Loss Assessment in a Low-Voltage Distribution System
Raksanai Nidhiritdhikrai, Kulyos Audomvongseree and Bundhit Eua-arporn
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University,
Phayathai Rd., Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand, Email: raksanai.n@gmail.com
Abstract
Accurate assessment of power loss in a low-
voltage distribution system is still an important issue
under present competitive environment. Even though,
power flow analysis is still efficient to calculate
technical power loss, it requires numerous data which
may not be available for some utilities. For this reason,
the loss assessment for a low-voltage distribution system
is not easy when the demand of any customer load points
is still unclear. Therefore, distribution utilities obviously
require a more suitable algorithm with their available
information to calculate their system power loss. This
paper proposes an alternative algorithm to crop with this
problem. The proposed approach has been tested with an
actual system, a low-voltage distribution system with 16
customer load points. It is found that the proposed
method can provide satisfactory results.
Keywords: loss assessment, power flow, node
analysis, low-voltage distribution system
1. Introduction
Accurate assessment of power loss in terms of
technical and economic aspects is still an important issue
under competitive environment nowadays. It is one of
the key factors that can be used to measure system
performance, especially for distribution systems, as they
contribute more loss than others. Moreover, power loss
is usually one of the controlling factors when evaluating
alternative plans and operative strategies.
In general, power loss can be categorized into
two types, technical and non-technical power losses.
Technical power loss results from the transportation of
electrical energy to customers through system
components. Therefore, technical power loss is strongly
related to the system configuration and demand. Non-
technical power loss, on the other hand, is due to the
problems with inadequate and also inaccurate metering
or problems with billing and collecting processes.
Technical power loss generally comes from two
main causes i.e. the load power loss and no-load power
loss. The load power loss consists of heating of
conductors, coils, and windings of transformers and
other devices when electrical current flows through
them. The no-load power loss does not depend on system
demand variation. The majority of no-load power loss is
typically associated with transformer core loss
emanating from the excitation current.
Many distribution utilities simply determine
their technical power loss by means of some
approximated formulae [1], or a fixed percentage e.g. 1%
978-1-4244-3388-9/09/$25.00 ©2009 IEEE
of transformer loading. These estimations are convenient
in practice but depend on experience of utility experts,
which may lead to high error calculation. Other
distribution utilities rather evaluate their power loss from
power flow calculation to obtain a more accurate and
detailed results, even though such method requires many
more parameters, some of which may not be properly
collected. This paper proposes an alternative approach
for technical power loss assessment in a low-voltage
radial distribution system based on an insufficient data
environment. The proposed approach is developed to
maintain accurate results with available data. A low-
voltage radial distribution system, in this work, starts
from the low-voltage/ secondary side of a distribution
transformer and delivers electrical energy to the load
points/customers via either single or three phase system.
The technical power loss to be evaluated in this paper
includes low-voltage line power loss, which is directly
computed from an expression of I 2 R , once the power
flow is solved.
2. Low-voltage loss assessment methodology
Technical power loss assessment in a low-
voltage radial distribution system is summarized in this
section. The proposed method employs (1) node analysis
[2] to compute technical power loss, and (2) the
proposed algorithm to achieve loss assessment.
2.1 Node analysis
It is generally accepted that power flow analysis
is a fundamental tool for power system engineers. The
results typically consist of voltage magnitudes and
phases, and injected power at all buses. These
parameters are often further used to calculate other
related parameters, e.g. line flow and total power loss of
the system. Power flow analysis [3] when implemented
with a radial system is relatively simple. Even though a
considered system is not complex, there is still a
difficulty due to the high number of load points and very
limited information on individual points. Generally, the
power flow analysis tools used nowadays can be
classified into (1) balanced three-phase power flow, and
(2) unbalanced three-phase power flow. The balanced
three-phase power flow takes advantage of a balanced
condition of a system to calculate only a single phase or
the positive sequence network, which is normally
suitable for transmission systems. The unbalanced three-
phase power flow, on the other hand, is suitable for
primary distribution systems, where the effect of current
flowing in a neutral wire due to unbalancing can be
neglected, since most of primary feeders do not have a
neutral wire on their routes. For a low-voltage To understand the proposed concept, consider
distribution system, technical power loss assessment also the sample circuit illustrated in Fig 2.
can employ unbalance three phase power flow analysis.
Nonetheless, it seems to be inconvenient and takes lots
of effort and computation cost since a set of equations to
be solved is non-linear. This set of non-linear equations
is the power balance at each node written in terms of
non-linear relation between voltage and active and
reactive power. In this paper, instead of directly solving
a set of non-linear equations when modeling the load as
constant power, we apply Node analysis which is simply Fig. 2. Simple medium-voltage radial distribution system
a circuit calculation by modeling load as a current Fig. 2 depicts an example of a simple low-
source, making the calculation easy due to the linear voltage radial distribution system with 4 load points,
property. This methodology does not only increase each of which is a single-phase load, e.g. M1 is a single-
stability and speed of computation but also support a phase meter connected to phase A. Redraw the system in
three phase four-wire distribution configuration as well. Fig. 2 with its detail included as shown in Fig. 3.
This configuration type is not easily solved by a power
flow calculation. Since with the existence of a neutral j4 e j9 e
5 8
wire, branch voltage not node-to-datum voltage is of
consideration. Interestingly, this equivalent current j5 j10
j1 j7
source is not constant. This is because when solving the VA
problem with load modeled as a current source, the load e4 = 0 e1 e6
j6
points at the end of the feeder will receive the amount of VB j2
load less than the specified value due to the voltage drop. e2 j11
Thus, the current source will be adjusted in each iteration VC
until all load points receive the amount of load equal to
j3 e3 j8 e7
that specified as constant power. Once the circuit
problem has been solved, the power loss in all three
phase lines (ABC) of each feeder in the circuit and Fig. 3. Detailed circuit of the system in Fig. 2
power loss in the neutral line (N) can be computed. The
flowchart which summarizes the proposed node analysis The circuit in Fig. 3 consists of 8 nodes and 11
algorithm is depicted in Fig. 1. branches. The phase voltages (line-to-neutral) at the
infeed-bus are assumed to be at a nominal level, e.g.
VA = 220∠0° , VB = 220∠ − 120° , and VC = 220∠120° V.
Here, we pick the neutral-ground as the datum node
(node 4). There are two basic equations of node analysis
which are obtained from a network graph and
Kirchhoff’s laws.
To begin with, we define j1 , j2 ,...., jb and
v1 , v2 ,...., vb as branch current and voltage respectively,
and e1 , e2 ,...., en as node-to-datum voltage. To solve for
e1 , e2 ,...., en , we need to know the branch characterization
of the network through the node incidence matrix, A ,
and branch equations which relate the branch voltage
and branch current. From Kirchchoff’s laws we have (1)
and (2).

Aj = 0 (1)
v=A e T
(2)
The branch equations are of the form shown in (3).

j = Yv + js − Yvs (3)
Where
Y is the diagonal branch admittance matrix.
J s is the branch current source vector.
Fig. 1. Flowchart of the proposed node analysis algorithm
vs is the branch voltage source vector.
Then, we have
Yn e = is (4)
where
Yn e = AYAT , and is = AYvs − Ajs

The node-to-datum voltage, branch voltage and branch

current can be determined from (5) – (7) respectively.
e = Yn−1is (5)
v=A e T
(6)
j = Yv + js − Yvs (7)

Typically load modeled as constant power is preferable

especially for the power flow calculation. However, it is
not necessary to directly solve the power flow with load
modeled as constant power in a low-voltage radial
distribution system, which is quite complicated and
inconvenient. Therefore, we model it as a temporary
current source, a more applicable form to be used for the
node analysis, and it will be adjusted in each iteration to
yield the same result as does constant power load.
Consequently, each load current source for the next
iteration will be adjusted using the most updated branch
voltage. The equation used for updating the load current
is as shown in (8).
*
( k +1)
⎛ P + jQ ⎞
j = ⎜ i (k ) i ⎟ (8)
s (i ) ⎜ v ⎟
⎝ (i ) ⎠
We then repeat the calculation of the currents source
until the norm of branch voltages converges within an Fig. 4. The flowchart of the proposed algorithm
acceptable tolerance, and the computed total load
converges to the specified value. Then, we can simply The required customer data of each customer load points
compute technical power loss in each branch, i.e. both consists of a customer phase type, a recorded energy
phase and neutral lines, based on the expression of I 2 R demand in a consideration interval, a consideration
using the computed branch current and line impedance. interval time, and the customer classifications, e.g.
residential sector, small industrial sector, and etc.
2.2 The proposed algorithm
The proposed algorithm is designed in order to Step 2 Set Initial Values
perform a loss assessment under an available data of an To solve the power flow problem, it is
actual low-voltage distribution system. The main idea is necessary to initialize a bus voltage and a demand at
to create a time-series demand at each customer load each customer load points in a consideration interval. By
point which can be obtained from combination of a using an obtained input data (2) and (3), the time-series
studied load patterns and an available data. Afterwards, a demand of each customer load points is computed by a
time-series power loss is computed from a created time- combination of the studied load patterns which are
series demand of each customer load points by the scaled by using equal energy criteria approximation.
proposed node analysis. The proposed algorithm is
categorized into 4 steps as described below. The Step 3 Perform power flow calculation via node analysis
flowchart which summarizes the proposed algorithm is To solve power flow problem, power flow
depicted in Fig. 4. calculation via node analysis in Section 2.1 is performed.
The power loss is calculated after a successful
Step 1 Get input data convergence of an iterative node analysis.
Based on available data of an actual low-
voltage distribution system, the required data are Step 4 Determine a conductor energy loss calculation
composed of; (1) system configuration which is required In order to determine a conductor energy loss
to perform power flow calculation; (2) a studied load calculation, a successive calculation is employed for a
patterns categorized by a customer type from the 1996 time-series of the estimated load. Step 3 is repeated until
Annual Load Research Report for the Thailand Electric the end of considered time-series. Then, a conductor
System [4]; and (3) an available customer data. energy loss is calculated.
3. Numerical example
3.1 The test system
In this work, a low-voltage distribution system
starts from the low-voltage/ secondary side of a
distribution transformer and delivers electrical energy to
the customer load point. A considered actual low-
voltage distribution system shown in Fig. 5 is used to
test the proposed method. The system consists of 16
customer load points and is supplied by a 22kV/380V,
250 kVA distribution transformer.
7 8
65
4. Conclusions
This paper proposes an alternative method to
assess the technical power loss in an actual low-voltage
distribution system by using actual available information.
The proposed method makes the technical energy loss
assessment in an actual low-voltage distribution system
possible under limited data. Nevertheless, this proposed
method cannot provide accurate results without good
quality and precise available input data. Moreover, the
accuracy of the results depends on quality of the studied
load patterns. According to our simulation it is found
that the proposed method can provide satisfactory
9 10 11 12 13 14 15

32
10
51 20 20 25 20 20 20
results.
18
17

35

16
References
[1] Nazarko, J., Styczynski, Z., Poplawski, M, “The
19

95 sq. mm.
35

53
1 fuzzy approach to energy losses calculations in low
50 sq.mm.
45

2
voltage distribution networks,” IEEE Power
30 Engineering Society Winter Meeting 2000, 23 – 27
3
Jan. 2000, vol.4, pp. 2763 – 2768.
[2] Charles A. Desoer, Ernest S. Kuh, Basic Circuit
30

30
Theory, International edition, Mc-Graw Hill, 1969.
[3] Hadi Saadat, Power System Analysis, 2nd Edition,
5

60

6 McGraw-hill, 1982 (International Edition).

Fig. 5. An actual low-voltage distribution system [4] “the 1996 Annual Load Research Report for the
Thailand Electric System,” Energy Policy and
3.2 Simulation results Planning Office Ministry of Energy Royal Thai
To determine technical energy loss, we apply Government, 1997.
the proposed methodology to calculate a technical
energy loss of the considered system. By using the
simulation time interval from 4 August 2007 to 2
September 2007, the simulation result is depicted in
Table 1. As a result, percentage of energy loss portion
referred to an infeed-energy properly reflects a realistic
loss portion of an actual low-voltage distribution system.
Furthermore, it can be seen that loss in the neutral line
(N) cannot be neglected in loss assessment for a low-
voltage distribution system.

Table 1. A simulation result

!=========================================================!
! Simulation Result !
! (Rec. = recorded, Cal. = calculated) !
!---------------------------------------------------------!
! In-feed Energy !
!---------------------------------------------------------!
! INFEED total :: 20159.695 kWhr (Rec.) !
INFEED total :: 19689.373 kWhr (Cal.) !
!---------------------------------------------------------!
! Load Energy !
!---------------------------------------------------------!
! LOAD in A-phase :: 8086.233 kWhr (Rec. & Cal.) !
! LOAD in B-phase :: 7486.530 kWhr (Rec. & Cal.) !
! LOAD in C-phase :: 3790.927 kWhr (Rec. & Cal.) !
! LOAD total :: 19363.690 kWhr (Rec. & Cal.) !
!---------------------------------------------------------!
! Recorded Total Loss Energy (Technical & Non-Technical Loss) !
!---------------------------------------------------------!
! LOSS total :: 796.005 kWhr (Rec.)(3.95%) !
!---------------------------------------------------------!
! Conductor Loss Energy (Technical Loss) !
!---------------------------------------------------------!
! LOSS in A-phase :: 110.781 kWhr (Cal.) !
! LOSS in B-phase :: 114.469 kWhr (Cal.) !
! LOSS in C-phase :: 20.775 kWhr (Cal.) !
! LOSS in N-phase :: 79.657 kWhr (Cal.) !
! LOSS total :: 325.682 kWhr (Cal.)(1.62%) !
!---------------------------------------------------------!
! Non-Technical Loss Energy (Non-Technical Loss) !
!---------------------------------------------------------!
! LOSS total :: 470.322 kWhr (Rec.)(2.33%) !
!=========================================================!