CONNECTIVES

Connectives – or linkers – are grammatical devices, such as conjunctions, adverbs and

prepositions/prepositional phrases, which are used to link stretches of language in a way
that expresses logical relations and helps create a coherent piece of discourse. They occur as
much without as within the sentence: in the first case, they link ideas across two separate
and subsequent sequences and can be termed across-sentence linkers or connectives; in the
other case, they join clauses within the sentence to show coordination and subordination,
hence their name, within-sentence linkers. A separate though related category is that of
phrase linkers, which mainly occur before noun phrases and -ing forms. A more in-depth
classification will help you learn connectives not only with respect to their discursive
functions but also with a view to providing the grammatical patterns where they occur
depending on their grammatical features.
Here is a grammatical classification of connectives which reminds you implicitly that not
any connective can be used to key a particular logical connection:
 conjunctions (which can link clauses within the sentence or sentences within the
discourse):
o co-ordinating conjunctions: and, but;
o subordinating conjunctions: although, because;
 adverbs (which can link clauses within the sentence or sentences within the discourse):
however, nevertheless;
 prepositions and prepositional phrases (which usually occur before noun phrases and -
ing forms): during, despite, owing to, because of, as well as.
A functional classification of connectives (Jordan 1980: 93–6)1 identifies the logical
relations they show, with AND–OR–BUT as the key terms to understand the ‘meaning’:

1 Jordan, R. R. 1980. Academic Writing Course. London and Glasgow: Collins.

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Functional classification of connectives

1.1 AND / LISTING:

o Enumeration:
First you rinse the fruits thoroughly, next you peel them and then you chop them up into
small cubes; finally, you put the cubes into a large bowl and add the cream to your taste.
Enjoy your fruit salad while it’s fresh!
At the start, the hero is rich and successful. At the end, everything has gone wrong.
[narrative connectives used to describe a book/film/play].
o Addition: The strikers argued that the employer had not discussed the terms of the
new contract with them. Furthermore/Besides/What is more, they had not even been
mentioned that a new contract was under way.

1.1 AND / TRANSITION:

o With regard/reference/respect to/As to/ As for/ As regards/ Regarding the tax, that
will be deducted from the employee’s salary starting January 1.

1.2 AND / SUMMATION:

o In conclusion/ To conclude/ To sum up briefly/ In brief, the implementation of the
new unemployment legislation is expected to address not only the social effects of the
current economic recession but also the underlying causes of surging unemployment in
certain regions more than in others.

1.3 AND / APPOSITION [cf. 2.1]:

o Social anxiety is the fear of social situations and the interaction with other people that
can automatically bring on feelings of self-consciousness, judgment, evaluation, and
scrutiny. Put another way/ In other words, social anxiety is the fear and anxiety of being
judged and evaluated negatively by other people, leading to feelings of inadequacy,
embarrassment, humiliation, and depression.
o Four major colleges of surgery, viz. London, Glasgow, Edinburgh and Dublin, provide
research opportunities for studying the effects of computer simulation on trainee
surgeons.

1.4 AND / RESULT:

o The cost of raw materials rose sharply last year. Accordingly/ Consequently, our
company was forced to increase prices. // The cost of raw materials rose sharply last year
and our company was forced to increase prices accordingly. // The cost of raw materials
rose sharply last year and our company was therefore forced to increase prices.

1.5 AND / INFERENCE:

o My parents lent me the money; otherwise, I couldn’t have afforded the trip.

2.1. OR / REFORMULATION:
o The walls were not off white, but rather dirty grey.
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2.2. OR / REPLACEMENT:
o We should go to the cinema tonight; better still, we should go to the Browns and watch
a film in their excellent home cinema.
o You could take a taxi to get to the bank at once, or alternatively you could put it off till
tomorrow morning.
o We don’t assemble cars by hand nowadays. Instead, we use computer-controlled
robots. [formal]/We use computer-controlled robots instead. [less formal].

3.1. BUT / CONTRAST (with what has preceded):

o On the one hand, they’d live to have kids, but on the other (hand), they don’t want to
give up their freedom.
o You can add the fluid to the powder, or, conversely, the powder to the fluid.
o In the northern hemisphere, the summer months are from July to September.
Conversely, in the southern hemisphere, the summer is from January to March.
o The economy will not improve this year. On the contrary, it is likely to get worse.

3.2 BUT / CONCESSION (to indicate the unexpected nature of what’s being said in view
of what has just been said):
o Notwithstanding/ Nevertheless/However, the long-term drawbacks of the new law
are as significant as its short-term benefits (are).
o In science-fiction movies, the creatures on other planets appear to be intelligent.
However/ Nevertheless, they may often be presented deploying their intelligence to
destructive ends.
o The French literature exam was relatively easy; the comparative literature exam,
however, was difficult enough to give all of us a big scare.
o We worked hard, but nevertheless we were unable to finish the project in time.

You can find many more connectives listed for each category in the classification provided
in Jordan (1980: 93–6).

Guided practice

Let us look at how connectives can indeed improve the style of a set of sentences and turn
them from discursive ‘beads on the thread’ into an interlaced structure. In the following
examples, the left column shows separate sentences that try to describe a situation, while the
right column has linked them logically with the aid of connectives (including relative
pronouns).

Separate sentences Sentences reworked to show logical

connections
Smoking is still a common habit. People Smoking is still a common habit, although
know it is harmful. people know it is harmful.
Dogs are pack animals. Cats are solitary by Dogs are pack animals, whereas cats are
nature. solitary by nature.
The books you borrowed are long overdue. The books you borrowed are long overdue. You
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You should return them immediately.
Rain will spread into all areas. Snow may
fall on high ground. Dry weather is
expected tomorrow.
Several of our crew have had strange
symptoms. We intend to continue with
our exploration.
In old age, people may lose some of their
mental agility. They often gain a greater
understanding of life. Young people are
very quick in absorbing information.
The 20th century saw the development of
antibiotics. Penicillin was developed in the
1940s. It has saved thousands of lives ever
since.
Thieves raided an art gallery in Newgate
last week. They made off with several
items of jewellery. A substantial sum of
money was stolen. Inspector Barlow of
Newgate CID said that there had been a
number of similar thefts from private
houses. He said that there had been
several break-ins at office premises.
should therefore return them immediately.
While rain will spread into all areas, snow may
fall only on high ground; however, dry
weather is expected tomorrow.
Several of our crew have had strange
symptoms, but nevertheless we intend to
continue with our exploration.
In old age, people may lose some of their
mental agility; on the other hand, they often
gain a greater understanding of life. By
contrast, young people are very quick in
absorbing information.
The 20th century saw the development of
antibiotics. For instance, penicillin, which was
developed in the 1940s, has saved thousands of
lives ever since.
Thieves raided an art gallery in Newgate last
week and made off with several items of
jewellery. In addition, a substantial sum of
money was stolen. Inspector Barlow of
Newgate CID said that there had been a
number of similar thefts from private houses,
and there had also been several break-ins at
office premises.

Rewrite the following sentences logically by using connectors; where necessary, make
other alterations too, e.g. eliminate redundant words and change punctuation. You can
provide alternative solutions.

1 English is a Germanic language. Italian is descended from Latin.

2 Mercury is a metal. It is a liquid at room temperature.

3 Some delegates arrived by train. Others came by car. A few arrived by taxi.

4 We gave up the idea of moving house. We decided to extend our existing house.

5 Councillor Dodds argued that cuts in policing were partly responsible for the increase in
crime. Unemployment had risen in the area. He believed this was an important factor.
‘Crime is increasing along with worsening social conditions’, he mentioned in a press
release yesterday. ‘There simply aren’t enough police officers on our streets nowadays.’