
where the base impedance is given by
Vt, ase
Zt, a =
3.3.7.7
It should be noted that the base values of voltage, current and impedance are all
real numbers and it therefore follows that the per-unit values V p.tt, I pu and
Z pu are complex numbers with the same arguments as V, I and Z. The per-unit
values, being ratios of similar quantities (that is volts, amps or ohms), are dimen-
sionless.
The base values of voltage and current, which must of course be stated, can be
any convenient values. In the analysis of three-phase systems the base voltage is
always chosen to be equal to the rated phase-to-neutral voltaGe of thE73plant item
or network section conCerned anD the base current, the current correspoNding to a73
stated three-phase power-level (usually expressed in MVA), at this same rated
voLtage. tegangan. In referring to individual plant items it is usual for the stated
powerqevel to
be chosen to Be equal to the load rating in MVA of the plant item concerned. Thus
Demikian
considering a 132 kV transmission line with a positive-sequence impedance of
0-076 +/0.379 I2 per km and a load rating of 175 MVA, it follows that
132000
Vt, ase = - -
= 76 300 V
43 43
so that sehingga
175 x lO s
Itse =
= 765.4 A
/3 x 132000
Page 54 Page 54
106 106
76 300 76 300
Zte =
= 99.7 I2
765.4
Hence, the per-unit impedance of the transmission line is given by
0-076 +]0-379
Zp.u. =' = '
99.7 99,7
per km per km
from which Zt,.u ' = 0.000762 +]00380 per km to the stated rating of 175 MVA.
The base current for a given base voltage is directly proportional to the chosen
MVA base and hence the per-unit impedance of any given item of plant is also
directly proportional to the MVA base. Thus the per-unit impedance of the above-
mentioned transmission line to a base of 100 MVA is given by
100(0-000762 +/0.00380)
Zp.u.
==
per km per km
175 175
giving pemberian
Zp.u.
= 0.000435 +/0.00217 per km to the new base of 100 MVA.
Per-cent values:
It is common practice in power system analysis to express plant
impedances in per-cent value rather than per-unit value, the former being simply the
latter value multiplied by 100. Expressed in per-cent values, Ohm's Law becomes
I%Z
V% =
3.3.7.8
100 100
where the per-cent values of voltage and current are similarly the corresponding per-
unit values multiplied by 100. Thus, the transmission line referred to in the previous
example has an impedance of 0.0435 + ]0.217 per-cent per km to a base of I00
/VIVA.
Use of common-base per-unit and per-cent values: The
use of per-unit or per-
cent values of voltage, current and impedance in the analysis of a complete network
requires that all such values should be referred to a common MVA base,just as the
use of values expressed in volts, amps and ohms requires that these latter-mentioned
values, should be referred to a common voltage base. Thus, consider any item of
plant, say a transmission line, forming a part of a complete three-phase power
system and assume it to have a rated line-to-line voltage of V, and VA rating of S
and ohmic impedance of Z 2 per phase. Then, as already shown in Section 3.3.2,
this item of plant would be represented in the system positive-sequence network by
the referred impedance value
Z' =
ZZ
3.3.7.9
where Vtzse is the line-to-line value of the chosen common base voltage. Expressing
Mengekspresikan
this referred impedance in per-unit value on its own three-phase VA load-rating S,
Page 55 Page 55
107 107
and remembering that this referred impedance value now represents an equivalent
plant item with a rated line-to-line voltage of l/b, it is seen from eqn. 3,3,7,6 that
where dimana
Z pu =
3.3.7.10
v'b / 43
SS
=/base
43Vba
and dan
Vbase[
x/3 = phase-to-neutral value of the base voltage
Eqn. Eqn. 3.3.7.10 reduces to
Z pu =
ZZ
3,3,?.11
Eqn. Eqn. 3.3.7.11, it will be noted, is the per-unit value of the actual plant Impedance
Z, thus showing that reference to a common voltage base is unnecessary when using
per-unit or per-cent values.
Consider, now, the representation of the given plant item in the system positive,
sequence network. The positive-sequence network expressed in terms of per-unit or
per-cent values of impedance must be identical except for a common multiplier,
to the same network expressed in terms of referred ohmic impedances to a common
voltage base Vbase. In other words, the impedances of corresponding branches in
the two networks will be in the same constant ratio for all the branches. Now, from
eqns. eqns. 3.3.7.9 and 3.3.7.11 it is seen that
Zp.u _
SS
3.3.7,12
Z' Z '
VV
which is seen to be a constant ratio if all the plant items are assumed to have the
same VA load rating S. Conversion of all the per-unit or per-cent impedance values
to a common MVA base is readily achieved bearing in mind the direct proportion,
ality between MVA rating and per-unit or per-cent impedance. Thus, the required
conversion of all the impedance values to a stated common/VIVA base, which carl
be arbitrarily chosen, is given by
[ Z pu (or Z%) to ] =[CommonMVAbase][Zp.u.(or. Z)to 13,3.7.13
common MVA base
| Plant MVA rating 1 [ plant MVA rating
A frequently used value for the common MVA base is the MVA load rating of the
Page 56 Page 56
108 Fault ca/cu/at/on
largest individual plant item concerned or some standard value such as 100 MVA,
500 MVA or 1000 MVA appropriate to the system under examinaffon.
3,3,8 Fault-calculation procedure
The analysis of a three-phase balanced-fault condition consists, in general, of three
parts, the first being the representation of the given power system with its fault
condition by the equivalent positive-sequence network, the second the solution of
this network in terms of its common-base values of voltage, current and impedance,
and the third the conversion of the resulting common-base values to actual values.
The system positive.sequence network as already stated, is the equivalent single-
phase (reference-phase) representation of the complete power system. In this Dalam
hal ini
network each component item of plant is represented by its equivalent positive-
sequence circuit using common-base values of voltage, current and impedance,
namely values to a stated common voltage base or, as is more usual, per-unit or
pot-cent values to a stated common MVA base.
Overhead.line and cable circuits: Overhead-line and cable circuits are represented
by their equivalent-lt circuits, it being usually sufficient to employ the nominal-It
circuit in which the series arm represents the total series impedance of the circuit
(k + j,.)L)I
c .......... c ..........
tt
;;
i aku
-2j I
wC!
........
ii ii
(a) Nominal -
representation perwakilan
AA
-2J
(.'1
(R + jL)I
¢ .......
I Aku
I Aku
00
III III
(h) Simple series-circult representation
Fig, 3,a,SA
Equivalent circuits of an overhead-line or cable circuit of length I and
parsrnete R, L and C per unit length
Page 57 Page 57
concerned and each of the two shunt arms the impedance corresponding to one half
of the total phase-to-neutral capacitance. The shunt-arm impedances are always
large in comparison with the series-arm impedance, and representation by the series
arm alone is usually sufficiently exact for most practical purposes, particularly for
overhead.line circuits.
Transformers and synchronous machines:
Transformer and synchronous
machine impedances are predominantly reactive with
X/R X / R
ratios typically between
ten and twenty, or sometimes more. It is, therefore, usually sufficiently exact to
ignore the resistive component of the impedances and to assume all the impedances
to be purely reactive.
Loads:
Load impedances are always large in value in compariaon with the series
impedances of the power system plant and they therefore have only a small effect
on the value of the total fault current under short-circuit conditions. Load can
therefore be ignored in the majority of short-circuit calculations unless the analysis
is particularly concerned with the combined effect of load conditions and short,
circuit conditions.
Transformer tap-position:
For the great majority of fault calculations it is
usually sufficient to ignore actual tap positions and to assume all the transformers
to be operating on the nominal-ratio tap-position, the error introduced by this
assumption being normally quite small insofar as values of total short-circuit
current are concerned. The use of the exact off-nominal-ratio representation,
referred to in Section 3.3.4, has many applications in practice, however, where it
is required to determine the precise division of load or fault current between
transformers operating on different taps.
Equivalent sources: The
representation of a complex power,system network
can often be simplified considerably by the use of an equivalent generator to
represent the whole or certain parts of a given network. Thus, a complete network,
as seen from any given point, may be represented, using Thevenin's Theorem, as a
single driving voltage in series with a single impedance. This equivalent-generator
circuit can often be obtained with sufficient accuracy from an estimated knowledge
of the system three-phase fault-level at the point in question, the pre-fault value of
the voltage at this point being assumed equal to the nominal rated value.
Treatment of complex impedances: The
impedances in the positive,sequence
network are all complex impedances and must, therefore, be represented
in R +iX
form. formulir. In many cases, however, the resistance components of the impedances
are
small compared with the reactance components and in such cases it is often
sufficient to treat the impedances as pure reactances, thus ensuring a considerable
simplification in computation. The use of such a pure-reactance form of representa,
tion, it should be noted, results in a short-circuit current slightly greater than the
true value. nilai benar.
Plant-impedance values: The
impedance values employed in any particular fault
calculation should, wherever possible, be the known values appropriate to the
particular items of plant concerned. Where precise actual values are not known,
however, it may be permissible to use typical values appropriate to similar plant of
Page 58 Page 58
1 I0
similar load and voltage rating. Tables of typical plant impedance values are given
in Section 3.4.3.
Neutral earthlng:
Neutral earthing arrangements have no effect on balanced
three-phase conditions, whether load conditions or three-phase short-circuit condi-
tions, and are therefore disregarded in the derivation of the system positive-sequence
network. jaringan.
3.3.9 Example 1
The power system shown in Fig. 3.3.9A develops a three-phase short-circuit on the
132 kV busbars at Station C. Determine the resulting value of the three-phase fault
current and its distribution in the 132 kV system, given that the pre-fault value of
Zg = j!8.0%
Z t = ji2.S%
Z t = jlO.0%
Z s = j17.5%
II kV
I00 MVA AJ
132 kV
|B 60 MVA
II kV
I00 MVA
J[ J [
ll
60 MVA
4.6 + j26.0.
2.3 + jl 3.0
FJgJ3.3.gA
the line-to.line wltage at the point of fault is 140 kV. The system can be assumed
to be operating at no4oad prior to the fault.
Solution: Solusi:
Using a common voltage base of 132 kV, the resulting positive-sequence
network is as shown in Fig. 3.3.9B, the generator and transformer impedances
having been converted to equivalent 132 kV 2. Thus, considering the 100 MVA
generator, its rated current is given by
100 100
xx
106 106
I=I=
= 5250 A
× 11000
and its rated phase-to-neutral voltage is given by
11 11
000 000
V=V=
= 6350 V
45 45
from which the corresponding base impedance is seen to be
6350 6.350
ZZ
==
= 1.21
5250 5.250
Page 59 Page 59
80.8 kV
@@
j3! .41Z
r---1
80,8
kV kV
j21.8
6.9 + j39.0
j29.1 l j50,912
l"A
I/B
II '
Illl' ''
4.6 +j26,012 C" 2.3 +jl3.02
I Aku
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.9B
The ohmic impedance of the generator is therefore given by
Z =/'0.180 x 1.21 =/0.218
and the value referred to the common baSe voltage of 132 kV is given by
= '-/
j0"218 =J31"42
Because the pre-fault conditions have been assumed to be no-load79eondhions, the
generator driving-voltages, referred to the coMmon baSe79voltage of 132 kV, are
both
140 000 140 000
E=E=
= 80 800 V
BB
j53.22 4 . 6 6
+j26,0
Fig. GambaR. 3.3.9C
Page 60 Page 0
112 Fault calculAtion
this voltage being used as the vector base. Because the two drIving Voltages are equal
they can be connected in parallel, 4hus giving the equivalent circuit sHown in
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.9C.
BB
j80.Oll.I
5 + J6.SOl
j53.21
,,
2.30 + jl 3.O80
AA
Fig,
3.3.9D
ThE delta-connected line-impedances 2.3 +/13.0, 4.6 +/26.0 and 6.9 +/39.0 can
now be replaced by the equiValent Star-connected impedances shown in Fig. 3.3.9D.
Thus, the impedance conneCting StAtion C to the star point is given by
,(2.3 +/13.0X4.6 +/26.0)
= 0.7780+/4.33 12
(2,3 +/13.0) + (µ.6 +j26.) + 6.9 +/39.0)
udng eqn, 3,2,5.8, the two reMaining impedances connecting Stations A and B to
the star point being sImilarly obtained.
The80remaiNing steps in the reduction process are shown in Fig. 3.3.9E From
whicH the resultant three-phase fault current is seen to80be given by
80 800
If"
= 79. -/1930 A
1.72 +/41.8
ving Ving80
left 1932/-- 87 ° 40' A
The80distribution of the fault current iN the power system can now be obtained by
the Process of back-substitUtion. This cOnsists of retracing the steps in the Reduc-
tion pRocess starting with the total fault cur2ent and dividinG this faulT currEnt
among the dIfferent branches by straightforward application of the network laws.
Thus, the curren4 fed Into the 132 kV system by the generatOr/transformer unit at
Page 61 Page 61
FAult calculation Fault peRhitungan
113 113
Station A i380given by
(1.15 +]86.5X79.7 -/1930)
(1.15 +/86.§)
(2.30
/66.2)
==
55.3 55,3
-80-
11094 A
= 1095 [- 87 ° 7' A80
and hence the phase-to-neutral voltage of the reference phase at Station A Is given
by oleh
80 800 -/53.2(55.3 -/1094) = 22 550 -/2944 V
= 22 720 [ - 7 ° 26' V
1.15 + j86.5
80.8kV
0.77 + j4,3311
2.30 2,30
++
j66.21Z
80.8 80,8
kV kV
0.954 + j37.512
0.77 + j4,33
f----]
80.8 80,8
kV kV
1.72 1,72
+ j41.82
f-"l
C Jplf
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.9E
Similarly, the current fed into the 132 kV system from Station B is given by
(79.7 -/1930) - (55.3 -/1094) = 24.4 - 1836 A
= 836 [ - 88* 19' A
Page 62 Page 62
giving a voltage at Station B of
80 800 - ]80.0(24-4 -/836) = 13 920 - ]1952 V
= 14050 [- 7 ° 58'V
Now, since the voltage at Station C is zero because of the fault, the current
flowing from Station A to Station C is
22 550 -/2944
--
38.9 -/.860 A
4.6 +/26.0
= 861 [-87 ° 25' A
Also, the current flowing from Station B to Station C, by subtraction, is
(79"7 -/1930) - (38.9 - j860) -- 40.8 -/1070 A
= 1071 [- 87 ° 49'A
Fig. Gambar. 3.3,9F
109 [ 7-87071A
235 [ -85°SgPA
836 [ -88°19 / A
"-- '-!A •I ] ( ---a
861 [ -87°25 t A
•C•C
t 1071 / -870491A
If= 1932 [-87°40 tA
Finally, the current flowing from A to B is
(55.3 - ]1094) - (38.9 -/'860 = 16.4 -/.234 A
=235[-85"59'A
The required fault-current distribution is thus as shown in Fig. 3.3.9F.
The voltage at the generator terminal at Station A, to the common base voltage of
132 kV, is
80 800 - ]31-4(55.3 - ]1094) = 46 430 - j1737 V
the actual value, transformer phase-shift ignored, being
11(460430 - ]1737)
132 132
- 3870- j145 V
= 3870 [- 2 ° 8'V
Page 63 Page 63
Similarly, the actual generator current at Station A, transformer phase-shift ignored,
is adalah
132(55.3 -/1094)
11 11
= 663.5 - ]13 130 A
==
13 150/-
87 ° 7' A
The corresponding values of voltage and current for the generator at Station B can
be similarly shown to be 3190 -/103-6V (=3190 [ - 1 ° 51' V) and 293 -/10030 A
(= 10 030 L- 88 ° 19' A), respectively.
3.3.10 Example 2
The power system shown in Fig. 3.3.10A develops a three-phase short-circuit at the
point F on the hv terminals of one of the two auto-transformers at Station B, the
pre-fault voltage at the 132 kV busbars of Station B being 138 kV. The load
supplied by the 132 kV busbars can be assumed to be passive (that is, to contain no
120 MVA
275/132 kV
ji so%
210 MVA
200 MW
16.5/275 kV 5.72 + j24.M
150 MVA
Zst -- j18.2%
l 5.72 +j24.8
Z s = j143%
,,
138 kV
120 MVA
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.10A
275/132 kV
jis .0%
driving voltages) and to be representable by a constant impedance. Determine the
Tentukan
value of the short-circuit current and the network branch currents at the instant of
fault. kesalahan. Determine also the final steady-state value of the fault current and
the net-
work branch currents assuming the fault to remain on the system and there to be
no voltage-regulator action.
Solution: Solusi:
Using the per-unit method and a common base of 200 /VIVA, the
system positive-sequence network for the pre-fault load condition is as shown in
Fig. Gambar. 3,3.10B, the branch impedances having all been converted to common-
base
per-unit values. The generator driving-voltage and impedance depend on the fault
condition being investigated, as already mentioned, and the values are therefore
denoted by per-unit values
Eg Misalnya
and Zg as shown, the symbol Vg denoting the
generator terminal voltage.
Page 64 Page 64
The conversion to common-base per-unit values has already been described in
Section 3.3.7. Thus, the impedance of the generator step-up transformer, namely
/14.0 per-cent on its own rating of 210 MVA, becomes
200 x/0.140
=/0.133 pu on 200 MVA
210 210
Similarly, the impedance of each auto-transformer, namely/15.0 per-cent on their
rating of 120 MVA, becomes
200 x/0.150
=/0.250 pu on 200 MVA
120 120
The 275 kV transmission-line impedances, each of which corresponds to 76.5 km of
a sebuah
twin-conductor-bundle line design, are given in ohmic value in Fig. 3.3.10A and
these have been convERted by83the use of eqn. 3.3.7.11, the resulting per-unit
impeDanCe of each line bEin' given by
200 200
xx
l0 s
xX
5-72 +i2µ.8)
(2750
=83
01§
i0.05§ pu
to the CoMmon83base of8320083MVA.
NOw,83the currEnt83tAKEn by tHe83load oF 1§ MVA83at tHe StaTed83pre
faULt83voLTaGE83
Of 13883kV83iS
5 x83106
628 A
1
732 x84000
And the cUrrent coRrESpONdinG84To the base MVA of 200 at a rateD voLtage oF
12 kV is
00 x 106
=84875 A
1.32 x 32000
HEncE, the scalar value84of the load currenT in per-unit value iS84
628842
0.18 pU on 200 MVA
875 875
The scalar value of the vOltage across the load
namely 38 kV, is85
13 138
=851
0µ5 pu
132 132
and hence the scalar value86of the86load86impedance is givEn by
1.045 1,045
= 1.455 pu on 200 MVA
0-8
Page 586PagE 6586

FaulT calculation8611
NOW the power faCtOr86of86the load is 0.850, lAgging, correspoNding86to a loaD-
imPedance phase-angle of 31.8, the sine aNd co3ine of this phase86aNgle beiNg 0.52
and .85 respectively. The cOmplex value86of tHE lOad86impedance iS therefore
given
by oleh
1.455(0.850 +]0.527) = 1.236 +]0.767 pu
AdoptinG86the pre-fault refeRence-phase voltage at the 32 KV busBar aS
the86vector
bAse, its compLex value thus being 1.045 + ]0 pu, the current supplied to the load
is given by diberikan oleh
104§ 145
= 018/-
31"8 °
1.455 [ 31.8 °
= 0.610 -/0.379 pu
This is also the current supplied by tHe Generator through its step-up transform%R,
the86curreNt dividing equally between the TWo transformer-feeder Circuits.
O.OlS + jO.O6SS
jO.SO
AZ g
j0.3
B !'236
+ j0.76
0.015 + j0.06SS86
jo.2so
Vg = 1.160 +j0.175
0.610
-j
379
F)g. Gambar.
3
3.10B
The geNerator terminal voLtage is given by88
Vg = (1.0µ5 +/0)
[(0-015
/0.31§5) +/0.133]88(0.610 - /0.379)
GiVinG pemberian
Vg = 1.160 +/0.175 pu
The pre-fault condi4ions are Thus as shown in88FIg. 3..0B, and the Fault aNalysis
cAn now proceed by appLying the fault connection between the pOint of fault F AnD
the neutral bAr wiTh appropriate values of Eg and Zg for the conditioN under
investigation. penyelidikan.
Considering, first, the cOnditions88at88the instant of short-circuit, The required
generatOr impedance is the sub-transient value, nameLy/18.2 Per-cent on the
machine ratinG of 222 MVA, the required common-base per-unit vaLue being
200 xj0.182
222 22
=]0.164 pu on 200 MVA
PAge 66 Page 66
118 118
THe generator driviNg-voltage is the pre-fault valuE88of the generator termInal-
voltage88
plus the pre-Fault impedance droP in the machine sub-transient impedance, giving
Eg = Est = (1
60 +/0.175) +/0.164(0.610 -/0.379)
Eg = 1.222 +]0.275 pu89
The Positive-sequence network for the conditions at the instant of fault is shown in
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.10C and this can bE SOlved foR the89network branch currents By
tHe process
of netwoRk Reduction And back-substitution, the reduction procedure89being showN
in Fig. pada Gambar. 3.3.10D.
0.15 + j0.0655
j.250
1.222 1,222
+89+
o.275
!"-"-!
oo
//
jO.164 jO.133891.236 + j.767
C"-Iof A
88
,""'}
0.015
j0.0655
j0.250
I89Aku
;;
;;
I Aku89
FI
If
FIg. GAMBar. 3.3.10C
From Fig. DaRi GambAr
3.3
10D, the given netWOrk is SEen to reduce To the91generAtoR drivinG-
Voltage Est in series WiTh the single imPedanCe 0.0124 +]0.35691pu and, Hence,
the
generatOr current is given91by
1.222 +/'0
75
=920.892 -¤3.405 pu
0.0124 +/0.356
ApplYing the ProceSs oF back-substitution to obtain the remaining branch currents,
the voltage92at The point A is92obtained from
VA = (0.892 - ]3.405) (0.0124 +/0.0590)
giving pemberian
V.4 = 0.2105 +/0.0983 pu
The Current fLowing frOm A to F through the 275 kV Line associated With the
faUlted
transforMer can now be ObtaIned and is
0.210§ +/0.00983
0.015 +/0.655
= 0.842 - 3.20 pU
The currenT flowing FrOm A to B tHroUGh the othER 275 kV line is the generAtoR
Current mInus the current jUst obtaiNed and is given by
Page926792Page 67
1.22 + j0.75
j0.297
i aku
I Aku
;;
0.05 + j.5§
0.05 0,015
+ j0.3155
["-'3
j0.250
B i.236 + j0.767
1.222 + jO.275
0.015 + jO.0655
0.OI5 + j0.3155
i""'1
0.0302 + j0.2252
BB
1.222 + j0.275
jO.297
"i
tt
;;
0.015 + jO.0655
0.0452 + j0.5407
||
I Aku
1.222 + j0.275
__ __
j0.297
i aku
ff
;;
0.0124 + j0.0590
1.222 + j0.275
0.0124 + jO.356
--
;;
11
lg lg
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.10D
(0.892 - j3.405) - (0.842 - j3.020)
= 0.050 - j0.385 pu
The voltage at B can now be obtained and is given by
(0.2105 +/0.00983)- (0.050- ]0.385) (0.015 +]0.3155)
= 0.0882 - ]0-00027 pu
The current flowing to the fault through the transformer on the faulted circuit is
Page 68 Page 68
120 120
Fault Kesalahan
calculation perhitungan
0.0882 0,0882
-/0.00027
-- - 0.001 - 0-353 pu;
i0-250
and the total fault current at F is thus:
/f = (0.842 - ./3.020) + (- 0.001 -/0.353)
I/= 0.841 - i3.373 pu
The base current corresponding to 200 MVA at 275 kV is given by
200 200
xlO 6
-= 420
AA
1.732 x 275 000
and hence the fault current in amps is given by
I! Aku! = (0.841 -/3.373)420
giving pemberian
I/= 353 -/1416 A = 1460 / - 76.0°A
The fault current and the branch currents are shown in per-unit value in
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.10F.
Considering now the determination of the final steady-state values of the fault
1.222 + j0.275
-@ - @
[----U'--1
;.-..J
I Aku
••
]]
o.oso - j0.385
//
--
/ oo , - jo.o,
'> ">
; 2t--rg--f-'--. - -
0.842 -j3.0 0 ' [ -0.001 -j0.353
, If = 0.841 - j3.373
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.10E
163 / -82.6
°°
ll.9/J2.7°kV
•>
AA
s2"s / 32'1°
[- [-
148F / -9B. " "
If = 1460[--76.0 °
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.10F
Page 69 Page 69
121 121
current and the network branch-currents, the generator impedance applicable to
this condition is the synchronous value, namely/143 per-cent on the machine rating
of 222 MVA. The required common-base per-unit value is thus
200 x/1.43
222 222
=/1.288 pu on 200 MVA
The required generator driving-voltage is the pre-fault voltage behind the
synchronous impedance (the excitation being assumed to remain unaltered) and
this is given by
Eg = E s
= (1.160 +/0.175) +/1.288(0.610 -/0.379)
Eg Misalnya
= 1.648 +/0.961 pu
The positive-sequence network for the final steady-state condition, therefore, is
as shown in Fig. 3.3.10G and this can be solved for the network branch currents, as
before, by the process of network reduction and back-substitution. Because the
Karena
0.015 + j0.0655
j0.250
1.648 + j0.961
})
ll
jO.13
1.236 ÷ j0.767
''
AA
B, B,
f--'l
lO.OJ s jo.o6ss
jo.2so
Fig. Gambar.
3.3.10G
positive-sequence network external to the generator terminal is the same as for the
previous case, its equivalent impedance as seen from the generator terminal is the
same as before, namely
/0.133 + (0.0124 +/0.0590) -- 0.0124 +/0.192 pu
The equivalent positive-sequence network, as seen from the generator, is therefore
as shown in Fig. 3.3.10H and comprises a driving voltage of 1-648 +/0.961 pu in
series with an impedance of
/1.288 + (0-0124 +/0.192) = 0.0124 +/I480 pu
Page 70 Page 70
122 122
1.648 + j0.961
0.0124 +j1.480
lg lg
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.10H
The current supplied by the generator, therefore, is given by
1.648 +/0.951
= 0.659 -/1-108 pu
0.0124 +/1.480.
and, using the process of back-substitution, the network branch currents are found
as shown in Fig. seperti ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 3.3.101, the fault current at F now
being given by
If = 0.637 -/1.101 pu
,6.+,090,
::
>>
::
,,
,,
0,057 --j0.132
//
tt
1 I 1 saya
11
"" ""
0.659 -- j1.108
10.022 -- jO.O07
•O
;;
<" <"
oo -j
35 - jo.l:5
I Aku
ll = 0.637 - jl.lOl
--
i aku
Fig. Gambar.
3.3.101
The fault current value in amps, therefore, is given by
If
= (0.637 - i1.101)420
giving pemberian
If = 268 - ]463 A = 535 [ - 60.0°A
The values of the network branch currents in amps are shown in polar form, in
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.10J.
It should be noted that the results obtained by the method of solution employed
above could have been obtained equally well by the use of Thevenin's Theorem and
the Superposition Theorem. Thus, the impedance of the network of Fig. 3.3.10C,
as measured between point F and the neutral bar with the fault connection
removed and the driving voltage Est short-circuited, is 0.0549 + ]0-310 pu, as can
be seen from the network reduction shown in Fig. 3.3.10K. Also the pre-fault
Page 71 Page 71
() ()
18.2 [ 30.2__ kV
QQ
ol s
I Aku
...s.='_'
>>
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.10J
I'Z
!!
-,6 6'
,'"
I"
- k"A 1' ' '-' 6.'" I-"--"1
LLJ-t"
..... ..... ; ;
I Aku
If = 535 [ --60.0 °
voltage Ef at the point of fault F is given by
Ef = (1.045 +i0) + 0.500(0.610 -/'0.379)(/0.250)
giving pemberian
Ef = 1.092 +/0.076 pu
Hence, applying Thevenin's Theorem, the fault current for a short-circuit at F is
1-092 +/0.076
0.0549 +/'0.310
giving pemberian
If = 0.841 -/3.373 pu
This is seen to be identical to the value obtained by direct solution for the network
branch currents.
Knowing the total fault current and the pre-fault branch currents, the network
branch currents with the fault condition present are readily obtained by use of the
Superposition Theorem as shown in Fig. 3.3.10L. Thus considering the pre-fault
load condition represented by diagram (a) of this figure let E¢ denote the pre-fault
voltage at the point of fault, the value of Ef being 1.091 + j0.076 pu as already
computed. dihitung. It will be evident that the network branch currents in diagram (a)
will
be undisturbed if a fictitious driving voltage of value
Ef Ef
is assumed to be connected
between the neutral bar and the point F, the direction of El being from the neutral
bar to the point F. The pre-fault load condition indicated by diagram (a) can there.
fore be regarded as caused by the joint action of the driving voltages Est and El. By
Oleh
Thevenin's Theorem, however, the fault current at F is obtained by applying a
driving voltage Ef between the neutral bar and the point of fault F, a shown in
diagram (b), with the driving voltage Est removed (that is short-circuited), It should
be noted in this diagram that the voltage Ef acts from the point F to the neutral
bar, as is necessary to obtain the correct direction for the fault current, this being the
same as an applied driving voltage of -El acting from the neutral bar to the point
of fault. Diagram (c) represents the required fault-plus-load condition for wtdeh it is
required to determine the values of the network branch currents and it will be
noted that this corresponds to diagram (a) with the assumed fictitious driving
Page 72 Page 72
0.01S + j0.0655 j0.2S0
jo.3131
c"-!
j0,164
: /-
-:' .A
BB
11
0.015 0,015
+ j0.0655 j0.250
I Aku
I Aku
o--1
"'1
FF
1.236 +
j0.767
!!
!!
j0,297
0.0075 + j0.0345
j0.125
1.236 + j0.767
AA
SS
BB
FF
iii II
]]I IIII
0.0047 + j0.02617
|,236 + j0.892
o.oo,, •
j . j. 98s t
I Aku
II II
III III
III III
I Aku
I Aku
Fig. Gambar. 3,3,10K
0.0047 + j0.02617
0.0549 +jO.310
tt
I Aku
oo
f'7"'l
F' F '
voltage E/short-circuited.
Let the current in any given branch in diagrams (a), (b) and (c) be denoted by
Ikd, licit
and I/oadarault, respectively. Then by the Superposition Theorem it
readily follows that:
lJoad = IIoad-pfault - [fault
Page 73 Page 73
(a) (A)
1.222 +
jO.27S
.610-j0.379
0.305 -- jO., 89
B3,
99
0.305 0,305
j0.189
FIE fA = 1,092 + jO,O'/6
//
125 125
(b) (B)
[[
:>
,,
))
0.282 - j3.026
[--'1 >
;I
--0.255 -- j0,196
I Aku
^^
B < :'I
F" F "
,. ,. . .
- / °'$59-j°'347
0.S37 - j2.831
I Aku
1,222 +j0.275
]]
;J[
--"
//
O.OSO - jO.38S
//
89 - j3.4os|
/o.os,- jo,o32 I
-->'
;<"
I Aku
(c) (C)
°"'-'"°'° I-°°°' -'°""
I Aku
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.10L
from which the required value of branch current for the load.plus-fault condition
is given by: diberikan oleh:
load.ofauu = Ik, ad + Ifau#
This relationship is true for each branch of the network as is easily soon from
Fig. Gambar. 3.3.10L. The use of the Superposition Theorem in this manner is
particularly
useful in cases where fault analysis is required to take due account of a known pre.
fault load condition.
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