Automation in Manufacturing 10ME757: Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT (Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B)

AUTOMATION IN MANUFACTURING 10ME757
AUTOMATION IN MANUFACTURING
Subject Code : 10ME757 IA Marks : 25
Hours/Week : 04 Exam Hours : 03
Total Hours : 52 Exam Marks : 100
PART - A
UNIT - 1
INTRODUCTION: Production System Facilities, Manufacturing Support systems, Automation in
Production systems, Automation principles & Strategies
5 Hours
UNIT - 2
MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS: Manufacturing Operations, Product/Production
Relationship, Production concepts and Mathematical Models & Costs of Manufacturing Operations
7 Hours
UNIT - 3
INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEM: Basic Elements of an Automated System, Advanced
Automation Functions & Levels of Automation, Continuous versus Discrete control, Computer
Process control, Forms of Computer Process Control.
7 Hours
UNIT - 4
AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS: Components of a Manufacturing systems,
Classification of Manufacturing Systems, overview of Classification Scheme, Single Station
Manned Workstations and Single Station Automated Cells.
7 Hours
PART - B
UNIT - 5
GROUP TECHNOLOGY & FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS: Part Families, Parts
Classification and coding, Production Flow Analysis, Cellular Manufacturing, Flexible
Manufacturing Systems: What is an FMS, FMS Components, FMS Applications & Benefits, and
FMS Planning & Implementation Issues.
8 Hours
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT (Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 1

UNIT - 6
QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEMS: Traditional and Modern Quality Control Methods, Taguchi
Methods in Quality Engineering. Introduction to SQC Tools.
4 Hours
UNIT - 7
INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES: Automated Inspection, Coordinate Measuring Machines
Construction, operation & Programming, Software, Application & Benefits, Flexible Inspection
System, Inspection Probes on Machine Tools, Machine Vision, Optical Inspection Techniques &
Noncontact No optical Inspection Technologies
6 Hours
UNIT - 8
MANUFACTURING SUPPORT SYSTEM: Process Planning, Computer Aided Process Planning,
Concurrent Engineering & Design for Manufacturing, Advanced Manufacturing Planning, Just-in
Time Production System, Basic concepts of lean and Agile manufacturing. Basic Concepts of Lean
and Agile manufacturing, Comparisons of Lean & Agile Manufacturing.
8 Hours
TEXT BOOKS:
Automation, Production Systems and Computer Integrated Manufacturing, M. P. Groover, Pearson
education. Third Edition, 2008
Principles of CIM, Vajpayee, PHI.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
Anatomy of Automation, Amber G.H & P. S. Amber, Prentice Hall.
Performance Modeling of Automated Manufacturing Systems, Viswanandham, PHI
Computer Based Industrial Control, Krishna Kant, EEE-PHI
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 2

CONTENTS
Sl.No Particulars Page -No
Unit 1
1.
4-29
INTRODUCTION
Unit 2
2.
30-40
MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS
Unit 3
3.
41-56
INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEM
Unit 4
4.
57-90
AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
Unit 5
5.
91-107
GROUP TECHNOLOGY & FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS:
Unit 6
6.
108-128
QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEMS
Unit 7
7.
129-163
INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES
Unit 8
8.
164-192
MANUFACTURING SUPPORT SYSTEM

UNIT-1
Introduction:
Automation is the use of machines, control systems and information technologies to

optimize productivity in the production of goods and delivery of services. The
correct incentive for applying automation is to increase productivity, and/or quality
beyond that possible with current human labor levels so as to realize economies of
scale, and/or realize predictable quality levels. In the scope of industrialization,
automation is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas mechanization provides human
operators with machinery to assist them with the muscular requirements of work.
Automation greatly decreases the need for human sensory and mental requirements
while increasing load capacity, speed, and repeatability. Automation plays an
increasingly important role in the world economy and in daily experience.
Automation has had a notable impact in a wide range of industries beyond

manufacturing (where it began). Once-ubiquitous telephone operators have been
replaced largely by automated telephone switchboards and answering machines.
Medical processes such as primary screening in electrocardiography or radiography
and laboratory analysis of human genes, sera, cells, and tissues are carried out at
much greater speed and accuracy by automated systems. Automated teller machines
have reduced the need for bank visits to obtain cash and carry out transactions. In
general, automation has been responsible for the shift in the world economy from
industrial jobs to service jobs in the 20th and 21st centuries.

Advantages and disadvantages
The main advantages of automation are:
 Increased throughput or productivity.


 Improved quality or increased predictability of quality.

 Improved robustness (consistency), of processes or product.
The following methods are often employed to improve productivity, quality, or

robustness.
 Install automation in operations to reduce cycle time.


 Install automation where a high degree of accuracy is required.

 Replacing human operators in tasks that involve hard physical or monotonous
work.

 Replacing humans in tasks done in dangerous environments (i.e. fire, space,
volcanoes, nuclear facilities, underwater, etc.)

 Performing tasks that are beyond human capabilities of size, weight, speed,
endurance, etc.

 Economy improvement: Automation may improve in economy of enterprises,
society or most of humanity. For example, when an enterprise invests in
automation, technology recovers its investment. Reduces operation time and
work handling time significantly.

 Frees up workers to take on other roles.

 Provides higher level jobs in the development, deployment, maintenance and
running of the automated processes.

The main disadvantages of automation are:
 Security Threats/Vulnerability: An automated system may have a limited level

of intelligence, and is therefore more susceptible to committing an error.

 Unpredictable development costs: The research and development cost of
automating a process may exceed the cost saved by the automation itself.

 High initial cost: The automation of a new product or plant requires a huge
initial investment in comparison with the unit cost of the product, although the
cost of automation is spread among many products.
In manufacturing, the purpose of automation has shifted to issues broader than

productivity, cost, and time.
Reliability and precision
The old focus on using automation simply to increase productivity and reduce costs
was seen to be short-sighted, because it is also necessary to provide a skilled
workforce who can make repairs and manage the machinery. Moreover, the initial
costs of automation were high and often could not be recovered by the time entirely
new manufacturing processes replaced the old. (Japan's "robot junkyards" were once
world famous in the manufacturing industry.)
Automation is now often applied primarily to increase quality in the manufacturing

process, where automation can increase quality substantially. For example, internal
combustion engine pistons used to be installed manually. This is rapidly being
transitioned to automated machine installation, because the error rate for manual
installment was around 1-1.5%, but has been reduced to 0.00001% with automation.

Health and environment
The costs of automation to the environment are different depending on the

technology, product or engine automated. There are automated engines that consume
more energy resources from the Earth in comparison with previous engines and those
that do the opposite too. Hazardous operations, such as oil refining, the
manufacturing of industrial chemicals, and all forms of metal working, were always
early contenders for automation.
Convertibility and turnaround time
Another major shift in automation is the increased demand for flexibility and
convertibility in manufacturing processes. Manufacturers are increasingly demanding
the ability to easily switch from manufacturing Product A to manufacturing Product
B without having to completely rebuild the production lines. Flexibility and
distributed processes have led to the introduction of Automated Guided Vehicles
with Natural Features Navigation.
Digital electronics helped too. Former analogue-based instrumentation was replaced

by digital equivalents which can be more accurate and flexible, and offer greater
scope for more sophisticated configuration, parameterization and operation. This was
accompanied by the field bus revolution which provided a networked (i.e. a single
cable) means of communicating between control systems and field level
instrumentation, eliminating hard-wiring.
Discrete manufacturing plants adopted these technologies fast. The more

conservative process industries with their longer plant life cycles have been slower to

adopt and analogue-based measurement and control still dominates. The growing use
of Industrial Ethernet on the factory floor is pushing these trends still further,
enabling manufacturing plants to be integrated more tightly within the enterprise, via
the internet if necessary. Global competition has also increased demand for
Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems.
Automation tools
Engineers can now have numerical control over automated devices. The result has
been a rapidly expanding range of applications and human activities. Computer-aided
technologies now serve the basis for mathematical and organizational tools used to
create complex systems. Notable examples of include Computer-aided design (CAD
software) and Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM software). Information
technology, together with industrial machinery and processes, can assist in the
design, implementation, and monitoring of control systems. One example of an
industrial control system is a programmable logic controller (PLC). PLCs are
specialized hardened computers which are frequently used to synchronize the flow of
inputs from (physical) sensors and events with the flow of outputs to actuators and
events.[5]
Human-machine interfaces (HMI) or computer human interfaces (CHI), formerly

known as man-machine interfaces, are usually employed to communicate with PLCs
and other computers. Service personnel who monitor and control through HMIs can
be called by different names. In industrial process and manufacturing environments,
they are called operators or something similar. In boiler houses and central utilities
departments they are called stationary engineers.[6]
Different types of automation tools exist:

 ANN - Artificial neural network


 BPM - Bonita Open Solution

 DCS - Distributed Control System

 HMI - Human Machine Interface

 SCADA - Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

 PLC - Programmable Logic Controller

 PAC - Programmable automation controller

 Instrumentation

 Motion control

 Robotics
Limitations to automation
 Current technology is unable to automate all the desired tasks.


 As a process becomes increasingly automated, there is less and less labor to be
saved or quality improvement to be gained. This is an example of both
diminishing returns and the logistic function.

 Similar to the above, as more and more processes become automated, there are
fewer remaining non-automated processes. This is an example of exhaustion of
opportunities.
Current limitations
Many roles for humans in industrial processes presently lie beyond the scope of
automation. Human-level pattern recognition, language comprehension, and
language production ability are well beyond the capabilities of modern mechanical
and computer systems. Tasks requiring subjective assessment or synthesis of
complex sensory data, such as scents and sounds, as well as high-level tasks such as
strategic planning, currently require human expertise. In many cases, the use of
humans is more cost-effective than mechanical approaches even where automation of

industrial tasks is possible.
Automated video surveillance monitors people and vehicles in real time within a
busy environment. Existing automated surveillance systems are based on the
environment they are primarily designed to observe, i.e., indoor, outdoor or airborne,
the amount of sensors that the automated system can handle and the mobility of
sensor, i.e., stationary camera vs. mobile camera. The purpose of a surveillance
system is to record properties and trajectories of objects in a given area, generate
warnings or notify designated authority in case of occurrence of particular events.
As demands for safety and mobility have grown and technological possibilities have
multiplied, interest in automation has grown. Vehicle prototype from which future
fully automated intelligent vehicle-highway systems can be developed. Such
development shall include research in human factors to ensure the success of the
man-machine relationship.
Automated manufacturing refers to the application of automation to produce things

in the factory way. Most of the advantages of the automation technology has its
influence in the manufacture processes.
The main advantages of automated manufacturing are higher consistency and quality,
reduced lead times, simplified production, reduced handling, improved work flow,
and increased worker morale when a good implementation of the automation is
made.
Home automation (also called domestics) designates an emerging practice of

increased automation of household appliances and features in residential dwellings,

particularly through electronic means that allow for things impracticable, overly
expensive or simply not possible in recent past decades.
Industrial automation deals with the optimization of energy-efficient drive systems

by precise measurement and control technologies. Nowadays energy efficiency in
industrial processes is becoming more and more relevant.
Agent-assisted Automation: refers to automation used by call center agents to handle

customer inquiries. There are two basic types: desktop automation and automated
voice solutions. Desktop automation refers to software programming that makes it
easier for the call center agent to work across multiple desktop tools. The automation
would take the information entered into one tool and populate it across the others so
it did not have to be entered more than once, for example. Automated voice solutions
allow the agents to remain on the line while disclosures and other important
information is provided to customers in the form of pre-recorded audio files.
Specialized applications of these automated voice solutions enable the agents to
process credit cards without ever seeing or hearing the credit card numbers or CVV
codes
Robots in manufacturing
Today most robots are used in manufacturing operations; the applications can be
divided into three categories: (1) material handling, (2) processing operations, and
(3) assembly and inspection.
Material-handling applications include material transfer and machine loading and

unloading. Material-transfer applications require the robot to move materials or work
parts from one location to another. Many of these tasks are relatively simple,
requiring robots to pick up parts from one conveyor and place them on another.

Other transfer operations are more complex, such as placing parts onto pallets in an
arrangement that must be calculated by the robot. Machine loading and unloading
operations utilize a robot to load and unload parts at a production machine. This
requires the robot to be equipped with a gripper that can grasp parts. Usually the
gripper must be designed specifically for the particular part geometry.
In robotic processing operations, the robot manipulates a tool to perform a process on

the work part. Examples of such applications include spot welding, continuous arc
welding, and spray painting. Spot welding of automobile bodies is one of the most
common applications of industrial robots. The robot positions a spot welder against
the automobile panels and frames to complete the assembly of the basic car body.
Arc welding is a continuous process in which the robot moves the welding rod along
the seam to be welded. Spray painting involves the manipulation of a spray-painting
gun over the surface of the object to be coated. Other operations in this category
include grinding, polishing, and routing, in which a rotating spindle serves as the
robot’s tool.
The third application area of industrial robots is assembly and inspection. The use of
robots in assembly is expected to increase because of the high cost of manual labour
common in these operations. Since robots are programmable, one strategy in
assembly work is to produce multiple product styles in batches, reprogramming the
robots between batches. An alternative strategy is to produce a mixture of different
product styles in the same assembly cell, requiring each robot in the cell to identify
the product style as it arrives and then execute the appropriate task for that unit.
The design of the product is an important aspect of robotic assembly. Assembly

methods that are satisfactory for humans are not necessarily suitable for robots.
Using a screw and nut as a fastening method, for example, is easily performed in

manual assembly, but the same operation is extremely difficult for a one-armed
robot. Designs in which the components are to be added from the same direction
using snap fits and other one-step fastening procedures enable the work to be
accomplished much more easily by automated and robotic assembly methods.
Inspection is another area of factory operations in which the utilization of robots is

growing. In a typical inspection job, the robot positions a sensor with respect to the
work part and determines whether the part is consistent with the quality
specifications.
In nearly all industrial robotic applications, the robot provides a substitute for human
labour. There are certain characteristics of industrial jobs performed by humans that
identify the work as a potential application for robots: (1) the operation is repetitive,
involving the same basic work motions every cycle; (2) the operation is hazardous or
uncomfortable for the human worker (e.g., spray painting, spot welding, arc welding,
and certain machine loading and unloading tasks); (3) the task requires a work part or
tool that is heavy and awkward to handle; and (4) the operation allows the robot to be
used on two or three shifts.
Why automation ?
1. To increase labour productivity. Automating a manufacturing operation

usually increases production rate labor productivity. This means greater
output per hour of labour input.
2. To reduce labor cost. Ever-increasing cost has been and continues to be the
trend in the world’s industrialized societies. Consequently, higher
investment. Machine are increasingly being substituted for human stimulated
for human labor to reduce unit product cost.

3. To mitigate the effects of labor shortages. There is a general shortage of

labor in many advanced nations and this has stimulated the development of
automated operations as a substitute for labor.
4. To reduce or eliminate routine manual and clerical tasks. An argument cand
be put forth that there is social value in automating operations that are
routine. Boring fatiguing. And possibly irksome. Automating such tasks
improve the general level of working conditions
5. To improve worker safety. Automation not only result production rates than
Manuel operation and transferring the worker form active participation in the
process to a monitoring role. Or removing the worker from the operation
altogether, makes the work safer. The safety and physical well being of the
worker has become a national objectives with the enactment of the
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) in 1970. This has provided an
impetus for automation.
6. To improve product quality. Automation not only result in higher production
rates than manual operation. It also performs the manufacturing process with
greater uniformity and conformity to quality specifications.
7. To reduce manufacturing lead time. Automation helps reduce the elapsed
time between customer order and product delivery, providing a competitive
advantage to the manufacturer for future order. By reducing manufacturing
lead time. The manufacturer also reduce work-in-process inventory.
8. To accomplish that cannot be done manually. Certain operations cannot be
accomplished without the aid of a machine. These processes require
precision. Miniaturization or complexity of geometry that cannot be achieved
manually. Examples include certain integrated circuit fabrication operations,
rapid prototyping processes based on computer graphic (CAD) models, and
the machining of complex, mathematically defined surfaces

using computer numerical control. These processes can only be realized by

computer controlled systems.
9. To avoid the high cost of not automating. There is a significant competitive
advantage gained in automating a manufacturing plant. The advantage
cannot easily be demonstrated on a company’s project authorization from.
The benefits of automation often show up in unexpected and intangible ways
such as in improved quality higher sales, better labor relations, and better
company image. Companies with their customers, their employees, and the
general public.
Reasons for opposing Automation
Labour resistance
Cost of upgraded labour – new skill set
Initial investment
Management of process improvements
Re engineering
Modern manufacturing enterprises that manage this production system must cope
with the economic realities of the world. The reasons are as follows:
 Globalization. Once underdeveloped countries like China. India, and Mexico
are become major player in manufacturing, due largely to their high
populations and low labour costs include Latin America, Eastern Europe, and
Southeast Asia, and the countries in these regions have also become important
suppliers of manufactured goods.

 International outsourcing. Parts and products once made in the United States
by American companies are now being made offshore (overseas, so that cargo

ships are required to deliver the items) or near-shore (in Mexico or Central
America, so that rail and truck deliveries are possible) In general, International
outsource means loss of jobs in the United States.
 Local outsourcing. Companies can also outsource by using suppliers within the
United States. Reasons why companies elect local outsourcing include 1)
benefits from using suppliers that specialize in certain production technologies,
2) lower labour rates in smaller companies, and 3) limitations of available in-
house manufacturing capabilities.

 Contract manufacturing. This refers to companies that specialist in
manufacturing entire products, not just parts, under contract to other
companies. Contract manufactures specialize in efficient production
techniques, freeing their customers to specialize in the design and marking of
the products.
 Trend toward the service sector in the U.S. economy. There has been a gradual
erosion of direct labour jobs in manufacturing while jobs in service industries
(e.g healthcare, food service, retail) have increased in numbers.

 Quality expectations. Customers, both consumer and corporate, demand that
the products they purchase are of the highest quality. Perfect quality is the
expectation.

 The need for operational efficiency. To be successful. U.S. manufacturers must
be efficient in their operations to overcome the labour cost advantage enjoyed
be their international competitors. In some cases, that labor cost advantage is a
factor of ten.
How manufacturers can successfully compete by employing modern

manufacturing approaches and technologies. The approaches and technologies
include the following.
 Automation. The use of automated equipment compensates for the labor

cost disadvantage relative to international competitors. Automation
reduces labour costs, decreases production cycle times, and increases
product quality and consistency.

 Material handling technologies. Manufacturing usually involves a
sequence of activities performed at different locations in the plant. The
work must be transported, stored, and tracked as it moves through the
plant.


 Manufacturing system. These involve the integration and coordination
of multiple automated and/or manual workstations through the use of
material handling technologies to achieve a synergistic effect compared
of the independent operation of individual workstations. Examples
include production lines, Manufacturing cells, and automated assembly
systems.


 Flexible Manufacturing. Much of the outsourcing to international
competitors, such as china and Mexico, has involved high-volume
consumer goods production. Flexibility in Manufacturing allows U.S.
Manufacturers to compete effectively in the low volume/high-mix
product categories.


 Quality programs. Manufacturers must employ technologies include
computer aided design (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM),
and computer networks to integrate Manufacturing and logistics
operations.
 Lean production. Accomplishing more work with fewer resources is the

general goal of lean production, which involves techniques to increase
labor productivity and operational efficiency.
A production system is a collection of people, equipment, and procedures

organized to perform the manufacturing operations of a company (or other
organization) Production systems can be divided into two categories or levels as
indicated in Figure below.
Production Facilities:
The facilities of the production system consist of the factory, products
machines and tooling the equipment in the factory, and the way the equipment is
organized.
Manufacturing support systems:
This is the set of procedures used by the company to manage production and to
solve the technical and logistics problems encountered in the company.
Ordering materials, moving the work through the factory, and ensuring that
products meet quality standards. Product design and certain business functions
are included among the Manufacturing support systems.
In modern Manufacturing operations, portions of the production system are
automated and/or computerized. However, production system include people.
People make these system work.

The facilities in the production system are the factory, production machines and
tooling, material handling equipment, inspection equipment, and computer
systems that control the Manufacturing operations. Facilities also include the
plant layout. Which refers to the way the equipment is physically arranged in
the factory. The equipment is usually organized into logical groupings, and we
refer to these equipment arrangements and the workers who operate them as the
Manufacturing systems in the factory. Manufacturing systems can be individual
work cells, consisting of a single production machine and worker assigned to
that machine.
In terms of the human participation in the processes performed by the
Manufacturing systems, three basic categories can be distinguished, as depicted
in Figure manual work systems, (b) worker-machine systems, and (c) automated
systems.
Manual Work Systems. A manual work system consists of one or more workers
performing one or more tasks without the aid of powered tools. Manual material
handling tasks are common activities in manual works systems. Production
tasks commonly require the use of hand tools. A hand tool is a small tool that is
manually operated by the strength and skill of the human user. When using hand
tools, a work holder if often employed to grasp the work part and position it
securely during processing.
 A machinist using a file to round the edges of a rectangular part that has just
been milled

 A quality control inspector using a micrometer to measure the diameter of a
shaft.

Worker-machine Systems. In a worker-machine system, a human worker

operates powered equipment, such as a machine tool or other production
machine. This is one of the most widely used manufacturing systems. Worker-
machine systems include combinations of one or more workers and one or more
pieces of equipment. The workers and machines are combined to take advantage
of their relative strength and attributes.
 A machinist operating an engine lathe in a tool room to fabricate a part a
custom designed product

 A fitter and an industrial robot working together in arc-welding work cell
Automated systems. An automated system is one in which a process is

performed by a machine without the direct participation of as human worker.
Automation is implemented using a program of instructions combined with a
control system that executes the instructions. Power is required to drive the
process and to operate the program and control system.
two levels of automation semi automated and fully automated. A semi-
automated machine performs a portion of the work cycle under some form of
program control, and a human worker tends to the machine for the remainder of
the cycle, by loading and unloading it. or performing some other task each
cycle. A fully automated for extended period of time with no human attention.
By extended periods of time, we cycle. Instead. The worker may need to tend
machine every tenth cycle. or every hundredth cycle. An example of this type of
operation is found in many injection moulding parts at the machine must be
collected by a worker.

To operate the production facilities efficiently, a company must organize itself

to design the processes and equipment, plan and control the production orders,
and satisfy product quality requirements these functions are accomplished by
manufacturing support systems-people and procedures by which a company
manages its production operations. Most of these support systems do not
directly contact the product, but they plan and control its progress through the
factory.
Manufacturing support involves a cycle of information-processing activities.

The information-processing cycle can be described as consisting of four
functions 1) business functions 2) product design 3) Manufacturing Planning,
and 4) Manufacturing control.
Business Functions. The business functions are the principal means of

communicating with the customer. They are therefore, the beginning and the
end of the information processing cycle. Include in this category are sales and
marketing sales forecasting order entry, cost accounting, and customer billing.
The order to produce a product typically originates form the customer and
proceeds in to the company through the sales and marketing department of the
firm. The production order will be in one of the following forms
1) an order to manufacture an item to the customer’s specifications, 2)a
customer order to buy one of the Manufacturer’s proprietary products, or 3)
an internal company order based on a forecast of future demand for a
proprietary product.
Product design. If the product is to be manufactured to customer design, the

design will have been provided by the customer. The Manufacturer’s product

design department will be not be involved. If the product is to be produced to

customer specifications, the Manufacturer’s product design department may be
contracted to do the design work for the product as well as to manufacture it.
The departments of the firm that are organized to accomplish design might
include research and development. Design engineering and perhaps a prototype
shop.
Manufacturing Planning. The information and documentation that constitute the

product design flows into the Manufacturing planning function. The information
processing activities in Manufacturing planning include process planning.
Master scheduling requirements planning and capacity planning.
Process planning consists of determining the sequence of individual processing
and assembly operations need to produce the part. The Manufacturing
engineering and industrial engineering departments are responsible for planning
the processes and related technical details.
The master production schedule is a listing of the product to be made, the dates
on which they are to be delivered, and the quantities of each. Months are
traditionally used to specify delivered, in the master schedule. Based on this
schedule, the individual components and subassemblies that make up each
product must be planned. Raw materials must be purchased or requisitioned
form storage, purchased parts must be ordered form suppliers, and all of these
items must be planned so that they are available when needed. This entire task is
called material requirements planning. A function called capacity planning is
concerned with planning the manpower and machine resources of the firm.
Manufacturing Control. Manufacturing control is concerned with managing and

controlling the physical operations in the factory to implement the

Manufacturing plans. The flow of information is form planning to control as

indicated in Figure. Information also flows back and forth between
Manufacturing control and the factory operations. Included in the
Manufacturing control function are shop floor control. Inventory control and
quality control.
Shop floor control deals with the problem of monitoring the progress of the
product as it is being processed. Assembled. Moved and inspected in the
factory. Shop floor control is concerned with inventory in the sense that the
materials being processed in the factory are work-in-process inventory.
Inventory control attempts to strike a proper balanced between the risk of too
little inventory (with possible stock-outs of materials) and the carrying cost of
too much inventory. It deals with such issues as deciding the right quantities of
materials to order and when to order a given item stock is low.
The function of quality control is to ensure that the quality of the product and its
components meet the standards specified by the product designer. To
accomplish its mission. Quality control depends on inspection activities
performed in the factory at various times outside source are sometimes
inspected when they are received, and final inspection and testing of the
finished product is performed to ensure functional quality and appearance.
Quality control also include data collection and problem-solve approaches to
address process problem related to quality. Example of these approaches are
statistical process control (SPC) and Six Sigma
Type of automation for different production volume and product variety are
depicted in Figure

Fixed Automation. Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of

processing (or assembly) operations is fixed by the equipment configuration.
Each operation in the sequence is usually simple, involving per phase a plain
linear or rotational spindle. It is that international and coordination of many
such operation into one piece of equipment that makes the system complex.
Typical features of fixed automation are 1) high initial investment for custom-
engineered equipment, 2) high production rates, a and 3) relative inflexibility of
the equipment to accommodate product variety.
Programmable Automation. In programmable automation, the production

equipment is designed with the capacity to change the sequence of operations to
accommodate different product configurations. The operation sequence is
controlled by a program, which is a set of instruction coded so that they cxan be
read and interpreted by the system. New programs can be prepared and entered
into the equipment to produce new products. Some of the features that
characterize programmable automation include 1) high investment in general
purpose equipment 2) lower production rates than fixed automation 3)flexibility
to deal with variations and changes in product configuration and 4) high
suitability for batch production.
Programmable automated production systems are used in low-and medium
volume production.
To produce each new batch of a different product. The system must be
reprogrammed with the set of machine instructions that correspond to the new
product. The physical setup the machine must also be changed. Tools must be
loaded. Fixtures must be attached to the machine table. And the required
machine setting must be entered. This changeover procedure takes time.
Consequently, the typical cycle for a given product includes a period during

which the setup and reprogramming takes place. Followed by a period in which
the parts in the batch are produced. Examples of programmable automation in
include numerically controlled (NC) machine tools. Industrial robots. And
programmable logic controllers.
Flexible Automation. Flexible automation is an extension of programmable

automation. A flexible automated system is capable of producing a variety of
parts (or products) with virtually no time lost for changeovers from one part
style to the next. There is no lost production time while reprogramming the
system and altering the physical setup (tooling. Fixtures, ma chine setting)
accordingly the system can produce various mixes and schedules of parts or
products instead of requiring that they be made in parts processed by the system
are not significant. So the amount of changeover required between style is
minimal. The features of flexible automation include 1) high investment for a
custom- engineered system 2) continuous production of variable mixtures of
products 3) medium products 3) medium production rates, and 4)flexibility to
deal with product design variations.
Automation of the manufacturing support systems is aimed at reducing the

amount of manual and clerical effort in effort in product design manufacturing
planning and control. And the business functions of the firm. Nearly all modern
manufacturing support systems are implemented using computers. Indeed.
Computer technology is used to implement automation of the manufacturing
systems in the factory as well. The term computer integrated manufacturing
(CIM) denotes the pervasive use of computer systems to design the products,
plan the productions, control the operations, and perform the various
information-processing functions need in a manufacturing firm.

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) denotes the use of computer systems to

perform functions related to manufacturing engineering. Such as process
planning and numerical control part programming. Some computer systems
perform both CAD and CAM, and the term CAD/CAM is used to indicate the
integration of the two into one system. Companies undertake
Procedures suggested in the manufacturing and automation:

(1) Understand the existing process, (2) simplify the process, and (3)
automate the process.
If automation seems a feasible solution to improving productivity, quality,

or other measure of performance, then the following ten strategies can be
adopted for improvements strategies for automation and process
improvement.
1. Specialization of operations. The first strategy involves the use of

special-purpose equipment designed to one operation with the greatest
possible efficiency. This is a analogous to the specialization of labor,
which is employed to improve labor productivity to the specialization of
labor, which is employed to improve labor productivity.
2. Combined operations. Production occurs as a sequence of operations.
Complex parts any require dozens or even hundreds of processing steps.
The strategy of combined operations involves reducing the number of
district productions machines or workstations through which the part
must be routed. This is accomplished by per forming more than one
operation at a given machine, thereby reducing the number of separate

machines needed. Since each machine typically involves a setup, setup

time. Waiting time. And manufacturing lead time are all reduce.
3. Simultaneous operations. A logical extension of the combined
operations strategy is to simultaneously perform the operations that are
combined at one workstation. In effect, two o more processing (or
assembly) operations are being performed simultaneously on the same
work part, thus reducing total processing time.
4. Integration of operations. This strategy involves linking several
workstations together into a single integrated mechanism, using
automated work handling devices to transfer parts between stations. In
effect, this reduces the number of separate work canters through which
the product must be scheduled. With more than one workstation. Several
parts can be processed simultaneously, thereby increasing the overall
output of the system.
5. Increased flexibility. This strategy attempts to achieve maximum
utilization of equipment for job shop and medium-volume situation by
using the same equipment for a variety of part or products. It involves
the use of flexible automation concepts. Prime objectives are to reduce
setup time and programming time for the production machine. This
normally translates into lower manufacturing lead time and less work-
in-process.
6. Improved material handling and storage. A great opportunity for
reducing nonproduction time exists in the use of automated material
handling and storage systems. Typical benefits include reduce work-in
process and shorter manufacturing lead times.
7. On-line inspection. Inspection for quality of work is traditionally
performed after the process is completed. This means that any poor-

quality product has already been produced by the time it is inspected.

Inspection into the manufacturing process permits corrections to the
process as the product is being made. This reduces scrap and brings the
overall quality of the product closer to the nominal specifications
intended by the designer.
8. Process control and optimization. This includes wide range of control
schemes intended to operate the individual processes and associated
equipment more efficiently. By this strategy, the individual process
times can be reduced and product quality can be improved.
9. Plant operations control. Whereas the previous was concerned with the
control of the individual manufacturing process. This strategy is
concerned with control at the plant more efficiently. Its implementation
usually involves a high level of computer networking within the factory.
10. Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM). Talking the previous
strategy one level higher. We have the integration of factory operations
with engineering design and the business functions of the firm. CIM
involves extensive use of computer applications. Computer data bases
and computer networking through the enterprise.
The easiest and least expensive way to accomplish this objective is to design a
manual production method, using a sequence of workstations operating
independently. The tooling for a manual method can be fabrication quickly and
at low cost. If more than a single set of workstations is required to make the
product in sufficient quantities, as is often the case, then the manual cell is
replicated as many times as needed to meet demand. If the product turns out to
be successful. And high future demand is anticipated. Then it makes sense for
the company to automate production. The improvements are often carried out in

phases. Many companies have an automation migration strategy. That is a

formalized plan for evolving the manufacturing systems used to produce new
products as demand grows. A typical automation migration strategy is the
following.
Phase 1: Manual production using single station manned cells operating
independently. This is used for introduction of the new product for reason
already mentioned quick and low-cost tooling to get started.
Phase 2: Automated production using single-station automated cells operating

independently. As demand for the product for the product grows, and it become
clear that automation can be justified. Then the single stations are automated to
reduce labor and increase production rate. Work units are still moved between
workstations manually.
Phase 3 : Automated integrated production using a multi station automated

system with serial operations and automated transfer of work units between
stations. When the company is certain that the product will be produced in mass
quantities and for several years, then integration of the single station automated
cells is warranted to further reduce labor and increase production rate. There are
several advantages of such a strategy :
 It allows introduction of the new product in the shortest possible time,
since production cells based on manual workstations are the easier to
design and implement

 It allows automation to be introduced gradually (in planned phases), as
demand for the product grows, engineering changes in the product are
made, and time is provided to do a thorough design job on the automated
manufacturing system

 It avoids the commitment to a high level of automation from the start,

since there is always a risk that demands for the product will not justify
it.
UNIT -2
Manufacturing Operations
There are certain basic activities that must be carried out a factory to convert raw
materials into finished products. Factory activities are 1) processing and assembly
operations 2) material handling 3) inspection and test and 4) coordination and control.
Processing and Assembly Operations
Manufacturing processing can be divided into two basic types 1) processing

operations and 2) assembly operations. A processing operation transforms a work
material from one state of completion to a more advanced state that is closer to the
fi9nal desired part or product. It adds value by changing the geometry, properties, or
appearance of the starting material. In general, processing operations are performed on
discrete work parts.
Processing Operations. A processing operation uses energy to alter a work parts shape,
physical properties, or appearance to add value to the material. The forms of energy
include mechanical, thermal, electrical, and chemical. The energy is applied in a
controlled way by means of machinery and tooling. Human energy may also be
required but human workers are generally employed to control the machines, to
oversee the operations, and to load and unload parts before and after each cycle
operation. A desirable objective in Manufacturing is to reduce waste in either of these
forms.

More than one processing operation is usually required to transform the starting
material into final from. The operations are performed in the particular sequence to
achieve the geometry and/or condition defined by the design specification.
There categories of processing operations are distinguished 1) shaping operations. 2)

property-enhancing operations, and 3) surface processing operations.
Part-shaping operations apply mechanical force and/or heat or other forms and
combinations of energy to change the geometry of the work material. There are
various ways to classify these processes. The classification used here is based on the
state of the starting material. There are four categories.
Property-enhancing operations are designed to improve mechanical or physical

properties of the work material. The most important property-enhancing operations
involve heat treatments, which include various temperature-induced strengthening
and/or toughening processes for metals and glasses. Sintering of powdered metals and
ceramics, mentioned previously, is also heat treatment, which strengthens a pressed
powder work part. Property-enhancing operations do not alter part shape, except
unintentionally in some cases, for example, warping of a metal part during heat
treatment or shrinkage of a ceramic part during sintering.
Surface processing operations include 1) cleaning 2) surface treatments, and 3) coating

and thin film deposition processes. Cleaning includes both chemical and mechanical
processes to remove dirt, oil, and other contaminants from the surface. Surface
treatments include mechanical working, such as shot penning and sand blasting, and
physical processes like diffusion and ion implantation, coating and thin film
deposition processes apply a coating of material to the exterior surface of the work
part. Common coating processes include electroplating. Anodizing of aluminium, and
organic coating (call it vapour deposition to form extremely thin coatings of various

substances. Several surface processes operations have been adapted to fabricate

semiconductor materials (most commonly silicon) into integrated circuits for
microelectronic. These processes in include chemical vapour deposition, physical
vapour deposition, and oxidation. They are applied to very localized areas on the
surface of a this wafer of silicon (or other semi conduct or material) to create the
microscopic circuit.
Assembly Operations. The second basic of Manufacturing operation is assembly, in

which two or more separate parts are joined to from a new entity. Components of the
new entity are connected together either permanently or semi permanently. Permanent
joining processes include welding. Brazing. Soldering and adhesive bonding. They
combine part by forming a joint that cannot be easily disconnected. Mechanical
assembly methods are available to fasten two or more parts together in a joint that can
be conveniently disassembled. The use of threaded fasteners (e.g. screws, bolts, nuts)
are important traditional methods in this category. Other mechanical assembly
techniques that from a permanent connection include rivets, press fitting, and
expansion fits. Special assembly methods are used in electronics. Some of the methods
are identical to or adaptations of the above techniques. For example, soldering is
widely used in electronics assembly. Electronics assembly is concerned primarily with
the assembly of components (e.g. integrated circuit packages) to printed circuit boards
to produce the complex circuits used in so many of today’s products.
Other Factory Operations
Other activities that must be performed in the factory include material handling and
storage. Inspection and testing, and coordination and control.
Material Handling and Storage.
Inspection and Testing.

Coordination and Control.
A manufacturing company attempts to organize its facilities in the most efficient way
to serve the particular mission of each plant. Over the years, certain type of production
facilities have come to be recognized as the most appropriate way to organize for a
given type of manufacturing. Of course, one of the most important factors that
determine the type of manufacturing is the type of products that are made.
The quantity of parts and/or products made by a factory has a very significant
influence on its facilities and the way manufacturing is organized, production quantity
refers to the number of units of a given part or product produced annually by the plant.
The annual part or product quantities produced in a given factory can be classified into
three ranges:
1. Low production. Quantities in the range of 1 to 100 units.

2. Medium production: Quantities in the range of 100 to 10,000 units.
3. High production: Production quantities are 10,000 to millions of units.
Depending on the types of products, these boundaries may shift by an order of

magnitude or so.
Some plants produce a variety of different product types, each type being made in low
or medium quantities. Other plants specialize in high production of only one product
type. It is instructive to identify product variety as a parameter district from produced
in a plant. Different products have different shapes and size and styles, they perform
different functions, they are sometimes intended for different markets, and some have
more components than others, and so forth. The number of different product types
made each year can be counted. When the number of product types made in a factory
is high, this indicates high product variety.
There is an inverse correlation between product variety and production quantity in
terms of factory operations. When product variety is high, production quantity tends to
be low and vice versa. This relationship is depicted in Figure. Manufacturing plants
tend to specialize in a combination of production quantity and product variety that lies
some where inside the diagonal band in Figure. In general. A given factory tends to be
limited to the product variety value that is correlated with that production quality.
Although we have identified product variety as a quantitative parameter (the number
of different product types made by the plant or company), this parameter is much less
exact than production quantity, because details on how much the designs differ are not
captured simply by the number of different design. The differences between an
automobile and an air conditioner are far greater than between as air conditioner and a
heat pump. Products can be different, but the extent of the differences may be small or
great.
The type of production facility usually associated with the quantity range of 1 to 100
units/year is the job shop, which makes low quantities of specialized and customized
products. The products are typically complex, such as special machinery. Job shop
production can also include fabricating the component parts for the products.
Customer order for these kinds of items are often special, and repeat orders may never
occur. Equipment in a job shop is general purpose and the labour force is highly
skilled.
A job shop must be designed for maximum flexibility to deal with the wide part and
product variations encountered (hard product variety). If the product is large and
heavy, and therefore difficult to move in the factory, it typically remains in a single

location at least during its final assembly. Workers and processing equipment are
brought to the product, rather than moving the product to the equipment. This type of
layout is referred to as a fixed-position layout, shown in Figure. In which the product
remains in a single location during its entire fabrication. Examples of such products
include ships, air craft, railway locomotives, and heavy machinery. In actual practice,
these items are usually built in large modules at single locations, and then the
completed modules are brought together for final assembly using large capacity
cranes.
The individual parts that comprise these large products are often made in factories that
have a process layout, in which the equipment is arranged according to function or
type. The lathes are in one department, the milling machines are in another
department, and so on. Different parts, each requiring a different operation processing,
usually in batches. The process layout is noted for its flexibility, it can accommodate a
great variety of alternative operation sequences for different part configure designed
for high efficiency. Much material handling is required to move parts between
departments, so in-process inventory tends to be high. Medium Production
In the medium quantity range (100-10,000 units annually), we distinguish between

two different type of facility, depending on product variety. When is hard, the
traditional approach is batch production, in which a batch of one product is made, after
which the facility is changed over to produce a batch of the next product, and so on.
Orders for each product are frequently repeated. The production rate of the equipment
is greater than the demand rates for any single product type, and so the same
equipment can be shared among multiple products. The changeover between
production runs takes time. Called the setup time or changeover time. It is the time to
change tooling and to set up and reprogram the machinery. This is lost production

time. This is a disadvantage of batch manufacturing. Batch production is commonly

used in make-to-stock situations, in which items are manufactured to replenish
inventory that has been gradually depleted by demand. The equipment for batch
production is usually arranged in a process layout, Figure.
An alternative approach to medium range production is possible if product variety is
soft. In this case, extensive changeovers between one product style and the next may
not be required. It is often possible to configure the equipment so that groups of
similar parts or products can be made on the same equipment without significant lost
time for changeovers. The processing work stations or machines. The term cellular
manufacturing is often associated with this type of production. Each cell is designed to
produce a limited variety of part configurations that is the cell specializes in the
production of a given set of similar parts or products, according to the principles o
group technology the payout is called a cellular layout, depicted. In Figure .

High Production
Two categories of mass production can be distinguished 1) quantity production and 2)
flow line production Quantity production involves the mass production of single
pieces of equipment. The method of production typically involves standard machines
(such as stamping presses) equipped with special tooling (e.g., dies and material
handling devices), in effect dedicating the equipment to the production of one part
type. The typical layout used in quantity production is the process layout, Figure.
Flow line production involve multiple workstations arranged in sequence, and the 3
parts or assemblies are physically moved through the sequence complete the product.
The workstations consist of production machines and/or workers equipped with

special efficiency. The collection of stations is designed specifically for the product to
maximize efficiency. The layout is called a product layout, and workstations are
arranged into one long line, as depicted in Figure.
The work is usually moved between stations by powered conveyor. At each station, a
small amount of the total work is completed on each unit product.
The most familiar example of flow line production is the assembly line. Associated
with products such as cars and household appliances. The pure case of flow line
production is where there is no variation in the products made on the line. Every
product is identical, and the line is referred to as a single-model production line.
The term mixed-model production line applies to those situations where is soft variety
in the products made on the line. Modern automobile assembly is an example. Cars
coming off the assembly line have variations in options and trim representing different
models (and, in many cases, different nameplates) of the same car design
PROPDUCT/PRODUCTION RELATIONSHIPS
It is instructive to recognize that there certain product parameters that are influential in
determining how the products are manufactured. Let us consider the following
parameters 1) production quantity, 2) product variety complexity (of assembled
products), and 4) part complexity.

Let Q = production quantity and P = product variety. Thus we can discuss product
variety and production quantity relationships as PQ relationships.
Q refers to the number of units of a given part of product that are produced annually
by a plant. Our interest includes both the quantities of each individual part or product
style and the total quantity of all styles.
Hard product variety is when the products differ substantially. Divide the parameter
P into two levels, as in a tree structure. refers to the number of district product lines
produced by the factory, and refers top the number of model in a product represents
hard product variety,. The number of product model is given by
p = ∑=1 p2j
where the subscript j identifies the product line
fixed and variable costs
Manufacturing costs can be classified into two major categories 1) fixed costs and 2)
variable costs. A fixed costs is one that remains for any level of production output.
Example include the cost of the factory building and production equipment. Insurance,
and property taxes. All of the fixed costs can be expressed as annual amounts.
Expenses such as insurance and property taxes occur naturally as annual costs.

A variable cost is one that varies in proportion to the level of production output. As
output increases, variable cost increases. Example include direct labor, raw materials
and electric power to operate the production equipment. The ideal concept of variable
cost is that it is directly proportional to output level. When fixed cost and variable cost
are added, we have the following total cost equation :
TC = FC + VC (Q)
When comparing automated and manual production methods it is typical that the fixed
cost of the automated method is high relative to the manual method, and the variable
cost of automation is low relative to the manual method, as pictured in Figure.
Fixed versus variable are not the only possible classifications of costs in
manufacturing. An alternative classification separates costs into 1) direct labor, 2)
material and 3) overhead. This is often a more convenient way to analyze costs in
production. The direct labor cost is the sum of the wages and benefits paid to the
workers who operate the production equipment and perform the processing and
assembly tasks. The material cost is the of all raw materials used to make the product.
Overhead costs are all of the other expenses associated with running the
manufacturing firm. Overhead divides into two categories 1) factory overhead and 2)
corporate over head. Factory overhead consists of the costs of operating the factory
other than direct labor.
Corporate overhead is the cost not related to the company’s manufacturing activities.

UNIT -3
INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEM
The role of production management is to plan and control effectively the physical and operational
resources of the manufacturing plant such as, materials, tools, fixtures, machines, storage space,
material handling equipment, and manpower, so as to meet the production requirements.
Production management is also referred to as Production Planning and Control. As the name
implies, it comprises two functions, namely, Production Planning and Production Control.
Production planning is concerned with: (1) deciding on the set of products to be manufactured,
along with their production volumes, over a certain duration which is called the planning horizon;
(2) scheduling, i.e., determining the sequence of production of the set of parts and products over
the time duration and (3) allocation of the necessary manpower, raw material and equipment
resources needed to accomplish the production plan. Activities within the scope of production
planning include the following.
• Aggregate production planning. This involves determination of the target production

output levels. The word aggregate means that planning is conducted at a gross level to
meet the total demand collected over all products consolidated into product groups,
utilizing the total human, equipment and material resources. These plans must be made in
cognizance of various functions of the firm other than manufacturing, such as product
design, production, inventory, marketing, and sales for the plan to be feasible and
effective for the overall business objectives of a firm. Further, it must be made based on
an accurate forecast of the demand for the products.
• Master production planning. In the next stage, the aggregate production plan must be
detailed into a master production schedule (MPS), which includes specification of target
production volumes of individual product types and their production schedules. In turn,

this master schedule must be converted into purchase orders for raw materials, orders
for subcontracting, and product schedules for subassemblies and components. These
activities must sequence properly and coordinated to enable the delivery of the final
product on schedule, under the existing resource constraints. Based on the MPS, one
now carries out the allocation of production resources in the following two steps.
Typical horizons for MPS may be of several months.
• Material requirements planning (MRP) translates the MPS of end products into a
detailed schedule for the procurement of raw materials and parts used in those
end products. More precisely, MRP takes the master schedule data, bill of materials
file, and the inventory data and determines when to order raw materials and
components for assembled products. It can also reschedule orders in response to
variations in production priorities and demand conditions.
• Capacity planning is concerned with determining the labor and equipment resources
needed to achieve the master schedule. Capacity planning can be carried out, either on a
short-term or a long-term basis. Short-term capacity planning decisions include:
overtime or reducing the workweek, hiring and firing, subcontracting, and inventory
stockpiling. Long-term capacity planning includes decisions such as acquisition of new
resources and manpower, augmentation or closure of facilities etc. Typically capacity
and materials plans are made for periods of weeks to a month.
Production control is concerned with providing for the necessary resources to implement the
production plan. The major aspects of production planning include:
• Shop floor control transforms the planning decisions into control commands for the
production process. It also involves collection of data related to shop floor operations
and processing and communication of the data on to higher control levels. Also termed
as, Production Activity Control, it consists of three activities: order release, order
scheduling, and order progress.
o The purpose of the order release module is to provide the
Department of Mechanical Engineering,

SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 42
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necessary documentation that accompanies an order as it is processed through

the shop floor. This documentation consists of route sheet, material requisitions,
job cards, parts list, etc.
o Order scheduling involves assignments of orders to various machines

and manufacturing units, so that the delivery schedules are met, in-process
inventory is minimized, and machine utilization is maximized. Order
scheduling involves two steps: (1) machine loading, and (2) job sequencing.
Machine loading involves allocating jobs to machines, and job sequencing
determines the order in which the jobs are processed through a work center.
Several priority rules could be used for job sequencing. These include shortest
processing time, first-come-first-served, least slack, etc.
o The purpose of the order progress module is to continuously acquire

and communicate data relating to work-in-process and shop order status.
• Inventory control. Inventory control is concerned with maintaining certain levels of

stock for raw material, semi-finished parts, subassemblies, and finished goods. This is
needed to create a buffer between the company and its suppliers and consumers and
also between different stages of the manufacturing system. Such a buffer can provide
insurance against
machine failures, uncertain demands, uncertain suppliers, and worker absenteeism so

that manufacturing activities do not get stalled. However, the inventory should be kept
at an optimal low at the same time maintaining satisfactory customer service.
The activities in a modem PPC system and their interrelationships are depicted in Figure 39.1.
A sophisticated automation system that combines MRP and capacity planning as well as shop
floor control and other functions related to PPC is known as Manufacturing resource
planning and a standard for the same is called MRP II. As the figure indicates, PPC ultimately
extends to the company’s supplier base and customer base. This expanded scope

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of PPC is known as supply chain management.
Supervisory control combines the firm’s production scheduling and management information
functions with the process control functions to form a hierarchical control system. Figure 39.2
outlines a typical functional hierarchy of such an industrial computer control system.
It should be noted that the several levels shown in Figure 39.2 are operational levels and do not
necessarily represent separate and distinct computational hardware levels. In large systems a
separate computer may be needed to handle each level, but in small systems, two or more
operational levels might be collapsed into one computer level. The dedicated digital controllers
at Level 1 require no human intervention since their functional tasks are completely fixed by
systems design and are these are not interacted with, on-line, by operators. All other levels
have human interfaces as indicated.
For a large manufacturing complex there is need not only for vertical command/feedback
communication among the levels, there is also need for horizontal level communications for
coordination among automation systems for various units. Such communications are shown in
Fig. 39.3. The level 2 and level 3 automation functionalities are therefore split into two distinct
blocks, namely, 2A/2B and 3A/3B. While the blocks 2A and 3A interact vertically within the
same area control system, the blocks 2B and 3B interact horizontally across operational areas.
Supervisory Control Tasks
In the context of a large industrial plant, the tasks carried out at each level of the hierarchy are
as described in Table 39.1.

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A. Control Enforcement
1. Respond to any emergency condition in its scope of
plant operation.
2. Locally optimize the operation of units under its control
B. Plant coordination and Information management
3. Collect and maintain data related to production,
inventory, and raw material and energy usage for the
units under its control.
C. System Reliability Assurance
6. Perform diagnostics on itself and lower-level machines.
Table Main tasks of the Supervisory Level
Details of how the operations are actually carried out will vary significantly, particularly at the
lowest levels, because of the nature of the actual processes being controlled.
To perform the above tasks, the system must sample each important plant or process variable
continuously. Plant variables are normally sampled at variable rates depending upon the type
of variable being sensed, and the dynamics or speed of response of the process being
and monitored and controlled. The sampled values of the variables are processed to compute
diagnostic features, such as average/rms values and compared with a set of
thresholds to detect the presence of any abnormal operating condition. These may also be
compared with operating set point to compute controls.
In addition to being used for emergency detection and control corrections, the values of the
process variables are stored in the computer’s memory in a process database. These data are
then used for operator’s console read-out functions, for data logging for historical records, for
process efficiency calculations, and for read-out to higher level computers for
optimization calculations, inventory monitoring, overall plant production status and historical
file updates, and other necessary calculations. An equally important task is to
maintain the plant’s production data base for the company’s production, financial, and
personnel reports.

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Finally we discuss the technology platform that realizes the Level 1 and Level 2 automation,
namely Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
Distributed Control Systems

(DCS)
Distributed control system (DCSs) have been evolving rapidly since the mid 1980s from
being essentially panelboard replacement at their inception to become
comprehensive plant information, computing, and control networks fully integrated into
the mainstream of plant operations. This progress has been fueled in part by the
technological revolution in microprocessor and software technology and in part, by
economic necessity.
Microprocessor-based DCSs made their debut in the mid-1970s. Initially they were conceived
as functional replacements for electronic panelboard instrumentation and were packaged

accordingly. The initial
systems utilized discrete panelboard displays similar to their electronic instrumentation
counterparts. These systems evolved quickly, adding video-based workstations and shared
controllers capable of expressing complex unit-operations-oriented regulatory and sequence
control strategies containing scores of functional elements, such as PID (proportional-
integral-derivative), lad/lag/totalizers, dead-time elements, elapsed timer, logic circuits and
general-purpose calculators
By the early to mid-1980s the personal computer industry matured into a multibillion dollar
per year marked with the IBM PC disk operating system (DOS) as the standard. This gave
birth to the software industry that delivered feature-laden high quality inexpensive software
packages. The opportunity for system integrators and value-added resellers was clear. One
could devolop an relatively-inexpensive scan control alarm, and data acquisition
(SCADA) package for a personal computer platform and integrate it with these general-
purpose shrink wrap software packages, such as spreadsheet, desktop publishing, or database
management, and one could have a very cost-effective alternative to DCS. Because of
performance and the general suitability limitations of these PC offerings, this approach had

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appeal mostly in cost-sensitive noncritical applications and where these existed a low safety or
hazard risk. This concept, however, created an expectation and vision of the future, that is,
open architectures.
DCS vendors felt a compulsion to enrich their arsenal of tools to address real-time process
control applications by incorporating the low-cost shrink-wrap packages into their systems.
Such packages included:
♦ Relational database management
♦ Spreadsheet packages
♦ Statistical process control capabilities
♦ Expert systems
♦ Computer-based process simulation
♦ Computer-aided design and drafting

Desktop publishing
♦ Object-orineted display management
♦ Windows-oriented display management
♦ Information exchange with other plant systems.
During the last 1980s and early 1990s the computer industry continued its transformation.
Networking of systems into a cohesive whole promised to (again) revolutionize an industry,
which has barely absorbed the impact of the PC revolution.
Software and
communications standard began to take hold, making interoperability among disparate
computing platforms and application software a near-term reality. The business enterprise,
including the factory floor, could be molded into a cohesive whole by making the various
departmental systems work cooperatively at an acceptable integration cost. These added new

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technological features to DCS including:
♦ Open operating system standards, such as UNIXC ir POSIX
♦ Open system interconnect (OSI) communiations model
♦ Client server cooperative computing model
♦ X-window protocols for workstation communications
♦ Distributed relational database management systems
♦ SQL access to distributed relational databases
♦ Object oriented programming and platform independent languages
♦ Computer-aided software engineering (CASE)
These characterize the modern DCS technology. DCSs, today are distributed
computing platforms with sufficient performance to support large-scale real-time process
applications. Structurally DCSs traditionally are organized into five major subsystems, namely
(1) operations workstations that act as the MMI and provide visualisation capability,
(2) controller subsystems that perform direct digital control, (3) data collection subsystems,
(4) process computing subsystems for process optimisation and supervision, and (5)
communication networks. Open system communication standards are enabling DCSs to
receive information from a set of similar compatible computing platforms, including business,
laboratory information, maintenance, and other plant systems as well as to provide
informations in support of applications, such as:
♦ Automated warehousing and packaging line systems so that a complete order can be
coordinated from the receipt of raw materials to the shipment of the final product.
Laboratory information management systems (LIMs), which perform in-process
analysis as well as quality assurance inspections.
♦ Automated production scheduling for a plant accessing the business system and tying

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into
MRP II systems and finite-capacity scheduing
packages.
Platforms: The above levels of controls shall be achieved through programmable controllers
PLCs, micro-processor based systems as well as PCs / Work stations, as

required.
Each of the automation systems of the Plant shall be subdivided in accordance with the
functional requirements and shall cover the open loop and closed loop control functions of the
different sections of the line and the mill.
Modes of Operation: The systems shall basically have two modes of operation. In the
semi- automatic mode the set point values shall be entered manually for different sections
of the line through VDU and the processors shall transmit these values to the controls in
proper time sequence. In fully automatic
mode the process control system shall calculate all set point values through mathematical
models and transfer the same to the subordinate systems over data link.
Functionality at Basic Level (Level 1): The Basic Level shall cover control of all equipment,
sequencing, interlocking micro-tracking of strip for specific functions, dedicated
technological functions, storage of rolling schedules and look-up tables,
fault and event logging etc. Some of these are mentioned below.
♦ All interlocking and sequencing control of the machinery such as for entry and exit
handling of strips, shear control etc. Interlocking, sequencing, switching controls
of the machines. This shall also cover automatic coil handling at the entry and
exit sides, automatic sequencial operation of welding machine and strip threading
sequence control as well as for acid regeneration plant.
♦ Calculation of coil diameter and width at the entry pay-off reels.

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♦ Position control of coil ears for centrally placing of coils on the mandrels.
♦ Generation of master speed references for the line depending on operator's input and
line conditions and down loading to drive control systems.
♦ Speed synchronising control of the drives, as required.
♦ Strip tenstion, position and catenary control through control of related drives and
machinery.
♦ Initiation of centre position control for PORs, steering/dancer rolls; Looper car position
control. Automatic pre-setting control, measurement and control of
tension and elongation for tension leveller. Auto edge position control at tension reels if
required.
♦ Control of entry shear for auto-cutting of off-gauge strip.
♦ Control of pickling parameters for correct pickling with varying speed of strip in the
pickling section.
♦ Side trimmer automatic setting contro.
♦ Interlockings, sequencing and control of scrap baller, if provided.
♦ Auto calibration for position control/precision positioning shall be provided as

necessary.
♦ Manual/Auto slowdown/stoppage of strip at weld point at tension leveller, side

trimmer, mill and exit shear.
♦ Control of technological functions for tandem mill such as :
o Automatic gauge control along with interst and tension control.
o Shape control

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o Roll force control
♦ Storage of tandem mill rolling schedules, for the entire product mix and all possible
variations. Suitable look-up tables as operators guidance for line/equipment setting.
♦ Automatic roll changing along with automatic spindle positioning.
♦ Constant pass line control based on roll wear as well as after roll change.
♦ Automatic control of rotary shear before tension rells.
♦ Automatic sequence control of inspection reel.
♦ Provision of manual slow down/stoppage of strip as well for as chearing for `run'
inspection of defects at tension leveller, side trimmer Tandem entry and exit of the
Mill throuth push button stations.
♦ Micro-tracking of strip and flying gauge change (set point change) for continuous
operation with varying strip sizes.
♦ Setting up the mill either from the stored rollings schedule with facility for
modification by the operator of down-loading from process control level system.
♦ Automatic control of in-line coil weighing, marking and circumferential banding after
delivery tension reels.
Supervisory Functions at Basic Level A: Centralised supervisory and monitoring control

system shall be provided under basic level automation with dedicated processors and
MMI. All necessary signals shall be acquired through drive
control system as well as directly from the sensors/instruments as, required.
The system shall be capable of carrying out the
following fuctions.
♦ Centralised switching and start up of various line drives and auxiliary systems

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through mimic displays.
♦ Status of plant drives and electrical equipment for displaying maintenance information.
♦ Monitoring and display of measured values for tandem mill main drives and other
large capacity drives such as winding temperature, for alarm and trip conditions.
♦ Centralised switching and status indication of 33 kV and 6.6 kV switchboards.
♦ Display of single line diagram of 33 kV and 6.6 kV switchboards, main drives, in-line
auxiliary drives etc.
♦ Acquisition of fault signals from various sections of the plant with facility for display
and print-out of the fault messages in clear text.
Functionality at Process Control Level: The Process Control Level shall be responsible
for computation and control for optimization of operation. Functions like set point
generation using mathematical models, learning control, material tracking within the
process line/unit including primary data input, real time control of process functions
through basic level automation, generation of reports etc. shall be implemented through
this level of automation. Some of the specific functions to be performed by the process control
level automation are the following.
♦ Coil strip tracking inside the process line/unit by sensing punched holes at weld seams.
♦ Primary Data Input (PDI) of coils at entry to PL-TCM with provision for down loading
of data from production control level.
♦ Generation of all operating set points for the mill using PDI data, mill model, roll force
model, power model, strip thickness control model, shape/profile control

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model with thermal strip flatness control as well as for other sections of the line.
♦ Learning (Adaptive) control using actual data and the mathematical model for set-up
calculations.
♦ Storage of position setting values of levellers, side trimmer. Input of strip flaw data
manually through inspection panel at the inline inspection facility after side trimmer.
♦ Processing of actual data on rolling operation, generation of reports logs and sending
data to production control level.
Information System Functions: The information system shall generally comply with the
following features.
♦ Data of importance shall be available with the concerned personnel in the form of logs
and reports.
♦ Output of logs and reports at preset times or on occurance of certain events.
♦ It shall be possible to change the data items and log formats without undue
interference to the system.
♦ Logged information shall be stored for adequate time period ensuring the availability
of historical data record.
♦ Data captured by the system shall be checked for integrity with respect to their validity
and plausibility with annunciation.
Man Machine Interface: The visualisation system for both the automation levels shall be
through man-machine interface (MMI) for the control and operation of the complete line. The
system shall display the following screens, with facilities for hard copy print out.
♦ Process mimics for the complete line using various screens with status information

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of all important in-line drives as well as the references and actual values of important
parameters.
♦ Dynamic informations in form of bar graph for indication of reference and actual
values of important parameters.
♦ Screens providing trends of the important process variables.
♦ Acquisition of actual parameters (averaging/maximum/minimum) for the complete

line, on coil to coil basis through weld seam tracking or TCM exit shear cut for the
generation of logs on process/parameters and production.
Standards: The programmable controllers and other micro processor based equipment
offered shall generally be designed/structured, manufactured and tested in
accordance with the
guidelines laid down in IEC-1131 (Part 2) apart from the industry standards being adopted by
the respective manufactures.
Hardware: The hardware of each basic controller/equipment of a system will generally
comprise main processing unit, memory units, stabilised power supply unit, necessary
communication interface modules, auxiliary storage where required. I/O modules in the main
equipment, remote I/O stations where required and the programming and debugging tool
(PADT). The hardware and software structure shall be modular to meet wide range of
technological requirements. I/Os shall be freely configurable depending on the requirement.
The programming units shall preferable be lap-top type.
Networking: The networking would conform to the following

specifications.
♦ In each of the two automation levels, all the controllers of a system shall be connected
as a node over suitable data bus forming a LAN system using standardised hardware
and software.

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♦ The LAN system shall be in line with ISO-Open system Interconnect.

♦ All drive level automation equipment shall be suitably linked with the basic level
for effective data/signal exchange between the two levels. However, all the emergency
and safety signals shall be directly hardwired to the respective controllers.
♦ Similarly, the LAN systems for the basic level and process control level shall be
suitably linked through suitable
bridge/interface for effective data/signal exchange. Provision shall also be made for
interfacing suitably the process control level with the production level automation
system specified in item.
♦ The data highways shall be designed to be optimally loaded and the same shall be
clearly indicated in the offer.
♦ The remote I/Os, the microprocessor based measuring instruments and the micro-
processor based special machines like coil weighing, marking and circumferantial
banding machines shall be connected over serial links with the respective controllers.
♦ The personal computers and work stations shall be connected as a LAN system of the
corresponding leve
l.

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Data and Visualisation: The following specifications would apply in respect of data security,
validity and its proper visualisation.
♦ All the operator interfaces comprising colour VDU and keyboard as MMI for
interacting with the respective system and located at strategic locations, shall be
connected to the corresponding LAN system.
♦ Keylock/password shall be provided to prevent unauthorised entry.
♦ Entry validity and plansibility check shall also be incorporated.

♦ An Engineer's console comprising of necessary processor, color VDU,

keyboard/mouse and a printer unit shall be provided for the automation systems.
The console shall have necessary hardware and software of communicating with the
LAN and shall have access to the complete system. Basic functions of this console
shall be off-line data base configuration, programme development, documentation
etc.
Application Software: The application software shall be through functional block type
software modules as well as high level language based software modules. The software shall
be user friendly and provided with help functions etc. Only one type of programming
language shall be used for the complete system. However, ladder type programming
language may be used for simple logical functions. Only industrially debugged and tested
software shall be provided.

UNIT -4
AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEM
Automated Manufacturing Systems
Introduction
Manufacturing systems consist of human workers, automation, and various

material handling technologies, configured in ways that create specific
manufacturing system typologies. More specifically, a manufacturing system is
a collection of integrated equipment and human resources, whose function is to
perform one or more processing and/or assembly operations on a starting raw
material, part, or set of parts. Our focus in this unit is upon manufacturing
systems that are said to be automated, and so concentration will be put upon the
types of integrated equipment that is used and arranged in a manufacturing cell.
This can range from production machines and tools, material handling and work
positioning devices, to the use of various computer systems that facilitate
automation in the production environment.
A manufacturing system is a collection of integrated equipment and human

resources, whose function is to perform one or more processing and/or assembly
operations on a starting raw material, part, or set of parts.
The manufacturing system is where value-added work is performed to parts

and/or products, and this activity gives manufacturing a central place in the
overall scheme of the system of production, where it is supported by systems of
manufacturing support, quality control, material handling, and automation
control.
Different types of manufacturing systems may be identified. These include:
Single station cell—one worker tends one production machine that operates on
semi-automatic cycle
Machine cluster—one worker tends a group of semi-automated machines
Manual assembly line—consists of a series of workstations at which assembly

operations are performed to build gradually a product, such as an automobile
Automated transfer line—production line consisting of a series of automated

workstations that perform processing operations such as machining, with transfer
of parts between workstation also being automated
Automated assembly system—performs a sequence of automated or

mechanized assembly operations
Machine cell—a series of manually-operated production machines and

workstations, often in a U-shaped configuration, which performs a sequence of
operations on a family of parts or products that are similar but not identical;
also known as cellular manufacturing (See Figure 12.1).
Flexible manufacturing system (FMS)—a highly automated machine cell that

produces part or product families; often consists of workstations comprising

CNC machine tools
Figure 12.1: Machine Cluster (Robotic Spot Welding Line)
In this unit a general overview of these manufacturing types is offered by

describing their common components and features, plus by supplying a
classification scheme. Single-station manufacturing cells, which are the most
common manufacturing system in industry, are described. This leads to an
analysis of single-station manned workstations and automated cells; as well as a
consideration of single-station cell applications, and an in-depth analysis of
single-station systems.
Components of a Manufacturing System
A manufacturing system consists of the following components: production

machines (plus tools, fixtures, and other related hardware); a material
handling system; a computer system to co-ordinate and/or control the
preceding components; and human workers to operate and manage the
system.
Production Machines
Most manufacturing in modern-day manufacturing systems is done by

machines of one form or another. Machines can be classified according to
worker participation in the task, as: manually-operated; semi-automated; or
fully automated. These three types are outlined in Table

Table : Classification of production machines

Classification Description
Controlled or supervised by a worker or
Manually operated machines operator,
there is a clear division of labour, whereby
the
machine provides the power for the
operation and the
worker provides the control. Conventional
machine
tools (such as lathes, milling machines,
drill presses
etc.) fit this category. The worker must
attend the
machine continuously during the work
cycle.
This performs a portion of the work cycle

Semi-automated machines under
programme control, and then a worker
assumes
control for the remainder of the cycle. An
example of
a machine in this capacity is a CNC lathe,
where the
CNC machine performs its processing

operation as
per the programme, and then the worker
unloads and
reloads the machine for the next work
cycle. The
worker must attend the machine every
cycle, but
need not be continuously present.
This has the capability to operate with no

Fully automated machines human
attention for periods of time that are longer
than one
work cycle. Some form of machine tending
will be
required periodically, however; for
example, to
replenish the machine with raw material
etc.
A workstation refers to the location in the factory where some well-defined task
or operation is accomplished by an automated machine, a worker-and-machine
combination, or a worker using hand tools and/or portable power tools. A
particular manufacturing system may consist of one or more workstations.

Material Handling System
For most processing and assembly operations the following material handling
actions can be distinguished: loading work units at each station; positioning
work units at the station; unloading work units from the station after processing;
transporting work units between stations; and performing temporary storage, if
necessary, also. Some of these actions are linked so that the same machinery
may be used to perform the actions (for example, many load and unload actions);
whereas other actions are specialised and require their own equipment. These
specialities are discussed later; here we focus upon more general material
handling issues.
Loading, positioning, and unloading work units are a group of actions that are
regularly performed together at individual workstations. These groups of actions
may be manual, semi-automated (where the operator is assisted by some material
handling devices), or fully-automated (where the material handling system takes
full control of material handling, without operator assistance). In loading the
workstation is supplied with the correct type and amount of work units so that
the processing operation can be performed; positioning requires the work unit to
be oriented or located correctly within the processing machine, so that the
processing action can be performed upon the work unit accurately; while
unloading involves the removal of the processed work units from the
workstation, often for further material handling processes to occur.
For loading, work units are often held in containers near the workstation, such as
pallets, totes, or bins, which can be accessed according to requirements.
Positioning requires the use of a work-holder (such as a jig, fixture, or chuck),

a device which helps to support the positioning operation in the processing
machine; it accurately locates, orients, and clamps the part so that the
processing operation may proceed. In unloading work units are either placed in
containers or transported away from the workstation to other processing
workstations, or to storage. In some cases, a conveyor system may be used to
transport work units between workstations.
Work units may be passed between workstations by hand or in batches, by

means of manual techniques or by using appropriate material transport systems.
The movement of work units in batches is generally considered to be the most
efficient method, according to the Unit Load Principle; but manual material
transport may be favoured in situations where work units are small and light,
and where manual transport is considered to be ergonomically acceptable. When
work units exceed certain weight standards, manual transport with assistance
from material handling devices (such as lift equipment) may be deployed; and,
beyond these categories, manufacturers may favour fully-automating the whole
material transport system.
There are, in general, two types of work transport: fixed routing, and variable
routing Fixed routing uses the same sequence of workstations to process
identical work units as they passed through the system; whereas, with variable
routing, work units are transported through a variety of different station
sequences to allow for variable processing to be performed on transported work
units. Both work types emphasise different types of automated material handling
equipment. Fixed routing typically deploys conveyors of powered roller, belt,
drag chain, or overhead trolley type, and can use rotary index mechanisms, and
walking beam transfer equipment. For variable routing an automated guided
vehicle system is favoured, together with power-and-free overhead conveyors,

or cart-on-track conveyors, or monorail systems.
Figure: Fixed (a) and Variable (b) routing of work units through a work
sequence
Pallets may also be used in the material transport system, if it is designed in such
a way that it can accommodate a pallet fixture—a specialised work-holder
explicitly designed for positioning and clamping pallets to the material transport
system. The work unit is positioned and attached to the pallet’s upper-side, while
the pallet’s lower portion is moved and positioned at each workstation as
required. Since the work unit is carefully positioned on the pallet, and the pallet
fixture is designed accurately to present the pallet at all workstations, the
resultant movement will see the work unit correctly positioned at each
workstation for processing.
Alternative methods may or may not use work carriers such as pallet fixtures. A
work carrier is some sort of container that holds one or more work units and can
be moved in the system. Unlike pallet fixtures, their main function is work unit
transport, not work unit orientation; that is, work units are carried loosely and
are not clamped into exact positions by positioning devices in work carriers.
Positioning is generally done when the work unit reaches a particular
workstation.
Direct transport may also be used. This involves designing the transport system
to move the work unit itself. This has obvious advantages over work carriers
and
pallet fixtures, which have to be specially-designed and are expensive, and it is
an option that is available both for manual and automated material handling
systems. For manual systems direct transport simply involves the use of
operators to move work units from one workstation to another, and to position
the work units for processing once there. For automated systems, issues of
workpart geometry and processing accuracy must be considered, as—
generally—the more precise the work transport system must be, the more
difficult it is to design, and the more expensive the resultant design turns out to

be. The automated material method must be capable of moving, locating, and
clamping the workpart with sufficient precision and accuracy. Not all part
shapes allow these actions to occur easily, and so in some cases automated
direct transport will not be feasible.
Computer Control System
Computer systems are an integral part of automated manufacturing, as they

are required to control fully-automated and semi-automated equipment and
participate in overall co-ordination and management of the manufacturing
system.

Human Resources
Humans also have a role to play, even if it is only in a supervisory capacity.

In cases where humans perform some value-added work on work units, the
work done is called direct labour—that is, physical labour that results in an
increase in value of the processed work unit. This generally includes direct
work done on work units or work done to control the machines that are
processing the workpart. Human workers are also required to: manage and
support the system as computer programmers; operate and direct computer
activities; maintain and repair the automated manufacturing system, as
required; and the performance of other, similar, indirect labour roles.
Classification of Manufacturing Systems
Various types of manufacturing systems can be created from a

consideration of different entities that have an impact upon manufacturing
system design. These considerations include: types of operations
performed; number of workstations; system layout; automation and
manning level; and product or part variety. These considerations are
outlined in detail in the following sub-sections.
Types of operations performed
At the highest level operational types include processing operations on

individual work units, and assembly operations to combine individual work
parts into sub-assemblies, or full assemblies. Additional parameters include:
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B)

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Size or weight of the part or product—this has a significant influence on the

type, scope, and scale of manufacturing equipment chosen to process the
item
Part or product complexity—part complexity correlates with the number of
processing operations required, while product complexity refers to the
number of components that must be assembled
Part geometry—machined parts are rotational or non-rotational, which has a

significant effect on the processing machine operations that can be
performed on the parts, plus the material handling system must be designed
in an appropriate fashion for rotational and non-rotational parts. ENDLIST
Number of Workstations
The number of workstations in a manufacturing system exerts a strong

influence on the performance of the manufacturing system, in terms of its
workload capacity, production rate, and reliability. The number of
workstations is a good measure of the size of the manufacturing system; the
more workstations it has, the bigger it is generally found to be. As the
number of workstations increases, the more work can be performed by the
system, which may translate into a higher production rate than if a number
of single workstation systems were deployed concurrently. The use of
multiple workstations can also produce a synergistic benefit, when

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compared against single workstation systems, as the total amount of work

performed on the part or product is too complex to accomplish at a single
workstation; instead the task is divided among a multiple of stations, thus
simplifying the complexity of the task into simpler work elements.
However, the more workstations developed in a system generally means

that the system itself becomes more complex, and harder to manage and
maintain. The system consists of more workers, machines, and parts to be
handed. Material handling also increases in complexity and problems of
logistics and system co-ordination begin to be felt. Reliability and
maintenance problems also begin to surface on a more frequent basis.
System Layout
System configuration, or the layout of the manufacturing system’s

workstations, is also an important factor. This applies mainly, of course, to
systems with multiple workstations. Workstation layouts for fixed routing
are usually arranged linearly, as in a production line, while variable routing
layouts can have multiple configurations. System layout is an important
factor for the design of the material handling system.
If we consider the number workstations (where number of workstations

may be depicted by n) against system layout, we can determine the
workload of the system, which is defined as the amount of processing or
assembly work accomplished by the system expressed in terms of the time
required to perform the work. It is the sum of the cycle times of all the
work units completed by the system in a given period of interest. The

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workload capacity of a manufacturing system increases in proportion to

the number of workstations in it.
Since the overall work to be done is divided into a number of simplified

work tasks, each performed at a different workstation, this explains why a
multi-system manufacturing system with n workstations has the workload
advantage over n single stations that operate concurrently. Generally the
single workstation would find the total work content o be done to be too
complex to be performed with the same efficiency as the multiple
workstation system, which has divided the work into tasks. This is the
synergistic benefit referred-to in §12.4.2 earlier.
Automation and Manning Levels
The level of automation deployed is an important characteristic of the

manufacturing system. Workstation machines may be manually-operated,
semi-automated, or fully-automated. This factor allows us to define the
amount of time that a human operator is required to be in attendance at a
workstation as the manning level (M i) of the workstation (where i denotes
a particular workstation in the system). The average manning level of a
multi-station manufacturing system is given by:
where M is the average manning level for the system; wu is the number
of utility workers assigned to the system; wi is the number of workers

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assigned specifically to station i, for i = 1, 2, 3, …, n; and w is the total

number of workers assigned to the system.
By including the manning level scenario into the classification, we can see
that there are two levels for single station systems (manned and fully
automated), and three levels for multi-station systems (manned, fully
automated, and hybrid—that is where some stations are manned and
others are fully automated).
Part or Product Variety
This factor examines the manufacturing system’s flexibility for dealing

with variations in the parts or products it produces. Part or product
variations that could occur in manufacturing systems include: variations in
type, or colour of plastic or moulded parts; variations in electronic
components placed on circuit boards; variations in the size of printed
circuit boards handled; variations in part geometry; and variations in parts
and options in an assembled product. The cases of part or product variety
in manufacturing systems are single model, batch model, or mixed
model—the details of which are outlined in Table 12.3, and in Figure

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Figure: Cases of part or product variety in manufacturing systems: (a) single

model, (b) batch model, and (c) mixed model
The creation and management of flexibility for the mixed model is also an
issue. Flexibility can refer to a number of entities within the manufacturing
system, including the following capabilities, which can be difficult to
design concurrently: being able to identify and adapt to the requirements of
different work units; being able to perform quick changeovers of operating
instructions, as necessary; and being able to perform quick changeovers of
physical set-ups, as required.
Single-station manned cells typically offer the greatest amount of flexibility

as they posses relatively low levels of complexity, and are staffed by
adaptable human personnel. However they are limited in terms of the
amount of work they can perform, especially upon highly complex work
units. With multi-station set-ups, routing becomes an important determinant
on flexibility: fixed routing is favoured in those situations where the

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product is made in large quantities, with little or no product variety;

alternatively, variable routing becomes favourable in situations where
product variety is increased, for medium production range. The greatest
amount of flexibility can probably be achieved in job shop scenarios, but
these organizations offer the least amount of efficiency, and the lowest
production rates of the manufacturing systems under consideration.
Overview of the Classification Scheme
Here we provide an overview of the classification scheme for the three

basic types of manufacturing system: (1) single-station cells; (2) multi-
station systems with fixed routing; and (3) multi-station systems with
variable routing. The unit then concludes with an in-depth focus upon
single-station manufacturing cells, which is only perfunctorily described
here.
Single-station Cells
Single workstations are widespread, but typically come in one of two forms:
manned workstations—where a worker is in attendance continuously or for
a portion of each work cycle; and automated stations—where worker
attention is required less frequently than the set work cycle. Both systems
are used for assembly and processing operations, and their applications fit

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single, batch and mixed model cases. Single-station cell systems are popular
because they are relatively inexpensive to implement (especially manned
versions), they are highly flexible, and they are easy to convert to
automation when required. See Figure
Multi-station Systems with Fixed Routing
A multi-station system with fixed routing is essentially a production line,

which consists of a series of workstations laid-out so that the part/product
moves from one station to the next, while a value-adding work element is
performed at each workstation along the way. Material transference
between workstations is usually accomplished by means of a conveyor
system, or other mechanical transport system, although there are cases
where material may be transferred by hand. See Figure 12.5. Conditions that
favour the use of production lines include:

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Multi-station Systems with Fixed Routing
A multi-station system with fixed routing is essentially a production line,

which consists of a series of workstations laid-out so that the part/product
moves from one station to the next, while a value-adding work element is
performed at each workstation along the way. Material transference
between workstations is usually accomplished by means of a conveyor
system, or other mechanical transport system, although there are cases
where material may be transferred by hand. See Figure 12.5. Conditions that
favour the use of production lines include:
Part/product quantity is very high (up to millions of units)
Work units are identical, or very similar
Total work content can easily be divided into work tasks that may be
performed at separate workstations
A multi-station system with fixed routing is a production line.
Figure: Multi-station System with Fixed Routing

Page 77
Multi-station Systems with Variable Routing
A multiple-station system with variable routing is a group of

workstations organised to achieve some special purpose. It usually
handles medium-sized
production quantities, although it has been used for production quantities
beyond this, in certain situations, such as:
Assembly of a family of parts having similar assembly requirements
Production of a complete set of components that are used in the assembly of

one unit of final product
ENDLIST
Machines may be manual, semi-automated, or fully-automated. The first

two types—i.e. manually-operated and semi-automated—may be arranged
into machine groups called machine cells; and it is the emergence of
numbers of these cells that gives rise to cellular manufacturing. Fully-
automated machines, on the other hand, may be arranged into flexible
manufacturing systems. See Figure

Page 78
Figure Multi-station System with Variable Routing
Single Station Manned Workstations

As single stations are the most used type of manufacturing system in
contemporary industry, we shall focus upon their features and operations
in the following sections and sub-sections.
Single-station manufacturing cells can be manual or automated, and can be

used for either processing or assembly; they can be designed for single
model production, batch production, or mixed model production. The most
common type of single-station manufacturing cell is the single-station
manned cell, consisting of one worker tending one machine; it is found
throughout job shop and batch production environments, and is found even
in high production scenarios. Its popularity is owing to:

Page 79
In the single-station manufacturing cell the machine is usually manually or

semi-operated. In the manually operated station the operator controls the
machine, loads and unloads the work, and monitors the work cycle either
continuously or for most of the cycle time. It may also require the operator
to use a variety of work tools, such as screwdrivers, wrenches, or portable
powered tools etc., to perform additional processes in the cell. All work
tasks are performed at one station (one location) in the factory. In the semi-
automated station the machine is controlled by a part programme, leaving
the operator free to perform additional tasks, such as loading and unloading
the machine, performing tool maintenance, and controlling changeovers.
Typically operators’ attention would be required at the end of every work
cycle, and not necessarily on a continual basis.
Single-Station Automated Cells
The single-station automated cell consists of a fully automated machine

that can operate unattended for a time period longer than one machine
cycle. The operator must load and unload the machine, and otherwise tend
it, but is not required to be at the machine except periodically. See Figure.
Advantages of single-station automated cells include:

Page 80
Figure : Single Station Automated Cell
Enablers for Unattended Cell Operation
Two categories of enablers can be deduced, one for unattended single

model and batch model production, and one for mixed model production.
The enablers for single model and batch model production are given in
Table .

Table: Enablers of unattended cell operation in single model and batch

model production
Enabler Description
Programmed cycle This allows the machine to operate automatically
This allows for a continuous supply of parts
Parts storage subsystem beyond the
operation of one machine cycle.
Automatic transfer of work This occurs between the storage system and the
parts machine,
and must be in place to ensure an automatic and
regular feed
of parts as necessary
Periodic attention of This is required to load/unload machine, change
worker tools as they
wear, and performs supporting maintenance and
service
operations
These protect the system from operating
Built-in safeguards conditions that are
unsafe for workers, self-destructive, or
destructive to the work
units being processed
The enablers for mixed model production are recounted in Table 12.5;
these are additional enablers required because f the unique traits of mixed
model production.

Table: Enablers of unattended cell operation in mixed model production

Enabler Description
Work identification Required so that the system can distinguish the
subsystem part style
currently being processed. Usually in sensor
form, so that
they can distinguish part features on work units.
This is needed so that the machine can change to
Programme downloading the

machine cycle programme that corresponds to

capability the part or
product currently being processed.
This is required so the system can change to
Quick set-up changeover processing
capability different part styles, as necessary
where Tr is the repositioning time to (1) move the completed workpart

away from the machine workhead, and (2) to replace and position the next
workpart in its stead. Machine utilization is high if the worker service time
is less than the machine processing time; if, on the other hand, the machine
processing time is less than the worker service time, then the machine will
go through periods of forced idleness. This should be avoided.
In scenarios where the storage capacity is greater than one workpart,

unattended operation is feasible when load/unload tasks are accomplished in
less time than the machine processing time. Table 12.6 depicts several
possible designs of parts storage subsystems for CNC machining centres.

Page 84
Automatic pallet changer with

pallet holders arranged
radially, and parts storage
capacity equal to five
In-line shuttle cart system with

pallet holders along its length,
and parts storage capacity
equal to sixteen

Page 85
Applications of Single-Station Cells
Examples of manned single station cells include:
A CNC centre producing identical parts, with an operator required to

load and unload parts as the processing programme is completed by the
machine
A CNC centre producing non-identical parts, with an operator required

to load new part programmes as necessary
A cluster of two CNC turning centres, each producing the same

part, but operating independently. A single worker attends to both
machines.
An assembly workstation where an operator performs mechanical assembly

of a simple product (or sub-assembly) from components located in tote bins
at the station
ENDLIST
Examples of single-station automated cells include:
A CNC machining centre complete with parts carousel and automatic

pallet changer producing identical parts
A CNC machining centre complete with parts carousel and automatic

pallet changer producing non-identical parts. In this case the

Page 86
appropriate part programme is downloaded automatically as necessary
An automated insertion machine assembling electronic components onto

printed circuit boards in a batch operation
A robotic assembly cell with one robot assembling a simple product or

sub-assembly

Page 87
Analysis of Single-Station Systems
In our analysis here we can determine:
Number of Workstations Required
We must determine how many workstations are required, given a certain

production rate, or a given quantity of work units. This is generally done
by determining the total workload that must be accomplished over a
certain period, and dividing that by the hours available on one
workstation during the same period. Workload is determined thus:
WL QTc
where WL is the workload scheduled for a given period; Q is the quantity

to be produced during the same period; and Tc is the cycle time required
per piece. If the workload includes multiple part or product styles that can
all be produced on the same workstation, then:
WL QjTcj
where Qj is the quantity of part or product style j produced during the

period; and
Tcj is the cycle time of part or product style j.

Page 88
We must now divide the result by the number of hours available

on one workstation, thus:
n WLAT
where n is the number of workstations; and AT is the available time on

one station in the period under consideration. These equations do not take
into account a number of potential complicating factors, which makes it
more difficult to assess the number of workstations required; these
include:
Set-up time in batch production
Availability of machines
Utilization of machines
Defect rates from various machines

ENDLIST
Example
800 parts are to be produced. Cycle time is 11.5min. Determine
number of machines given 40hrs availability.
WL = 800(11.5) = 9,200min =
153.33hrs AT = 40hrs
n = 153.33/40 = 3.83 or 4

Page 89
Machines
Availability time may be measured as follows, with the available time
becoming the actual shift time in the period multiplied by availability and
utilization:
AT H sh AU
where AT is available time; Hsh is the shift hours during the period; A is
availability; and U is utilization. The defect rate—that is, the fraction of
parts produced that are defective—must be assessed so that it can be
factored-in to the starting batch size, so that the output can compensate
for defective parts produced.
Example
800 shafts are in 20 different types. Average batch size is 40. Set-up
time between batches is 3.5hr.
WL = 20(3.5) +
20(40)(11.5/60) = 70 +
153.33 = 223.33hrs
n = 223.33/40 = 5.58 or 6 machines

Page 90
where Q is the quantity of good units made in the process; Qo is

the original or starting quantity; and q is the fraction defect rate.
This formula can be rearranged to give us the amount of starting
units we require, thus:
Q
Qo
1 q
Taking these factors into consideration, we can now amend our

original formula, thus:
QT
WL c
Example
Using previous data and Availability is 100% during set-up
and 92% during running. Utilisation is 100%. Fraction defect
rate is 5%. Determine number of machines. For set-up:
WL = 20(3.5) = 70.0hrs
AT = 40 (1.0)(1.0) = 40
nsu = 70/40 = 1.75 machines
For production runs:

WL = ((20)(40)(11.5/60)) / (1-
0.05) = 161.4hrs AT = 40(0.92) =
36.8hrs per machine
npr = 161.4 / 36.8 = 4.39 machines
Total Machines = 1.75 + 4.39 = 6.14 or 7 machines

UNIT -5
GROUP TECHNOLOGY
Introduction
The amount of data that a person’s mind can readily work with at
one time is relatively small. A computer can manipulate
considerably more data than a human mind; however, even a
computer has limits on the amount of data that can be manipulated
at one time. For this and other reasons it is desirable to find ways to
organize data so that only pertinent items need be retrieved and
analyzed at a given time. To accomplish this, methods of structuring
data have been devised. Some methods are very clever, such as data
structures used in large computer data bases; others are relatively
simple, such as listing words alphabetically in a dictionary.
An example is the coding and classification of books in a library
catalog. Using this catalog, one can easily find all books written
by an author, all books on a specific subject, or all books with a
particular title.
The basis for group technology is analogous to these
situations. A company may make thousands of different parts in an
environment that is becoming more complex as lot sizes get smaller
and the variety of parts increases. When they are examined closely,
however, many parts are similar in some way. A design engineer
faced with the task of designing a part would like to know if the
same or a similar part had been designed before. Likewise, a
manufacturing engineer faced with the task of determining how to
manufacture a part would like to know if a similar process plan already

exists. It follows that there may be economies to be realized from
grouping parts into families with similar characteristics. The resulting
data base would certainly be easier to manage; therefore, the
manufacturing enterprise should be easier to manage. In 1969 V. B.
Soloa defined group technology as “the realization that many problems
are similar, and that by grouping similar problems, a single solution
can be found to a set of problems thus saving time and effort.” [This
definition is very broad, but it is valid because group technology
concepts have been applied to many environments.
Key Definitions
Attribute (polycode) code Each part attribute is assigned to a
fixed position in a code. The meaning of each character in the
code is independent of any other character value.
Average linkage clustering algorithm An algorithm for
clustering things together based on the average similarity of all
pairs of things being clustered. The similarity of each pair is
measured by a similarity coefficient.
Bottleneck machine In this chapter, a machine in a group (cell)
that is required by a large number of parts in a different group.
Cell In this chapter, a group of machines arranged to
produce similar families of parts.
Classification The process of categorizing parts into groups,
sometimes called families, according to a set of rules or
principles. Cluster analysis The process of sorting things into
groups so the similarities are high among members of the same
group and low among members of different groups.
Coding The process of assigning symbols to a

part to reflect attributes of the part.
Computer-aided process planning (CAPP) An interactive
computer system that automates some of the work involved in
preparing a process plan.
Decision variables In a mathematical model, values must be

assigned to these variables. The objective is to select values that
optimize the model’s performance, such as minimal cost. Initially
the best values for these variables are unknown.
Dendrogram A treelike graphical representation of cluster
analysis results. The ordinate is in some similarity coefficient
scale, and the abscissa has no special meaning.
Function layout Layout of machines in a factory such that
machines of a specific type are grouped together.
Group layout Machines in a
factory are arranged as cells.
Group technology An engineering and manufacturing
philosophy that groups parts together based on their similarities
in order to achieve economies of scale in a small-scale
environment normally associated with large-scale production.
Group tooling Tooling designed such that a family or families of
parts can be processed with one master fixture and possibly some
auxiliary adapters to accommodate differences in some of the part
attributes, such as number of holes and sizes of holes.

Hierarchical (monocode) code The meaning of each character is

dependent on the meaning of the previous character in the code.
Hybrid (mixed) code A combination of an attribute and a
hierarchical code. It combines the advantages of both code types.
Line layout Machines in a factory are arranged in the sequence in
which they are used. The work content at each location is balanced
so that materials can flow through in a continuous manner.
Logic tree A treelike graph that represents the logic used to make
a decision. This differs from a decision tree in that the branches
may contain logical expressions as well as calculations, data
elements, codes, and keys to other data.
Machine —component chart A matrix that denotes what
machines a group of components (parts)
visit.
Part family A group of parts
having some similar attributes.
Process plan The detailed instructions for making a part. It
includes such things as the operations, machines, tools, feeds and
speeds, tolerances, dimensions, stock removal, time standards,
and inspection procedures.
Production flow analysis A structured procedure for analyzing the
sequence of operations that parts go through during manufacturing.
Parts that go through common operations are grouped together as a
family, and the associated machines are arranged as a cell. Rotational
part A part that can be made by rotating the work piece.
It is usually symmetrical along one axis, such as a gear.
Similarity coefficient In this chapter, a measure of
how alike two machines are in

terms of the number of parts visiting both machines and the
number of parts visiting each machine Single-linkage clustering
algorithm (SLCA) An algorithm for clustering together things
that have a high similarity coefficient.
Threshold value A similarity coefficient value at
which clustering is to stop. That
is, no more clusters are to be formed if the largest remaining
similarity coefficient value is below this value.
The Role of Group Technology in

CAD/CAM Integration
The preceding discussion pointed out that competitive world

market conditions are encouraging more and more batch-type
manufacturing firms to consider adopt ing a group technology
philosophy.
Another major contributing factor to this acceptance is an

increasing emphasis on the integration of
CAD.
In this chapter it will become evident that group technology
is an important element of CAD and CAM. An essential aspect of
the integration of CAD and CAM is the integration of information
used by engineering, manufacturing, and all the other departments
in a firm. Group technology provides a means to structure and save

information about parts, such as design and manufacturing attributes,

processes, and manufacturing capabilities that is amenable to
computerization and analysis. It provides a common language for the
users. Integration of many types of part-related information would be
virtually impossible without group technology; consequently, group
technology is an important element of CAD/CAM integration.
Another important aspect of the integration of CAD and CAM in
automation. The next chapter, which discusses process planning, will
explain how group technology is key to automating this function.
Also, many manufacturing firms are automating their operations by
arranging their machines into cells. The design of a cell is based on
group technology. These observations reinforce the importance of
group technology.
Methods for Developing Part Families
Group technology is begun by grouping parts into families based on

their attributes. Usually, these attributes are based on geometric and/or
production process characteristics. Geometric classification of families
is normally based on size and shape, while production process
classification is based on the type, sequence , and number of
operations. The type of operation is determined by such things as the
method of processing, the method of holding the part, the tooling, and
the conditions of processing. For example, Figures show families of
parts grouped by geometric shape and by production

process. The identification of a family of parts that has

similarities permits the economies of scale normally associated
with mass production to be applied to small-lot, batch production.
There fore, successful grouping of related parts into families is a
key to implementation of the group technology philosophy.
Figure: Parts grouped by geometric shape

Figure : Parts grouped by

manufacturing processes
There are at least three basic methods that can

be used to form part families:
1. flow analysis
3. Classification and coding
Production flow analysis (PFA) is a structured technique

developed for analysis the sequence of operations (routings) that
parts go through during fabrication. Parts that go through
common operations are grouped into part families. Similarly, the
machines used to perform these common operations may be
grouped as a cell; consequently, this technique can be used in
facility layout. Initially, a machine—component chart must be
formed. This is an M x N matrix, where
x = 1 if part j has an operation
on machine i; 0 otherwise.

If the machine—component chart is small, parts with similar

operations might be grouped together by manually sorting the
rows and columns. However, a more appealing method is to use a
computer procedure to perform this work.
Figure illustrates the use of PFA to form part families. For this
technique to be successful, accurate and efficient routings must
exist for each part. In many companies these routings do not
exist. If routings exist, they are often inaccurate from lack of
maintenance or they may be very inconsistent.

Figure (a) Component—machine chart; (b) example

of production flow analysis.
The latter situation will occur if routings are established

without using a coding and classification system. Also, using PFA

involves judgment, because some parts may not appear to fit into a
family when one or more unique operations are required.
Furthermore, additional analysis is required to determine when a
particular machine should be duplicated in another group. In Figure
, for example, machine D is in groups 1 and 2. In this case, since
machine D was visited by almost all of the parts, it was duplicated to
keep the groups small. Otherwise, groups 1 and 2 might have been
combined into one group having several parts with dissimilar routings.
Likewise, you cannot determine how many machines of type D are
required without evaluating demands and machine capacities. In
addition, PFA does not consider part features and functional
capabilities. Therefore, this technique should not be used to form part
families for design engineering. One advantage of using production
flow analysis compared to a coding and classification system is that
part families can be formed with much less effort.
If the coding and classification technique is used, parts are
examined and codes are assigned to each part based on the
attributes of the parts. These codes can then be sorted so that
parts with similar codes are grouped as a part family.
Because these codes are assigned in a manner that does not require
much judgment, the part families developed by this technique do not
suffer from judgment inconsistencies. A disadvantage of using the
coding and classification technique is that a large amount of time
may be required to develop and tailor a code to meet the needs of a
specific company. Afterwards, coding the parts will take an even
larger amount of time. However, when properly applied, the results

are much better then when other techniques are used.

Consequently, coding and classification is the preferred approach
and will be discussed in more detail than the other approaches.
Classification of parts is the process of categorizing parts into

groups, sometimes called families, according to a set of rules or
principles. The objectives are to group together similar parts and to
differentiate among dissimilar parts. Coding of a part is the process
of assigning symbols to the part. These symbols should have
meanings that reflect the attributes of the part, thereby facilitating
analysis (information processing). Although this does not sound
very difficult, classification and coding are very complex problems.
Several classification and coding systems have been developed,
and many people have tried to improve them. No system has yet
received universal acceptance; however, because the information
that is to be represented in the classification and coding system
will vary from one company to another. This seems reasonable if
one understands that the two greatest uses of group technology
are for design retrieval and for group (cell) production, and that
each company has some unique needs for these functions.
Although all of these needs are not unique, enough are to prohibit
the development of a universal system. Therefore, even though
classification and coding systems can be purchased, a good rule
of thumb is that 40% of a purchased system must be tailored to
the specific needs of a particular company.

One reason that a design engineer classifies and codes parts is to

reduce design effort by identifying similar parts that already exist.
Some of the most significant attributes on which identification can
be made are shape, material and size. If the coding and
classification system is to be used successfully in manufacturing, it
must be capable of identifying some additional attributes, such as
tolerances, machinability of materials, processes, and machine tool
requirements. In many companies the design
department does not exchange very much information with the

manufacturing department. The analogy of “design engineering
throwing the part design over the wall of manufacturing to
make” is often used to describe the lack of communication
between these departments. The classification and coding system
selected by a company should meet the needs of both design
engineering and manufacturing. A system that meets these
combined needs will improve communication between
departments and facilitate computer-integrated manufacturing.
Although well over 100 classification and coding systems

have been developed for group technology applications, all of
them can be grouped into three basic types:
1. Hierarchical or monocode
2. Attribute, or polycode
3. Hybrid, or mixed

In this type of code, the meaning of each character is

dependent on the meaning of the previous character; that is,
each character amplifies the information of the previous
character. Such a coding system can be depicted using a tree
structure as shown in Figure, which represents a simple
scheme for coding the spur gear shown in Figure .Using these
figures, we can assign a code, “A11B2,” to the spur gear.
A hierarchical code provides a large amount of information
in a relatively small number of digits. This advantage will become
more apparent when we look at an attribute coding system.
Defining the meaning for each digit in a hierarchical system can be
difficult, although application of the defined system is relatively
simple. Starting at the main trunk of the tree, you need to answer a
series of questions about the item being coded. Continuing in this
manner, you work your way through the tree to a termination
branch. By recording each choice as you answer each question, you
will build the appropriate code number. However, determining the
meaning of each digit in the code is complicated, because each
preceding digit must first be decoded. For example, in the code
developed in Figure for the spur gear A11B2, a “1” in the second
position means “round with deviations” because there is an “A” in
the first position of the code. How ever, if there had been a “B” in
the first position, a “1” in the second position would have meant
“boxlike.”

(a) Spur gear; (b) hierarchical code for the spur

gear.
Design departments frequently use hierarchical coding systems

for part retrieval because this type of system is very effective for
capturing shape, material, and size information. Manufacturing
departments, on the other hand, have different needs which are
often based on process requirements. It is difficult to retrieve and
analyze process-related information when it is in a hierarchical
structure that will be equally useful to both the design and
manufacturing organizations.
Attribute Code
An attribute code is also called a polycode, a chain code, a

discrete code or a fixed-digit code. The meaning of each character
in an attribute code is independent of any other character; thus,
each attribute of a part can be assigned a specific position in an
attribute code. Figure shows an example attribute code.
Using Figure to code the spur gear illustrated in Figure , we
would obtain the code “22213.” Referring to Figure, we can see
that a “3” in position 5 means that the part is a spur gear
regardless of the values of the digits in any other positions.
If we had used this attribute code to code several parts and wanted
to retrieve all spur gears, we would only need to identify all parts
with a “3” in position 5 of the associated code. This becomes a
simple task if a computer is used. Consequently, an attribute code
system is popular with manufacturing organizations because it

makes it easy to identify parts that have similar features that require
similar processing. One disadvantage of an attribute code is that a
position in the code must be reserved for each different part
attribute; therefore, the resulting code may become very long.
Figure: Attribute code example

UNIT-6
Quality Control
BRIEF HISTORY
Had the Industrial Revolution not occurred, quality would probably be a moot
issue. During the Middle Ages, skilled craftspeople served both as
manufactur-ers and inspectors, building quality into their products with
considerable pride of workmanship. Craft guilds emerged to ensure that
craftspeople were ad-equately trained. The Industrial Revolution led to quality
being viewed as an inspection-based activity. Thomas Jefferson brought
Honoree Le Blanc's con-cept of interchangeable parts to America. When Eli
Whitney was awarded a government contract in 1798 to supply 10,000
muskets in two years, he de-signed special machine tools and trained unskilled
workers to make parts ac-cording to a standard design that was measured and
compared to a model. Unfortunately, Whitney grossly underestimated the
effect of variation in the production process and its impact on quality. It took
more than 10 years to complete the project, perhaps the first example of cost-
overrun in government contracts. This same obstacle-variation-continues to
plague American man-agers to this day.
Worker responsibility for quality was influenced greatly by Frederick

W. Taylor's concept of "scientific management." By focusing on production
effi-ciency and decomposing jobs into small work tasks, inspection was
relegated to an independent "quality control" department in manufacturing
organiza-tions. The separation of good from bad product became the chief
means of ensuring quality.
Modern Developments in Quality

Modern approaches to quality control had their origins at Western Electric

when the inspection department was transferred to Bell Telephone Laborato-
ries in the 1920s. The early pioneers of modern quality assurance-Walter
Shewhart, Harold Dodge, George Edwards, and others-developed new theo-
ries,and methods of inspection to improve and maintain quality. Control
charts, sampling techniques, and economic analysis tools laid the foundation
for mod-ern quality assurance activity and influenced the thinking of two men,
W. Edwards Deming and Joseph M. Juran.
Deming and Juran introduced statistical quality control and various man-
agement philosophies to Japanese managers after World War II as part of
General MacArthur's rebuilding program. Over the next 20 years, while the
Japanese were improving quality at an unprecedented rate, quality levels in the
West remained stagnant. By the late 1970s, Japanese companies had gained a
significant competitive advantage in world markets, primarily due to higher
levels of quality.
In 1980, NBC aired a white paper entitled "If Japan Can ... Why Can't
We?" This program introduced the 80-year-old Deming, virtually unknown in
the United States, to corporate executives across America. Ford Motor Com-
pany, in particular, was among the first to invite Deming to help in transform-
ing its operations. Within a few years, Ford's earnings were the highest for any
company in automotive history, despite a 7 percent drop in U.S. car and truck
industry sales, higher capital spending, and increased marketing costs. Donald
Petersen, chief executive officer at Ford, stated:
The work of Dr. Deming has definitely helped change Ford's corporate leader-
ship.... Dr. Deming has influenced my thinking in a variety of ways. What stands
out is that he helped me crystallize my ideas concerning the value of team-work,
process improvement and the pervasive power of the concept of continu-ous

improvement. (Katz, 1988)
With a competitive crisis unfolding, coupled with increasing levels of

con-sumer quality awareness, the technological complexity of modern
electronics, and a growing recognition of outdated managerial practices, the
1980s became the decade in which America woke up to quality. Most major
companies em-barked on extensive quality improvement campaigns. In 1984,
the U.S. gov-eminent designated October as National Quality Month. In 1987,
the Mal-colm Baldrige National Quality Award was established by an act of
Congress. (Malcolm Baldrige was a former Secretary of Commerce who died
shortly be-fore the legislation was approved. The award was named in his
honor.) By the end of the decade, Florida Power and Light became the first
overseas company to win Japan's coveted Deming Prize for quality.
A Race Without a Finish Line
Despite all the publicity and hoopla, a recent study by the American Quality
Foundation and Ernst & Young (1991) showed some sobering results. Among
the findings were that while 55 percent of U.S. firms use quality information
to evaluate business performance monthly or more frequently, 70 percent of

Japanese firms do. Eighteen percent of U.S. businesses look at the business
consequences of quality performance less than once each year; the comparable figure
in Japan is 2 percent, and in Germany, 9 percent. Even though consider-able attention
is paid to quality in the United States, we may not be closing the gap with foreign
competitors. Business schools are only just beginning to in-corporate quality
principles into their curriculum; in Japan, elementary schools teach statistical process
control. While the next generation of managers may be adequately trained in quality
principles, we cannot afford to wait. As one Xerox executive noted, quality is a race
without a finish line.
DEFINTITIONS OF QUALITY
Quality has been an elusive concept in business. Many people think of quality as some
level of superiority or innate excellence; others view it as a lack of manufacturing
defects. The official definition of quality, standardized by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) and the American Society for Quality Control (ASQC) in
1978, is "the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bears
on its ability to satisfy given needs." This definition implies that we must be able to
identify the features and characteris-tics of products and services that determine
customer satisfaction and form the basis for measurement and control. The "ability to
satisfy given needs" reflects the value of the product or service to the customer,
including the economic value, safety, reliability, and maintainability.
A good example of how this definition works in practice comes from the auto
industry (Business Week, 1990). In designing the Lexus automobile, Toyota bought
several competitors' cars, including Mercedes, Jaguar, and BMW, and put them
through grueling test-track runs, then took them apart. The chief engineer decided that
he could match Mercedes on performance and reliabil-ity, as well as on luxury and
status features. He developed 11 performance goals. The final design had a drag

coefficient smaller than any other luxury car, a lighter weight, a more fuel-efficient
engine, and a lower noise level. Sturdier materials were used for seat edges to
maintain their appearance longer. The engine was designed with more torque than
German models to give the car the quick start that Americans prefer. The instrument
cluster was called "a work of art" by Ford's director of North American interior
design.
Fitness for Use
Although the ANSI/ASQC definition of quality is operationally useful, it does not

completely describe the various viewpoints of quality that are commonly used: Since
customer needs must be the driving force behind quality products and services, a
popular definition of quality is fitness for use. This is encom-passed in the
ANSI/ASQC definition as "the ability to satisfy given needs." This definition means
that a quality product or service must meet customer requirements and expectations.
The fitness for use definition based on customer satisfaction has become the
principal definition of quality from a managerial perspective. By the end of

the 1980s, a related though fundamentally different definition of quality had

emerged: Quality is meeting or exceeding customer expectations.
Conformance to Specifications
A second approach to defining quality, from the perspective of manufacturing

or service delivery, is conformance to specifications. Specifications are targets
and tolerances determined by designers of products and services: Targets are
the ideal values for which production is expected to strive; tolerances are
accept-able deviations from these ideal values, recognizing that it is
impossible to meet the targets all the time. For example, a computer chip
manufacturer might specify that the distance between pins on a computer chip
should be .095 ±.005 inches. The value .095 is the target, and ±005 is the
tolerance. Thus, the dis-tance may vary between .090 and .100 and still be
acceptable. Likewise in ser-vices, "on time arrival" for an airplane might be
specified as within 15 minutes of the scheduled arrival time. The target is the
scheduled time, and the toler-ance is ±15 minutes.
The traditional manufacturing view of quality as conformance to specifi-

cations has come under much scrutiny in recent years because of the work of
Japanese engineer Genichi Taguchi. Taguchi defines quality as the avoidance
of "the loss a product causes to society after being shipped." This includes
losses due to a product's failure to meet customer expectations, failure to meet
performance characteristics, and harmful side effects caused by the product,
such as pollution or noise. Taguchi measures loss in monetary units and
relates it to targets and tolerances. He has shown that the loss increases more
rapidly the further one moves from the target value in a critical specification.
For ex-ample, just think of what would happen if many airline flights
consistently varied from scheduled arrival times. The more flights are delayed
(that is, de-viate from target), the more passengers will miss connecting
flights, causing substantial losses to both passengers and the airlines. While

we cannot totally eliminate variation in the production of products and

services, we can strive to minimize the variation around target values. This
minimizes the economic loss and benefits both the producer and the
consumer.
Fitness for use (quality of design) and conformance to specifications

(quality of conformance) provide the fundamental basis for managing
operations to produce quality products. A "customer-driven" quality focus
involves every one in an organization. Customer requirements must be
determined and un-derstood. They must be translated into detailed product
and process specifica-tions. Manufacturing and service delivery must meet
these specifications during production to ensure that what the customer gets is
what the customer wants (or more). Quality is everyone's responsibility.
QUALITY IN MANUFACTURING AND SERVICE SYSTEMS
Quality assurance refers to the entire system of policies, procedures, and

guide-lines established by an organization for the purpose of achieving and
maintain-ing quality. Quality assurance consists of three principal functions:
quality

engineering, quality control, and quality management. The aim of quality en-
gineering is to incorporate quality into the design of products and processes and to
predict potential quality problems prior to delivery of the product. Quality control
involves making a series of planned measurements in order to deter-mine if quality
standards are being met. If not, then corrective action and fu-ture preventive action
must be taken to achieve and maintain conformance. Quality management involves
the planning, organization, direction, and con-trol of all quality assurance activities.
While many manufacturing firms have quality control departments to provide
technical support, successful businesses have found that quality must be integrated
throughout the firm. This concept of integrating quality throughout all business
functions-total quality man-agement-is the theme of this course.
Quality in Manufacturing Systems
In manufacturing, quality is an important component of all functions. For ex-ample,

effective market research is necessary to determine customer needs and identify
functional requirements for product designers. Product designers must take care to
neither overengineer (resulting in inefficient use of a firm's re-sources) nor
underengineer products (resulting in poor quality). Purchasing must ensure that
suppliers meet quality requirements. Production planning and scheduling should not
put undue pressure on manufacturing that will de-grade quality. Tool engineering
and maintenance are responsible for ensuring that tools, gages, and equipment are
properly maintained. Industrial engineer-ing must select the appropriate technology
that is capable of meeting design requirements and developing appropriate work
methods. Packaging, shipping, and warehousing have the responsibility of ensuring
the condition, availability, and timely delivery of products in transit. Ancillary
functions such as finance, human resources, and legal services support the quality
effort by providing realistic budgets, a well-trained and motivated workforce, and
reviews of war-ranty, safety, and liability issues.

Quality in Services
The importance of quality in services cannot be underestimated. Service is a "social

act which takes place in direct contact between the customer and repre-sentatives of
the service company" (Norman, 1984). Technical Assistance Re-search Programs,
Inc., has conducted studies that reveal the following:
• The average company never hears from 96 percent of its unhappy custom-ers. For
every complaint received, the company has 24 customers with prob-lems, 6 of
which are serious.
• Of the customers who make a complaint, more than half will do business again
with that organization if their complaint is resolved. If the customer feels that the
complaint was resolved quickly, this figure jumps to 95 percent.
• The average customer who has had a problem will tell 9 or 10 others about it.
Customers who have had complaints resolved satisfactorily will tell only about 5
others. (Albrecht & Zemke, 1985)

In services, the distinguishing features that determine quality differ from

manufacturing. The most important dimensions of service quality include:
• Time: How long must a customer wait?
• Timelines: Will a package be delivered by 10:30 the next morning?
• Completeness: Are all items in the order included?
• Courtesy: Do front-line employees greet each customer cheerfully?
• Consistency: Are services delivered in the same fashion for every customer?
• Accessibility and convenience: Is the service easy to obtain?
• Accuracy: Is the service performed right the first time?
• Responsiveness: Can service personnel react quickly and resolve unexpected

problems?
Many service organizations such as airlines, banks, and hotels have well-
developed quality assurance systems. Most of them, however, are generally
based on manufacturing analogies and tend to be more product-oriented than
service-oriented. For example, a typical hotel's quality assurance system is fo-
cused on technical specifications such as properly made-up rooms. However,
service organizations have special requirements that manufacturing systems
cannot fulfill. Service organizations must look beyond product orientation and
pay significant attention to customer transactions and employee behavior. The
Ritz-Carlton Hotel Company, a 1992 winner of the Baldrige Award, pays ex-
traordinary attention to customers and employees.

Service organizations should consider the following points:
The quality characteristics that should be controlled may not be the obvious
ones. Customer perceptions are critical, and it may be difficult to define
what the customer wants. For example, speed of service is an important
quality characteristic, yet perceptions of speed may differ significantly
among dif-ferent service organizations and customers. Marketing and
consumer research can play a significant role.
The quality of interaction is a vital factor in every service transaction that

involves human contact. For example, banks have found that the
friendliness of tellers is a principal factor in retaining depositors.
Image is a major factor in shaping customer expectations of a service and in

setting standards by which customers evaluate that service. A breakdown in
image can be as harmful as a breakdown in delivery of the service itself.
Top management has the responsibility for shaping and guiding the image
that the firm projects.
Setting service levels and measuring them may be difficult. Service stan-
dards, particularly those relating to human behavior, are often set
judgmentally and are difficult to measure. In manufacturing, it is easy to
measure output, scrap, and rework. Customer attitudes and employee com-
petence are not as easily measured.y control activity may be required at
times or in places where supervi-sion and control personnel are not present.
Work must often be performed at the convenience of the customer. Hence,
more training of employees and self-management are necessary.

ECONOMIC ISSUES
Managers have a good reason to improve quality-profitability. Poor designs that do

not meet customer needs, scrap and rework, and field failures all im-pact the bottom
line. In 1976, before quality replaced quantity as a business priority, American
Motors spent about $3 million to correct pollution control systems; and Firestone had
to replace 7.5 million tires at a cost greater than its annual net income. The impact of
quality on corporate performance has been studied extensively. For example, The
Conference Board, Inc., a New York business research group, surveyed senior
executives at 800 large U.S. corpora-tions about their quality management practices
(1989). Of 149 respondents, 62 reported that they had measured the impact of quality
on profitability. Of these, 47 reported "noticeably increased" profits due to quality
management, while only one firm reported decreased profits due to "increased costs
of providing higher quality products and services." PIMS Associates, Inc., a
subsidiary of the Strategic Planning Institute, Cambridge, Mass., maintains a
proprietary data base of 1,200 companies and studies the impact of product quality on
corporate performance (Strategic Planning Institute, 1986). Among their find-ings,
PIMS researchers have concluded that product quality is an important determinant of
business profitability, and that quality is positively and signifi-cantly related to a
higher return on investment for all kinds of products and market situations.
The economic impacts of quality can be easily understood from the fun-
damental profit equation:
Profit = revenue - cost

Revenue = price x units sold
To increase profit, you need to either increase revenue or decrease cost. To

increase revenue, you must increase price without losing units, or increase the units
sold (market share) while maintaining the price. Quality affects each of these terms.

Quality and Price
Many believe that higher quality can only be produced at a higher cost; there-fore,
they assume that higher prices imply higher quality. This is not always the case.
Research studies have found that when other factors such as brand name, store image,
product features, or country of origin influence consumer perception, quality
assessment is not as heavily influenced by price. Also, if managers observe that
consumer perceptions of quality and purchasing deci-sions are positively related to
price, they may command higher prices without actually increasing quality. As a
result, price often bears a positive relationship to perceived quality rather than actual
quality. Higher prices may actually reflect inefficiencies in production, high fixed
costs, and poor quality.
The PIMS studies have shown that high product quality can allow a com-pany to
command higher prices. One power tool manufacturer discovered that higher quality
tools greatly reduced the costs of maintenance and downtime

for industrial users. This information became the means of convincing cus-
tomers to accept a price increase (Juran, 1988). One must be cautious, how-
ever. Price premiums may also leave a firm open to competitive threats. For
example, Japanese luxury car divisions such as Lexus and Infiniti claim to
have equaled the quality of German counterparts at significantly lower
prices and have made a significant penetration into this market.
Quality and Market Share
If a product or service meets or exceeds customer expectations, we would ex-

pect quality and market share to be positively related. We saw this in the
1970s as higher quality Japanese products made significant penetration into
Western
markets. This also has been verified by many research studies. For example,
one study found that businesses that improved quality during the 1970s in-
creased their market share five to six times faster than those whose quality
declined, and three times as fast as those whose quality remained unchanged.
The PIMS studies found that businesses offering premium quality products and
services usually have large market shares and were early entrants into their
markets, and that a strategy of quality improvement usually leads to increased
market share, but at a cost in terms of reduced short-run profitability.
Quality and Cost
From the viewpoint of quality of design, improved quality generally results in

higher costs. Improved quality of design requires more costly materials, more
highly skilled labor, and more expensive equipment. As argued earlier, how-
ever, improved quality of design can lead to increased revenues through higher
prices and market share that can far outweigh the additional costs.
On the other hand, improved quality of conformance usually results in
decreased costs through savings in rework, scrap, and warranty expenses.
This viewpoint was popularized by Philip Crosby (1979).

Quality is not only free, it is an honest-to-everything profit maker. Every

penny you don't spend on doing things wrong, over, or instead of, becomes
half a penny right on the bottom line. In these days of "who knows what is
going to happen to our business tomorrow," there aren't many ways left to
make a profit improve-ment. If you concentrate on making quality certain,
you can probably increase your profit by an amount equal to 5% to 10% of
your sales. That is a lot of money for free.
These relationships among quality, price, market share, and cost are
sum-marized in Exhibit 1-1. The value of a product in the marketplace is
deter-mined by the quality of design. Improved design will enhance a
firm's reputa-tion and the consumer's perception of quality, resulting in
the ability to command higher prices and achieve increased market share,
leading to increased revenues. Improved quality of conformance leads to
lower manufacturing and service costs. The net effect of this two-pronged
strategy for quality improve-ment is increased profits.

The Taguchi Loss Function
Dr. Genichi Taguchi has proposed a significantly different approach to view-ing quality
based on the economic implications of poor quality. By measuring loss in monetary units and
relating it to quantifiable product characteristics, Taguchi translates from the language of the
engineer (product characteristics) to the language of the manager (dollars). In the traditional
American produc-tion system, acceptable product characteristics are defined in terms of a
target specification and a tolerance. Being within tolerance is acceptable; being out-side of
tolerance is not. We often call this a "goalpost mentality." Taguchi suggests that loss
increases (in a rapid fashion) the further away a product char-acteristic is from its target
value (see Exhibit 1-2).
Two well-publicized examples in practice have given credence to this theory. In one
case, Ford and Mazda were producing identical transmission components in the United
States and Japan using the same blueprints, equip-ment, and processes. The Ford assemblies
were experiencing a higher rate of field failures. Upon examining the critical dimensions
produced by the Ford plant, all were found to be within acceptable tolerances. However,
upon exam-ining the Mazda-built components, nearly all were precisely on target with
almost no variation within the allowable tolerance. The explanation is that in mechanical

assemblies, excessive variation from design targets causes prema-ture wear, eventually
resulting in early field failure.
A second example was published in the Japanese newspaper Ashai com-paring the
warranty cost differences of Sony televisions at a Japanese and San Diego plant. A critical
product characteristic is color density. For this charac-teristic, all units produced at the San
Diego plant were within the design toler-
nce, while a small proportion of those shipped from the Japanese plant were not. However,
the average loss per unit from the San Diego plant was $.89 larger than that of the Japanese
plant. It was discovered that units out of speci-fication were adjusted at the San Diego plant
(adding more cost to the pro-cess), but rarely to the target value. In the Japanese plant, the
color density of the vast majority of units were produced close to the target value (see
Exhibit 1-3). The further the color density was from the target value, the more likely
customers will complain and require an adjustment (adding to warranty costs). From Exhibit
1-3 it is clear that the U.S.-made units required significantly more warranty adjustments than
the Japanese-made counterparts. The chair-man of Sony explained the difference this way
(Sullivan, 1984):
When we tell one of our Japanese employees that the measurement of a certain part
must be within a tolerance of plus or minus five, for example, he will auto-matically
strive to get that part as close to zero tolerance as possible. When we started our plant
in the United States, we found that workers would follow in-structions perfectly. But if

we said make it between plus or minus five, they would get it somewhere near plus or
minus five all right, but rarely as close to zero as the Japanese workers did.
The reduction of variation is the cornerstone of the Deming philosophy. As variation

decreases, so will costs, resulting in higher levels of profit and con-sumer satisfaction.
QUALTTY, STRATEGIC PLANNING, AND
COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
A firm has many options in defining its long-term goals and objectives, the customers whom
it wants to serve, and the products and services it produces and delivers. Strategy is the
approach by which an organization seeks to develop
its long-term goals, policies, and plans to meet the needs of its stakeholders. In formulating a
business strategy, several fundamental questions must be addressed:

•
Who is your customer? What are the customer's needs and expectations?
• How can the business best serve its customers?
• What are our strengths and weaknesses? How do we compare to our com-petitors?
• What risks and threats could subvert future success?
Competitive Advantage
Competitive advantage denotes a firm's ability to achieve market superiority over its
competitors. Business strategy should help a business better forecast, plan, and control its
future and create a competitive advantage. A strong com-petitive advantage has six
fundamental characteristics:
1. It is externally driven by customer wants and needs.
2. It provides significant leverage in contributing to the success of the busi-ness.
3. It provides a unique match of the organization's resources and the opportu-nities in the
environment.
4. It is durable, lasting, and difficult for competitors to copy.
5. It provides a basis for further improvement.
6. It provides direction and motivation to the entire organization. (Wheel-wright, 1989)
A business can choose to focus its efforts along several dimensions to achieve competitive
advantage. These include low cost or price, outstanding service, high flexibility and variety,

continuous innovation, and superior quality.
Quality is now recognized as a powerful strategic weapon. Quality is judged by the

customer. All product and service attributes that connote value to the customer and lead to
customer satisfaction and preference must be addressed
appropriately. Value, satisfaction, and preference may be influenced by many factors
throughout the customer's overall purchase, ownership, and service experiences. This
includes the relationship between the company and custom-ers-the trust and confidence in
products and services-that leads to loyalty and preference. Customer-driven quality is thus a
strategic concept. It is di-rected toward market share gain and customer retention. It demands
constant sensitivity to emerging customer and market requirements, and measurement of the
factors that drive customer satisfaction. It also demands awareness of developments in
technology, and rapid and flexible response to customer and market requirements.
Multiple Dimensions of Quality
The concept of quality includes not only the product and service attributes that meet basic
requirements, but also those that enhance and differentiate them from competing offerings.
However, not every firm needs to compete along the same dimensions of quality. David A.
Garvin (1984) observes that quality consists of eight basic dimensions:
l. Performance: A product's primary operating characteristics.
2. Features. The "bells and whistles" of the product.
3. Reliability: The probability that a product will operate properly over a speci-fied period of
time under stated conditions of use.
4. Conformance: The degree to which physical and performance characteristics of a product

match pre-established standards.

5. Durability: The amount of use one gets from a product before it physically deteriorates or
until replacement is preferable.
6. Serviceability: The speed, courtesy, and competence of repair.
7. Aesthetics. How a product looks, feels, sounds, tastes, or smells.

8. Perceived quality: Subjective assessment resulting from image, advertising, or brand
name.

UNIT-7
Inspection Technologies
Introduction
Inspection is the means by which poor quality is detected and good quality is assured in
products that are produced in a production process. Inspection is usually carried-out
manually via the use of various technologies that examine specific variables (quality
characteristics of the product), or product attributes (to ensure product conformance to
previously-set standards). The major steps in inspection include:
Inspection is the process of presenting, examining, deciding-upon, and acting-upon an

item to ensure that poor quality is detected in product attributes, and good quality is
assured.
Various technologies support the inspection procedure, enabled by various sensors,

instruments, and gauges. Some inspection techniques use manually-operated devices such
as micrometers, callipers, protractors, and go/no-go gauges; whilst other techniques are
based upon modern technologies such as
co-ordinating measuring machines (CMM) and machine vision, which use

computer-controlled systems that allow the inspection procedure to be automated.
This unit focuses on automated inspection techniques.
Some general characteristics of measuring instruments, used in the inspection procedure,

may be noted. These are outlined briefly in Table. These characteristics are used to
determine the correct choice of inspection equipment for a particular inspection
procedure.

Table : Characteristics of measuring instruments

Characteristic Comments
Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value agrees with
Accuracy and the
Precision true value that has been pre-defined for the item. Precision is a
measure of repeatability in a measurement process, such that
precision
reflects the consistency of the measurement results achieved.
This aspect of a measuring instrument is its capacity to distinguish
Resolution and very
Sensitivity small differences in the quantity of interest. The indication of this
characteristic is the smallest variation of the quantity that can be
detected by the instrument.
Speed of response Measures the time required for the measuring device to indicate the
quantity measured. Ideally, the time lag should be zero, but this is
obviously impossible.
This is the capability of a measuring instrument to measure the
Wide operating range physical
variable throughout the entire span of practical interest to the user.
A measure of the absence of frequent malfunctions and failures of
High reliability the
measurement device.
The expense of purchasing and operating the measuring device,
Cost plus
the expense of training on the measuring device.

Characteristics of measuring instruments that are used to ensure correct device selection
include parameters that assess: accuracy and precision; resolution and sensitivity; speed
of response; wide operating range; high reliability; and cost.
In this unit inspection technologies, particularly automated inspection technologies, are

investigated. We first look at contact versus non-contact inspection techniques, and
provide examples of each. Conventional measuring and gauging techniques, which are
typically manually-operated, are outlined followed by a description of automated
techniques for example the co-ordinate measuring machine. Machine vision
methodologies are discussed. Finally, other optical inspection methods are outlined.
Contact vs. Non-contact Inspection Techniques
There are two types of inspection techniques - contact and non-contact.
Contact Inspection Techniques
In contact inspection, physical contact is made between the object to be inspected, and the
measurement device. Typically contact is achieved using a mechanical probe or other device
that touches the item, and allows the inspection procedure to occur. By its nature, contact
inspection is concerned with some physical dimension of the part, and so contact methods are
widely used in manufacturing and production industries to assess metal parts, and for

electrical circuit testing. Principal contact inspection technologies include:
Conventional measuring and gauging instruments
Co-ordinate measuring machines (CMMs) and related techniques to measure mechanical

dimensions
Stylus type surface texture measuring machines to measure surface

characteristics such as roughness and waviness
Electrical contact probes for testing integrated circuits and printed circuit boards
Physical contact occurs between the object to be inspected and the measurement device in
contact inspection; this is typically done by means of a mechanical probe or other device
that touches the item, which allows the inspection procedure to occur.
Contact inspection techniques are the most widely-used inspection techniques. As well as
possessing considerable accuracy and reliability, in many cases they represent the only
methods available to accomplish inspection.
Non-contact Inspection Techniques
Non-contact inspection techniques use sensors instead of a mechanized probe favoured by

contact inspection methodologies. The sensor is located at a certain distance from the object
to be inspected, to measure or gauge the desired features of the object.
Non-contact inspection techniques use a sensor to measure or gauge the desired

features of the object.
There are two categories of non-contact inspection technologies:
Optical inspection technologies—these use light to accomplish the measurement or gauging

cycle. The most important technique is machine vision.
Non-optical inspection technologies—these use other forms of energy than light to perform
the inspection. Various energies utilized include: electrical fields, radiation, and ultra-
sonics.
The advantages of non-contact inspection techniques over contact inspection techniques

include:
They avoid possible surface damage that can be caused upon contact
Inspection cycle times are faster as the contact probe must be re-positioned for each new
part inspected, while the non-contact sensor remains stationary
Parts handling is lower with non-contact inspection than with contact inspection, as parts in
the latter methodology usually require special handling and adjustments so that inspection
can occur
It allows for the possibility of 100% automated inspection, for the above reasons
Conventional Measuring and Gauging Techniques

Conventional measuring and gauging techniques use manually-operated devices to assess a

host of linear dimensions, such as length, depth, and diameter, as well as features such as
angles, straightness, roundness and so on. Measuring devices provide a quantitative value of
the part features of interest. Gauges determine whether the part feature falls within a certain
acceptable range of values. Both techniques are widely used for post-process inspection of
piece parts in manufacturing.
Measuring devices provide a quantitative value of the part features of interest.
Measuring devices are typically used for sampling inspection. Some equipment is portable
and can be used by hand, while other devices require bench set-ups that are remote from the
process, such that the measurement device is set-up on a flat reference surface, called a
surface plate. Gauges are used for sampling and for 100% inspection. They are more portable
than measuring devices, and can be used on the production line itself. Certain techniques of
measuring and gauging can be automated to permit feedback control of the process, or for
statistical process control.
Electronic gauges deploy transducers capable of converting linear displacement into a

proportional electrical signal, which in turn is amplified and transformed into a suitable data
format such as a digital read-out. Advantages of electronic gauges include: good sensitivity,
accuracy, precision, repeatability, and speed of response; ability to sense very small
dimensions; ease of operation; reduced human error; ability to display electrical signal in
various formats; and capability to be interfaced with computer systems for data processing.
Metrology is the science of measurement, and the institution of inspection techniques is

essentially the performance of applied metrology. Investigate the term metrology and
associated techniques and technologies using the internet.

Co-ordinate Measuring Machines
In co-ordinate metrology the actual shape and dimensions of an item are measured, and
compared against desired shape and dimensions, as might be specified on a part drawing.
Co-ordinate measuring machines (CMM) is an electromechanical system that has been
designed to evaluate relevant dimensions of an item against a required standard
A co-ordinate measuring machine (CMM) is an electromechanical system that evaluates

relevant dimensions of an item against a required standard.
A CMM consists of a mechanical probe that operates in three dimensions, so that the relative
surfaces of a workpart may be inspected. The three dimensions can be co-ordinated by
recurrence to relative positions on the x-, y-, and z-axes. The CMM consists of:
Probe head and probe to contact workpart surface
Mechanical structure to provide motion of the probe in the three Cartesian axes, and
displacement transducers to measure the co-ordinate values of each axis ENDLIST
Optional components include a drive system and control unit to move each axis, and back-
end computing system and associated software.
A CMM consists of a mechanical probe that operates in three axial dimensions, a mechanical
structure to provide for the motion of the probe, and optional components such as a drive
system, and computing hardware and software.

CMM Construction
The overall CMM construction is illustrated in Figure 11.2 and consists of a mechanical
structure that supports the probe head and probe, and a worktable that passes underneath the
probe, upon which the item to be inspected is placed. To the side we can see the associated
computer system that takes and records the probe results as they occur.
Co-ordinate measuring machine

The two principal components from this construction are the probe, and its mechanical
structure. These are examined in further detail in the sections below.
The CMM construction consists of a worktable upon which the item to be inspected is
placed, and, overhead, is the mechanical structure that supports the probe head and probe.
Associated equipment such as the computer system are located remotely.
The tip of the probe in the CMM is usually a ruby ball. Ruby is a form of corundum
(aluminium oxide) with high hardness for wear resistance, and low density for minimum
inertia, thus making it ideal for probing applications. Probes can be single or multiple tip
(see Figure 11.3).
Figure: Single-tip probe

Probe tips usually consist of ruby balls, which contain ideal physical and mechanical
properties for probing operations. Probes can be single- or multi-tip.
The most common probe design is the touch-trigger type, which actuate when the probe
makes contact with the item’s surface. Various trigger mechanisms are available, including:
high-sensitivity electrical contact switch triggers; contact switch triggers that activate when
electrical contact is made between part surface and probe tip; and piezoelectric sensor switch
that operates by assessing tension loads on the probe.
After contact between probe and part surface, displacement transducers associated with the
three linear axes record the co-ordinate positions of the probe, and pass the results to the
CMM controller. Compensation is made for the radius of the probe tip, and over-travel of the
probe nib due to momentum is neglected. The probe returns to a neutral position when it
leaves the part surface.
Probes with touch-trigger mechanisms are the most common probe type: these operate in a
variety of ways.

Mechanical Structure
A number of different physical configurations exist for the mechanical structure of the
CMM; these are outlined in more detail in Figure 11.4.
Cantilever; Moving Bridge; Fixed bridge; Horizontal arm; Gantry; Column

A number of different physical configurations exist for the mechanical structure of the
CMM; these include: cantilever; moving bridge; fixed bridge; horizontal arm; gantry; and
column mechanical structures.
CMM Operation and Programming
Probe positioning may be accomplished using several methods, ranging from manual
operation to direct computer control. Computer-controlled CMMs operate much like CNC
machine tools, and these machines must be programmed.
CMM control may be accomplished via the methodologies outlined in Table.

Method Description
The human operator physically moves the probe along the
Manual drive machine’s
axes to make part contact, and take inspection measurements.
Equipment is designed so that the probe may move with a minimum
amount of friction between directional axes. Measurements are
provided by digital read-out for manual recording or paper printout.
Manual drive with Similar in operational context to the above, but additional data
computer-assisted processing and computational capabilities for performing the
processing calculations required to evaluate a given part feature. Types of data
processing include: dimensional conversions, and geometric
calculations.
Motor drive with Here the probe is driven by means of an electric motor along the
computer-assisted data machine axes, under operator supervision. The operator controls the
probe movement with a joystick or similar device. Typically low-
processing power
stepping motors and friction clutches prevent probe collision with
the
workpart. Also, the motor may be disengaged to permit the operator
to manually move the probe. Computer-assisted data processing, as
outlined above, is also included.
Direct computer This operates like a CNC machine tool. The movements of the
control probe
with computer assisted are accomplished by a motor under the programme control of a
data processing dedicated computer. The computer also performs the various data
processing and calculation functions required; it complies a record
of
the measurements made during inspection. It requires frequent part
programming.

CMM control may be accomplished via methodologies that use manual drive; manual
drive with computer-assisted processing; motor drive with computer-assisted data
processing; or direct computer control with computer assisted data processing.
In the case of CMMs using direct computer control with computer assisted data
processing capabilities, two principle methods of programming may be outlined:
Manual lead-through—where the operator leads the CMM probe through the various
motions that are required of it for a particular workpart, while the points and locations
are recorded into programme memory
Off-line programming—where the programme is prepared based on the workpart drawing,

and then downloaded to the CMM controller for execution ENDLIST
CMMs using direct computer control with computer assisted data processing
capabilities can be programmed using manual lead-through or off-line programming
methods.
Other CMM Software
In addition to CMM part programming software used for programming direct

computer control CMMs, other CMM software may be used. These include software
in the following categories: core software (other than programming software for
direct computer control); post-inspection software; and reverse-engineering and
application-specific software.

Other CMM software that may be used includes core software, post-inspection software,
and reverse-engineering and application-specific software.
Types of core software that may be deployed are outlined in Table
: Core software types for CMMs

Type Description
Software used to define the parameters of the probe tip
Probe calibration (including
information such as probe radius, the use of single or multi-probe
tips,
tip position, and elastic bend co-efficient). Calibrating the probe
allows for the repeatability of inspection operations, and avoids
many
complex probe calculations.
Software that allows the inspection procedure to occur without a
Part co-ordinate system time-
definition consuming alignment operation on the CMM worktable. The
measurement axes are aligned to the workpart, not to the CMM
worktable.
Geometric feature Software used for geometric features that require complex
measurements of more than one point. Geometries measured
construction include
holes, cylinders, extrusions etc.; and the software evaluates such
features as flatness, squareness, determining centre points etc.
Tolerance analysis Software that compares measurements taken on the part with
specified measurements as stated on the engineering drawing.

Types of core software include probe calibration; part co-ordinate system

definition; geometric feature construction; and tolerance analysis.
Types of post-inspection software (i.e. software applied after the inspection

procedure) that may be deployed are outlined in Table.
Table: Post-inspection software types for CMMs

Type Description
Software that carries out statistical analysis on various pieces of
Statistical analysis data
collected by the CMM. An example is part dimensional analysis to
determine optimal manufacturing process capabilities.
The statistical analysis software application can be located
remotely
from the CMM, requiring exporting data from the CMM to the
computer
system containing the software; or the software may be integrated
into
the CMM itself for instant statistical analysis investigation.
Software used to display the data collected during the CMM
Graphical data procedure
in a graphical way, so as to allow for easier troubleshooting of
representation errors,
and for overall visualization of the data by the operator.
Types of post-inspection software that may be deployed include statistical analysis

software, and graphical data representation software.

Reverse engineering software takes an existing workpart and constructs a computer model,
replete with geometries, part dimensions and tolerances, based upon this. The reason that
this is done is so that further items with the same attributes may be created. The simplest
method for doing this is to use the CMM in manual mode operation, and to allow the
operator to use the manual lead-through method so that attributes are stored in the CMM
programme memory.
This creates a three-dimensional surface model; however it is considered a very time-

consuming way of creating a computer model of the part. An alternative is to use automated
methods that allow the CMM to explore the workpart surfaces, with little or no human
intervention, and construct a three-dimensional model.
Exploration time should be minimized, without affect overall model accuracy. Important
examples of reverse engineering software are detailed in Table 11.5.
Table 11.5: Reverse engineering software types for CMMs

Type Description
Software used in CMM to measure geometric features of a
Gear checking gear,
such as tooth profile, tooth thickness pitch, and helix angle.
Thread checking Software used to inspect cylindrical and conical threads.
Software used to evaluate the accuracy of physical cams
Cam checking relative
to design specifications.
Automobile body checking Software used to measure sheet metal parts, sub-assemblies,
and complete car bodies in the automotive industry.
Types of reverse engineering software include software for gear checking, thread checking,
cam checking, and automobile body checking.

Portable CMMs
Recent years have seen advancements, such that traditional CMMs—stationary equipment
located in specialised locations of the plant floor—have become portable devices. Leading
manufacturers of portable CMMs are FARO who produce the FARO gauge and the
FARO arm product range.
Advantages of in-situ inspection include:
Reduction in material handling
Results of the inspection procedure are known immediately
Reduction in labour requirements (operators who perform the machining can generally
perform the inspection operation)
As the workpart remains on the CNC during inspection, datum references are not lost; this
occurs when the workpart is removed from the machine for inspection, and then replaced
Machine Vision
Machine vision is the creation of an image and the collection of data derived from the
image, and the subsequent processing and interpretation of the data by a computer from
some useful application. Machine vision is also known as computer vision, and its principal
application is in industrial inspection.
Machine vision is concerned with the creation, and collection of data from an image, all
subsequently processed and interpreted by a computer for some useful application.
Machine vision exists in two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) formats, with 2D
being most common in industrial applications. Examples of its usage include dimensional

measuring and gauging, verifying the presence of components, and checking for features on a
flat (or semi-flat) surface. 3D machine vision is used in applications where a 3D analysis of
the scene is required. Here we focus on the simpler 2D machine vision system.
outlines the basic elements of a machine vision system. The operation of machine
vision has three functions: image acquisition and digitization; image processing and
analysis; and interpretation.
Figure: Basic functions of a machine vision system
The operation of machine vision has three functions: image acquisition and digitization;
image processing and analysis; and interpretation.

Image Acquisition and Digitization
Image acquisition and digitization is typically performed by deploying a video camera to

capture the image, and the use of a digitizing system to store the image data for subsequent
analysis. The camera is focused upon the surface of the item of interest, and an image
consisting of discrete pixel elements is captured in the viewing area; each pixel has a value
proportional to the light intensity of that portion of the scene. The intensity value of each
pixel is converted into its equivalent digital value by an analogue-to-digital converter. This
operation in diagram format is depicted in Figure
: Machine vision: (a) scene presentation; (b) 12 x 12 matrix super-imposed; and (c) creation
of pixelated scene and assignment of intensity values, in black or white
Image acquisition and digitization is typically performed by using a video camera to capture
the scene of interest, the super-imposition of a pixel matrix to the resultant image, and the
assignment of intensity values, based on the light intensity of each portion of the scene.
Figure 11.6 outlines the simplest type of machine vision, called binary vision (so called
because it can only assign black and white intensity values, and no values in-between). A
more sophisticated vision system will add a palette of different representational colours, in

grey, that can capture different light intensities as different shades of grey; this system is
called the greyscale system. This type of system is used, not only to pick-out dimensional
features and the items size and shape, but also the item’s colour, and other surface
characteristics. Greyscale vision systems typically use 4, 6, or 8 bits of memory, with each bit
corresponding to 28 = 256 intensity levels—more than either the human eye or the video
camera can really distinguish.
Each set of digitized pixel values is referred to as a frame, and each frame is stored in a
computer memory device called a frame buffer. The process of reading all the pixel values
in a frame is performed with a frequency of 30 times per second. Very-high resolution
cameras often operate at slower frequencies.
Cameras
Solid-state cameras have, to a great extent, replaced vidicon cameras (also used as TV
cameras) as the prime image-capturing devices used in machine vision.
Solid-state cameras operate by focusing the image onto a 2D array of very small, finely spaced
photosensitive elements, which subsequently form the matrix of pixels seen in the scene
image. An electrical charge is generated by each element according to the intensity of light
striking the element; and this charge is subsequently stored by a storage device consisting of
an array of storage elements corresponding one-to-one with the photosensitive picture
elements.
Charge values accumulate, and are ultimately read sequentially in the data processing
and analysis function of machine vision.
Solid-state cameras are the prime device used to capture images in machine vision. They
project the image onto an array of photosensitive elements that produce an electrical

charge equivalent to the light intensity on each element, subsequently stored and read in
the data processing and analysis function.
Pixel arrays can be 640 x 480, 1024 x 768, or 1040 x 1392 (horizontal x vertical) picture
elements. The higher the number of picture elements the higher the resolution of the camera
achieved, where higher resolution can pick-out finer details of the item’s image; however,
higher resolution cameras are more expensive, and the time taken to read the resultant images
is slower as read-times increase with the increase in the number of pixels.
Illumination
The scene that the camera is focused-upon must be well illuminated if an image of sufficient
quality is to be captured. Illumination must be well-placed and constant over the time
required to capture the image; this usually means that special lighting must be deployed for a
machine vision application, rather than relying upon ambient lighting.
There are five categories of lighting used in machine vision; these are: front lighting,
back lighting, side lighting, structured lighting, and strobe lighting.
Image Processing and Analysis
A number of techniques have been developed so that data produced during the first phase
of machine vision may be processed and analysed. These general techniques are called

segmentation (a technique intended to define and separate regions of interest within the
image), and feature extraction (which follows on from various segmentation processes).
Image processing and analysis techniques under these general headings are outlined in
Table 11.8.
Table: Image processing and analysis techniques

General category Sub-category Description
Segmentation Thresholding Involves the conversion of each pixel intensity
level into a binary value (black or white);
performed by comparing each pixel value to a
defined threshold value.
Concerned with determining the location of
Segmentation Edge detection the
boundaries between an object and its
surroundings in an image. Accomplished by
identifying the contrast in light intensity that
exists
between adjacent pixels at the borders of the
object.
Feature extraction Methods that are designed to determine an
object’s features based on the area and
boundaries of the object (using the above
segmentation techniques).
Image processing and analysis techniques consist of the segmentation techniques of

thresholding and edge detection, as well as feature extraction techniques.

Interpretation
The extracted features of the image are guide from which interpretation of the image
emerges; that is, interpretation is concerned with recognizing the object (object recognition),
and/or recognizing the major features of the object (pattern recognition). Predefined models
or standard values are used to identify the object in the image. Two commonly-used
interpretation techniques are:
Template matching—a method whereby the features of the image are compared against
corresponding features of a model or template stored in the computer memory
Feature weighting—a technique in which several features are combined into a single
measure by assigning a weight to each feature according to its relative importance in
identifying the object, and where the resultant score is compared against an ideal object
score stored in computer memory, to achieve proper identification
Interpretation of the image is concerned with recognizing the object recognition, and/or
pattern recognition. Two commonly-used interpretation techniques are template matching
and feature weighting.
Machine Vision Applications
Machine vision applications as used in manufacturing come in three categories: inspection;

identification; and visual guidance and control. Typical industrial inspection tasks include:

identification; and visual guidance and control.

Other Optical Inspection Methods
Other optical sensing techniques can be used for inspection. Conventional optical
instruments include optical comparators and microscopes; while laser systems can be used
for scanning. In Figure 11.7 a scanning laser device is depicted. The system uses a laser
beam that is deflected by a rotating mirror to produce a beam of light that can be focused to
sweep past an object; while on the other side of the object, a photo-detector senses the light
sweep, except when it is interrupted by the object, and this interruption time may be
measured and related to the size and shape of the object with great accuracy.
Figure : Scanning laser device
Linear array devices may also be used, whereby an array of closely spaced photo diodes are
placed behind an object, and used to capture planar light that is directed at the object from the
other side .The light that is
blocked by the object may be measured by the photo diode array to indicate the object’s
dimension of interest.

Figure: Linear array measuring device
A variation of this technique uses optical triangulation methods (refer to Figure

11.9). A laser is used to focus a narrow beam at an object to form a spot of light on the
object; meanwhile, a linear array of photo diodes is used to determine the location of the spot
using triangulation. The resultant angle A and distance L between light source and photo
diodes are known; and thus, by means of simple trigonometry, the range of the object (R) can
be determined by means of the equation:
R L cot A
igure : Optical triangulation sensing

Other optical sensing techniques can be used for inspection. These include conventional optical
instruments (such as optical comparators and microscopes),
laser scanning systems, and linear array devices with arrays of photo diodes arranged in
direct and triangulation methodologies.
Non-contact non-optical Inspection Techniques
Other potential inspection techniques that are non-contact and non-optical are outlined in
brief in Table
Table : Non-contact non-optical inspection techniques

Technique Description
An electrically active probe creates an electrical field which is
Electrical Field affected
by the proximity of an object to the probe. In typical applications,
the
object to be inspected is placed at a set proximity to the probe, and
the
effect on the electrical field is measured. This procedure is
repeated at
different distances from the probe, and results are compared
against
each other to complete inspection procedure.
Uses x-ray radiation to accomplish non-contact inspection on
Radiation metals
and weld-fabricated products. The amount of radiation absorbed by
the
metal is measured and compared against standards. This allows
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G &

Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 156
metals
that do not absorb sufficient amounts of radiation to be quickly
spotted
as flawed.
Uses very high frequency sound as an inspection mechanism.
Ultrasonic Inspection Methods
can be either manually-performed or performed automatically.
Automated methods include emitting ultrasonic waves from a
probe and
reflecting them off the object to be inspected, to create a sound
pattern.
This sound pattern can be compared against the sound pattern
produced by an ideal object for inspection purposes. If the
produced
sound pattern matches the standard pattern the object passes the
test;
otherwise it fails.
Other potential inspection techniques that are non-contact and non-optical include electrical
field techniques, radiation techniques, and ultrasonic inspection techniques.
Inspection is the process of presenting, examining, deciding-upon, and acting-upon an item

to ensure that poor quality is detected in product attributes, and good quality is assured.
Characteristics of measuring instruments that are used to ensure correct device selection
include parameters that assess: accuracy and precision; resolution and sensitivity; speed of
response; wide operating range; high reliability; and cost.
There are two types of inspection techniques: contact and non-contact.

Physical contact occurs between the object to be inspected and the measurement device in
contact inspection; this is typically done by means of a mechanical probe or other device that
touches the item, which allows the inspection procedure to occur.
Non-contact inspection techniques use a sensor to measure or gauge the desired features
of the object.
Conventional measuring and gauging techniques use manually-operated inspection

devices.
Measuring devices provide a quantitative value of the part features of interest.
Gauges determine whether the part feature falls within a certain acceptable range of
values.
Measuring devices are used for sampling inspection: devices can be both portable and
stationary equipment. Gauges are used for sampling and for 100% inspection: devices usually
portable, and can be used upon the production line itself.
Electronic gauges represent a recent technological advance on conventional measuring and

gauging technology, and are increasing displacing these technologies in manufacturing and
production environments.
Co-ordinate metrology measures the actual shape and dimensions of an item and compares
them against a desired shape and dimension set. A co-ordinate measuring machine (CMM) is
an electromechanical system that has been designed to carry out this function.
A CMM consists of a mechanical probe that operates in three axial dimensions, a mechanical
structure to provide for the motion of the probe, and optional components such as a drive system,
and computing hardware and software.

The CMM construction consists of a worktable upon which the item to be inspected is placed,
and, overhead, is the mechanical structure that supports the probe head and probe. Associated
equipment such as the computer system are located remotely.
Probe tips usually consist of ruby balls, which contain ideal physical and mechanical properties
for probing operations. Probes can be single- or multi-tip.
variety of ways.
A number of different physical configurations exist for the mechanical structure of the CMM;
these include: cantilever; moving bridge; fixed bridge; horizontal arm; gantry; and column
mechanical structures.
CMM control may be accomplished via methodologies that use manual drive; manual drive
with computer-assisted processing; motor drive with computer-assisted data processing; or
direct computer control with computer assisted data processing.
CMMs using direct computer control with computer assisted data processing capabilities
can be programmed using manual lead-through or off-line programming methods.
Other CMM software that may be used includes core software, post-inspection software, and
reverse-engineering and application-specific software.
Types of core software include probe calibration; part co-ordinate system definition;
geometric feature construction; and tolerance analysis.
Types of post-inspection software that may be deployed include statistical analysis

software, and graphical data representation software.

Types of reverse engineering software include software for gear checking, thread checking, cam
checking, and automobile body checking.
CMMs are most appropriate for applications where repetitive manual inspection exists; where
post-inspection is required; where geometric features are complex and have multiple contact
points; where, otherwise, multiple inspection set-ups would have to be used; where there is a
wide part variety; and where repeat orders are common.
The advantages offered by CMMs over traditional manual inspection methods include:
reduced inspection cycle time; increased flexibility of change-overs; reduced operator errors;
greater inherent accuracy and precision; and the avoidance of multiple inspection set-ups.
On-line inspection can occur on CNC machines; it is called in-process inspection. This uses
tactile probes, mounted in tool-holders, and handled in the same way as CNC machine tools, to
carry out an inspection procedure on the workpart currently being worked upon by the CNC
machine.
Disadvantages of using in-process inspection methods include: errors that occur but are not
detected by the in-process method owing to the use of the same production machine to perform
the inspection test; and increases to overall manufacturing cycle time.
Surface measurements, such as surface roughness, can be measured by commercially

available stylus-type instruments that traverse the surface of the workpart at a slow constant
speed.
A topographical map of the workpart surface is created by deploying parallel lines of stylus
instruments that move at the same speed. This creates a profile ‘map’ of the workpart surface
giving indications of surface roughness, waviness, and other measures of surface condition.

Typically an averaging value is calculated that reduces recorded deviations in the workpart
surface to a single value of surface roughness.
Calculations for surface roughness must account, and eliminate, waviness deviations that may
be apparent in the workpart surface. This is done by setting the cutoff length to being shorter
than any existing waviness width, leaving records of roughness deviations only.
Image acquisition and digitization is typically performed by using a video camera to capture the
scene of interest, the super-imposition of a pixel matrix to the resultant image, and the
Solid-state cameras are the prime device used to capture images in machine vision. They
project the image onto an array of photosensitive elements that produce an electrical charge
equivalent to the light intensity on each element, subsequently stored and read in the data
processing and analysis function.
There are five categories of lighting used in machine vision; these are: front lighting, back
lighting, side lighting, structured lighting, and strobe lighting.

Interpretation of the image is concerned with recognizing the object recognition, and/or pattern
recognition. Two commonly-used interpretation techniques are template matching and feature
weighting.


identification; and visual guidance and control.
Other optical sensing techniques can be used for inspection. These include conventional optical
instruments (such as optical comparators and microscopes), laser scanning systems, and linear
array devices with arrays of photo diodes arranged in direct and triangulation methodologies.
Other potential inspection techniques that are non-contact and non-optical include electrical field
techniques, radiation techniques, and ultrasonic inspection techniques.
Inspection is the process of presenting, examining, deciding-upon, and acting-upon an item to

ensure that poor quality is detected in product attributes, and good quality is assured.
Characteristics of measuring instruments that are used to ensure correct device selection include
parameters that assess: accuracy and precision; resolution and sensitivity; speed of response;
wide operating range; high reliability; and cost.
The two types of inspection techniques are contact inspection, and non-contact inspection.
Measuring devices provide a quantitative value of the part features of interest. Gauges determine
whether the part feature falls within a certain acceptable range of values. Measuring devices are
used for sampling inspection: devices can be both portable and stationary equipment. Gauges are
used for sampling and for 100% inspection: devices usually are portable, and can be used upon
the production line itself.
Co-ordinate metrology measures the actual shape and dimensions of an item and compares them
against a desired shape and dimension set. The equipment used to achieve co-ordinate metrology
is called a co-ordinate measuring machine (CMM).

CMM consists of a mechanical probe that operates in three axial dimensions, a mechanical
structure to provide for the motion of the probe, and optional components such as a drive system,
and computing hardware and software.
CMM probes consist of tips made of ruby, which contain ideal physical and mechanical
properties for probing operations. Probes can be single- or multi-tip.
variety of ways.
CMM physical configurations include the following mechanical structures: cantilever;

moving bridge; fixed bridge; horizontal arm; gantry; and column.
CMM control may be accomplished via methodologies that use manual drive; manual drive with
computer-assisted processing; motor drive with computer-assisted data processing; or direct
computer control with computer assisted data processing.
Types of core software include probe calibration; part co-ordinate system definition; geometric
feature construction; and tolerance analysis. Types of post-inspection software that may be
deployed include statistical analysis software, and graphical data representation software. Types
of reverse engineering software include software for gear checking, thread checking, cam
checking, and automobile body checking.
In-process inspection is a type of on-line inspection that can occur on CNC machines. This uses
tactile probes, mounted in tool-holders, and handled in the same way as CNC machine tools, to
carry out an inspection procedure on the workpart currently being worked upon by the CNC
machine.
Surface measurements, such as surface roughness, are measured by commercially available

stylus-type instruments that traverse the surface of the workpart at a slow constant speed. A
topographical map of the workpart surface is created by deploying parallel lines of these stylus
instruments that move at the same speed. This creates a profile ‘map’ of the workpart surface

giving indications of surface roughness, waviness, and other measures of surface condition.
Calculations for surface roughness must account, and eliminate, waviness deviations that may
be apparent in the workpart surface. This is done by setting the cutoff length to being shorter
than any existing waviness width, leaving records of roughness deviations only.
Image acquisition and digitization is typically performed by using a video camera to capture the
scene of interest, the super-imposition of a pixel matrix to the resultant image, and the
There are five categories of lighting used in machine vision; these are: front lighting, back
lighting, side lighting, structured lighting, and strobe lighting.

Interpretation of the image is concerned with recognizing the object recognition, and/or pattern
recognition. Two commonly-used interpretation techniques are template matching and feature
weighting.
Other optical sensing techniques that can be used for inspection include: conventional optical
instruments (such as optical comparators and microscopes); laser scanning systems; and linear
array devices with arrays of photo diodes arranged in direct and triangulation methodologies.
Other potential inspection techniques that are non-contact and non-optical include electrical field
techniques, radiation techniques, and ultrasonic inspection techniques.

UNIT -8
In reality, most coding systems use a hybrid (mixed) code so that the advantages of
each type of system can be utilized. The first digit, for example, might be used to
denote the type of part, such as a gear. The next five positions might be reserved for a
shirt attribute code that would describe the attributes of the gear. The next digit,
position 7, might be used to designate another subgroup, such as material, followed by
another attribute code that would describe the attributes. In this manner a hybrid code
could be created that would be relatively more compact than a pure attribute code
while retaining the ability to easily identify parts with specific characteristics.
Agile manufacturing is an approach to manufacturing which is focused on meeting

the needs of customers while maintaining high standards of quality and controlling
the overall costs involved in the production of a particular product. This approach
is geared towards companies working in a highly competitive environment, where
small variations in performance and product delivery can make a huge difference
in the long term to a company's survival and reputation among consumers.
This concept is closely related to lean manufacturing, in which the goal is to reduce
waste as much as possible. In lean manufacturing, the company aims to cut all
costs which are not directly related to the production of a product for the consumer.
Agile manufacturing can include this concept, but it also adds an additional
dimension, the idea that customer demands need to be met rapidly and effectively.
In situations where companies integrate both approaches, they are sometimes said
to be using “lean and agile manufacturing.”

Companies which utilize an agile manufacturing approach tend to have very strong
networks with suppliers and related companies, along with numerous cooperative
teams which work within the company to deliver products effectively. They can
retool facilities quickly, negotiate new agreements with suppliers and other
partners in response to changing market forces, and take other steps to meet
customer demands. This means that the company can increase production on
products with a high consumer demand, as well as redesign products to respond to
issues which have emerged on the open market.
Agile manufacturing is a business production strategy that uses modular parts and
automation, rather than an assembly line model, to increase customer satisfaction
by enabling goods to be produced and supplied faster and with greater
customization. This production design has many benefits, including the ability to
change product types quickly and the ability to maintain smaller inventory levels.
Agile production also has drawbacks, however, like extensive preparation and high
initial cost investment.
Many production companies shift to an agile manufacturing model to better meet

consumers' desire for instant gratification. The automation required to construct a
product in an agile manufacturing environment results in fast production times,
better serving demand for a particular item. Retailers and distributors supplied by
agile manufacturing processes will have a large stock of desired products ready for
consumers to purchase, rather than having to backorder items, which can frustrate
excited shoppers.
The agile manufacturing strategy employs a modular construction for all products;
as a result, each product can be broken down into its individual modular
components for easier customization or alteration. As it is often possible to avoid

creating new designs and parts, production time and cost per unit tend to be lower
in this form of manufacturing. An older product can be revamped into a new form;
some examples might be changing the uniquely colored housing on a cell phone or
adding a camera to an existing product.
Differences between lean and agile manufacturing
There are many differences between lean and agile manufacturing, including
production style, inventory levels, and customization abilities. A lean
manufacturing technique is based on the mass assembly line strategy with a
mixture of employees and machines creating products from the smallest
components to the larger outside assemblies. In contrast, agile manufacturing
depends mainly on production automation and modular pieces to form a desired
product.
One main difference between lean and agile manufacturing is production

configuration. Lean manufacturing relies heavily on employees to physically
construct a part or group of parts; that product portion is passed to another
employee for attachment of additional components. Automated machines may be
added along the employee assembly line for more precise manufacturing, such as
aligning electronic components on a printed circuit board (PCB).
By comparison, agile manufacturing uses automation as its main production

strategy. The number of employees is reduced, to save on labor costs; the workers
that remain along the production line are normally present to adjust or repair the
robotic machines when necessary, rather than to physically create a product. As a
result, the manufacturing line is efficient and cost effective for the business and
consumers.

Inventory levels vary greatly between lean and agile manufacturing. Lean
manufacturing requires numerous small parts, from washers to screws, to construct
a product; the abundance of various parts contributes to high inventory storage
fees. In contrast, agile manufacturing depends on a modular part construction. This
standardized part structure allows different products to be made with the same few
modules held in inventory which contributes to lower supply levels.
Lean and agile manufacturing processes also differ in terms of how easily products
can be customized under each system. Changing any part of a product in lean
production to customize its operation or appearance requires a redesign of the
internal and external parts, as well as generating prototypes to verify functionality.
Customized products are extremely expensive due to the high costs of this research
and design. Additionally, the production line is interrupted while updating it to
produce the customized product, which negatively impacts normal manufacturing
times and costs.
In contrast, agile production can accommodate customized product orders since the
modular construction can be altered quickly. The production line simply needs to
adapt or add new modules to the existing product. As a result, the consumer can
acquire a competitively priced custom product without impeding the normal
business production line. Many consumers will seek out products from companies
that can specialize in this manner. Both lean and agile manufacturing processes can
satisfy customer needs, but with a direct effect on final product cost.
Lean production system is the western term for Toyota Production System. This
production philosophy is now widely used in auto industry around the world. This
system has been modified everywhere in the auto industry, adapted to some extent
on the local industrial situation or practices, however its core principles

remain the same. This system is not only used in auto industry but also in other
non-auto industries involved in assembling process.
What are the elements of Lean Production System?
There are two major pillars of lean production system. One is Just-in-Time system
and other is Kaizen. Just-in-Time System was developed as a result of adoption
and adaptation of Mass Production Techniques. Taiichi Ohno and his associates
had been successful to tailor Ford Production system according to the Japanese
market and economic constraints of that time.
Just-in-Time System:The definition of JIT is very simple and self-explanatory i.e.

Producing only what is needed, in necessary quantity and at necessary time.
As discussed earlier, JIT is basically based on the concept of total elimination of

inventories or safety stocks during the production of automobile. The same could
not be possible without putting certain techniques and related philosophies into
action. Here is the list of those elements that make this system run:
1. Levelled Production
2. Pull System
3. Continuous Flow Processing
4. Takt Time
5. Flexible Work Force (Shojinka)
6. 3 Ms (Muda, Mura, Muri)
7. 5Ss (Sifting, Sorting, Sweeping, Spick-n-Span and Sustenance)
Let’s discuss each one of them:
1. Levelled Production
Levelled production means producing various models on the same production line
to cater the customer demand. See the following diagram. The various products are
shown in the form of different geometrical shapes. Assume they are different
models of vehicles being produced on the same production line.
Production levelling is done by finding the ratio of demand of various models.

Instead of producing batches of the same model, mix models are produced on the
same production line according to the ratio of their demand in the market.
This is how customers do not have to wait for long and throughout the month all
the customers are served equally well.
Assume they are different models of vehicles being produced on the same
production line.

2. Pull System
Pull system is the corner stone of JIT. The whole concept is based on customer
demand. This demand is known as “Pull” that runs in backward direction. In other
words, production activities begin as a result of the pull generated by the customers
in the form of order confirmation by them.
Let’s understand this concept using the analogy of McDonald’s Burger. When you
visit McDonald’s you do not find meal (the product) ready for you. You order your
meal and production starts in a just-in-time manner. Why this happens? The
answer is simple. McDonald’s cannot afford to produce burger without knowing
the various combinations in the demand of its customers. The production of burger
begins in the reverse direction. You, as a customer, pull or trigger this burger
production chain.
Same holds true in case of auto manufacturing. The customer demands can vary
given the intense competition in the auto-market. An auto-manufacturing company
cannot afford to produce vehicles without incorporating customers’ demands as
quickly and efficiently as possible.
The Pull System, although, simple to explain in terms of customer demand; is

however, not so easy to explain in terms of production system.

When customer demand is established in the form of confirmed order, the

organization begins production by sending signals in the backward direction. All
the preceding processes send signals to the following processes. These signals
come in the form of a “card” called Kanban. Kanban is a Japanese word meaning
signboard.
Kanban is a reverse production order signal that guides every preceding process to
produce what is needed, in necessary quantity and at necessary time for the next
process. This Kanban works not only within different production departments of
the assembly plant, but also between its vendor supplying parts to it. Here is a
diagram that shows how it works in assembling process:
Why Toyota calls Kanban System based on “Supermarket Concept”?
Again this concept stems from customer picking product from the shelves of a
shop. A supermarket stocks the items needed by customers when they are needed
in the quantity needed, and has all of these items available for sale at any time.
Taiichi Ohno (a former Toyota vice president), who promoted the idea of Just-in-
Time, applied this concept, equating the supermarket and the customer with the
preceding process and the next process, respectively. By having the next process
(the customer) go to the preceding process (the supermarket) to retrieve the
necessary parts when they are needed and in the amount needed, it was possible to
improve upon the existing inefficient production system in which the preceding
processes were making excess parts and delivering them to the next process.

3. Continuous (Smooth) Flow Processing
Producing just-in-time is not possible until the organization ensures smooth flow
processing. Continuous or smooth flow processing means arranging work inside
each process to flow smoothly from one step to other. Why is it necessary? The
answer is simple. You cannot maintain buffer or safety stocks in JIT system if it is
to run efficiently. Keeping buffer or safety stock in between production process is
the part of Just-in-Case system. The term JIC itself indicates fear of parts shortages
that can ultimately affect production.
In continuous flow production you cannot maintain inventory. You pass through
all your work in a continuous manner so that there is no chance of inventory
management. If any defect occurs and remain undetected, it will remain limited to
the same or very few components.
If defect occurs in the system based on JIC having huge safety stocks, the losses
will be much higher and difficult to manage. Here is a diagram that illustrate the
difference between both the systems:

Now compare above JIC based illustration with the JIT based continuous flow
production system shown below:
4. Takt Time
Takt is a German word meaning “meter.” It is the time to finish given amount of
work-doing a single operation, making one component, or assembling an entire
car. It can be explained by the formula
Using the above formula the pace of work is set according to the market demand.
For example there is a pull or market demand of 100 vehicles per day, this demand
if divided by 480 minutes available in a day, will give you the number of units you
can produce to serve your customers. This means that time available to produce
parts or sub-assemblies of parts on each station or each assembly process is 4.8
minutes.
5. Flexible Workforce (Shojinka)

Flexible workforce or shojinka means to alter (increase or decrease) the number of

operators within a shop or production department so that the same could be used
according to variation in production demand.
Flexible workforce can be developed through continuous training and

development. The training should be imparted in a manner that it could develop an
employee as a multi-process handler rather than multi-machine handler. The
concept can be understood with the help of following illustrations:

Using the above formula the pace of work is set according to the market demand.
For example there is a pull or market demand of 100 vehicles per day, this demand
if divided by 480 minutes available in a day, will give you the number of units you
can produce to serve your customers. This means that time available to produce
parts or sub-assemblies of parts on each station or each assembly process is 4.8
minutes.
5. Flexible Workforce (Shojinka)
Flexible workforce or shojinka means to alter (increase or decrease) the number of

operators within a shop or production department so that the same could be used
according to variation in production demand.
Flexible workforce can be developed through continuous training and

development. The training should be imparted in a manner that it could develop an
employee as a multi-process handler rather than multi-machine handler. The
concept can be understood with the help of following illustrations:

6. Three Ms (Muda, Mura, Muri)
3Ms are the irritants that simply prevent JIT operation from running effectively.
They are constantly searched and eliminated from the system.
These are Japanese words and all of them start from English letter M, i.e. Muda,
Mura and Muri. There meanings are:
Muda (non-valued added)
Mura (Overburden)
Muri (Uneveness)
Let’s understand it with the help of an illustration. Assume that you have to carry
12 tons of load in a truck having capacity of 4 tons maximum. You can take this
load in either of the following ways:

Five S’s (Seiri, Seiton, Seiso, Seiketsu and Shitsuke)
This concept was evolved and developed in Toyota Motor Corporation. It is

basically combination of five Japaese words that starts from English alphabet letter
S
Seiri (Sifting): This `S’ lays emphasis on the importance of sorting out what is
necessary and what is unnecessary and consequently discarding the unwanted
items.
Seiton (Sorting): This `S’ has its foundation in the idea that “A place for
everything and everything in its place”. The underlying concept of this is to
maintain an atmosphere of easy accessibility where everything of importance can
be located with the least difficulty.
Seiso (Sweeping)
Sweeping and cleaning means surface and other areas free from oil and chemicals
that may or may not cause slippage, fire or any other possible hazard.
There are several steps in the cleaning process:
1. Increase the lighting in the work area

2. Divide the area into zones
3. Define responsibilities for cleaning
4. Repair any leaks on machines
5. Identify proper methods and tools for cleaning
6. Provide protection for the persons doing the cleaning (gloves, face-masks)
7. Clean machines, floors, walls and ceilings
8. Paint machines, floors, walls and ceilings
9. Identify the sources of dirt
10. Try to eliminate the need to clean inspect machines and tools while cleaning
11. If possible, perform some preventive maintenance while cleaning and
inspecting (example tightening hydraulic hoses)
It is important to note that Seiso is cleaning, but also inspecting and simple repair
and preventive maintenance.
It stresses on the importance of keeping one’s area of work or studies clean and
that the continual cleaning of the environment minimizes and finally eradicates the
source of dirt.
Shitsuke (Sustenance): The continued employment of the first four S’s leads to
their unconscious implementation and in turn causes them to become a part of our

day to day life. This `S’ is self-explanatory and stresses the need for discipline in
every sphere of life.
It can be done through continuous training, organizing competition and full support
from top management.
What are the benefits of implementing Just-in-Time system?
JIT is world’s one of the best proven production systems. If implemented

according to its core principles and lessons learnt through its theory and practice, a
company can successfully achieve the following benefits:
1. Reduction of direct and direct labor by eliminating non-value added

activities.
2. Reduction of floor space and warehouse space per unit of output.
3. Reduction of setup time and schedule delays as the factory becomes a
continuous production process.
4. Reduction is waste, rejects, and rework by detecting errors at the source.
5. Reduction of lead time due to small lot sizes, so that downstream work
centers provide feedback on quality problems.
6. Better utilization of machines and facilities.
7. Better relations with suppliers.
8. Better integration of and communication between functions such as
marketing, purchasing, design, and production.
9. Quality control built into the process.

Flexible manufacturing system is a system that is able to respond to changed

conditions. In general, this flexibility is divided into two key categories and several
subcategories. The first category is the so called machine flexibility which enables
to make various products by the given machinery. The second category is routing
flexibility enabling to execute the same operation by various machines. Flexible
manufacturing systems usually consist of three main parts: CNC machine tools,
transport system and control system. A higher level of flexible manufacturing
systems is represented by the so called intelligent manufacturing systems.
The principal philosophy of the system is based on theoretical knowledge and

practical experience in the area of production planning, management and
implementation of small batch and piece manufacturers. At present, these
production areas are the ones with the most dynamic development.
A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a type of industrial process that allows

equipment to be used for more than one purpose, though they may be somewhat
related. The equipment is often used to make customized parts, or make different
parts for different models of product. This type of flexible manufacturing system
may be changed by hand, but is more likely to be controlled by a computer, and
changed through an entirely automated process.
The main goal of a flexible manufacturing system is to offer the speed needed to
change with market conditions quickly, but not sacrifice any quality. Equipment
that does this most effectively is likely designed for two or more purposes. While it
may be possible to modify or retrofit some types of industrial equipment to do a

job adequately, most flexible manufacturing systems are designed for more than
one purpose from the very outset.
Though the equipment for a flexible manufacturing system may initially be more
expensive than traditional equipment, the overall goal is to reduce expenses.
Manufacturers can save money by using the same equipment to essentially perform
two or more functions. With traditional equipment, manufacturing two different
products may not only require different pieces of equipment, but also two different
lines and perhaps two different facilities. Therefore, a flexible manufacturing
system may reduce overhead, despite higher start-up costs initially.
A. Flexibility of Manufacturing Systems

There are various approaches to the term flexibility of manufacturing systems. The
most frequent meaning of this term is described as follows: • Possibility of
production program change without any significant alteration of machinery (new
NC program, eventual tool change), • Speed of production program change from
previous product line to new products, • Possibility to change production program
at level of individual products.
Flexible manufacturing system is a system that is able to respond to changed

conditions. In general, this flexibility is divided into two key categories and several
subcategories. The first category is the so called machine flexibility which enables
to make various products by the given machinery. The second category is routing
flexibility enabling to execute the same operation by various machines. Flexible
manufacturing systems usually consist of three main parts: CNC machine tools,

transport system and control system. A higher level of flexible manufacturing

systems is represented by the so called intelligent manufacturing systems.
Fig - Modular flexible manufacturing system block diagram
Business firms generally choose to compete within one or two areas of strength.
These areas of strength are often referred to as distinctive competencies, core
competencies, or competitive priorities. Among the options for competition are
price (cost), quality, delivery, service, and flexibility. An ever-increasing number
of firms are choosing to compete in the area of flexibility. Generally, this has
meant that the firm's major strength is flexibility of product (able to easily make
changes in the product) or flexibility of volume (able to easily absorb large shifts
in demand). Firms that are able to do this are said to have flexible capacity, the
ability to operate manufacturing equipment at different production rates by varying

staffing levels and operating hours, or starting and stopping at will. Specifically,
manufacturing flexibility consists of three components: (1) the flexibility to
produce a variety of products using the same machines and to produce the same
products on different machines; (2) the flexibility to produce new products on
existing machines; and (3) the flexibility of the machines to accommodate changes
in the design of products.
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a group of numerically-controlled

machine tools, interconnected by a central control system. The various machining
cells are interconnected, via loading and unloading stations, by an automated
transport system. Operational flexibility is enhanced by the ability to execute all
manufacturing tasks on numerous product designs in small quantities and with
faster delivery. It has been described as an automated job shop and as a miniature
automated factory. Simply stated, it is an automated production system that
produces one or more families of parts in a flexible manner. Today, this prospect
of automation and flexibility presents the possibility of producing nonstandard
parts to create a competitive advantage.
The concept of flexible manufacturing systems evolved during the 1960s when
robots, programmable controllers, and computerized numerical controls brought a
controlled environment to the factory floor in the form of numerically-controlled
and direct-numerically-controlled machines.
For the most part, FMS is limited to firms involved in batch production or job shop
environments. Normally, batch producers have two kinds of equipment from which
to choose: dedicated machinery or unautomated, general-purpose tools. Dedicated

machinery results in cost savings but lacks flexibility. General purpose machines
such as lathes, milling machines, or drill presses are all costly, and may not reach
full capacity. Flexible manufacturing systems provide the batch manufacturer with
another option—one that can make batch manufacturing just as efficient and
productive as mass production.
OBJECTIVES OF FMS
Stated formally, the general objectives of an FMS are to approach the efficiencies
and economies of scale normally associated with mass production, and to maintain
the flexibility required for small- and medium-lot-size production of a variety of
parts.
Two kinds of manufacturing systems fall within the FMS spectrum. These are
assembly systems, which assemble components into final products and forming
systems, which actually form components or final products. A generic FMS is said
to consist of the following components:
1. A set of work stations containing machine tools that do not require

significant set-up time or change-over between successive jobs. Typically,
these machines perform milling, boring, drilling, tapping, reaming, turning,
and grooving operations.
2. A material-handling system that is automated and flexible in that it permits
jobs to move between any pair of machines so that any job routing can be
followed.
3. A network of supervisory computers and microprocessors that perform some
or all of the following tasks: (a) directs the routing of jobs through the
system; (b) tracks the status of all jobs in progress so it is known where each

job is to go next; (c) passes the instructions for the processing of each
operation to each station and ensures that the right tools are available for the
job; and (d) provides essential monitoring of the correct performance of
operations and signals problems requiring attention.
4. Storage, locally at the work stations, and/or centrally at the system level.
5. The jobs to be processed by the system. In operating an FMS, the worker
enters the job to be run at the supervisory computer, which then downloads
the part programs to the cell control or NC controller.
BENEFITS OF FMS
The potential benefits from the implementation and utilization of a flexible

manufacturing system have been detailed by numerous researchers on the subject.
A review of the literature reveals many tangible and intangible benefits that FMS
users extol. These benefits include:
 less waste

 fewer workstations

 quicker changes of tools, dies, and stamping machinery

 reduced downtime

 better control over quality

 reduced labor

 more efficient use of machinery

 work-in-process inventory reduced

 increased capacity

 increased production flexibility

LIMITATIONS OF FMS
Despite these benefits, FMS does have certain limitations. In particular, this type of
system can only handle a relatively-narrow range of part varieties, so it must be
used for similar parts (family of parts) that require similar processing. Due to
increased complexity and cost, an FMS also requires a longer planning and
development period than traditional manufacturing equipment.
Equipment utilization for the FMS sometimes is not as high as one would expect.
Japanese firms tend to have a much higher equipment utilization rate than U.S.
manufacturers utilizing FMS. This is probably a result of U.S. users' attempt to
utilize FMS for high-volume production of a few parts rather than for a high-
variety production of many parts at a low cost per unit. U.S. firms average ten
types of parts per machine, compared to ninety-three types of parts per machine in
Japan.
Other problems can result from a lack of technical literacy, management

incompetence, and poor implementation of the FMS process. If the firm
misidentifies its objectives and manufacturing mission, and does not maintain a
manufacturing strategy that is consistent with the firm's overall strategy, problems
are inevitable. It is crucial that a firm's technology acquisition decisions be
consistent with its manufacturing strategy.
If a firm chooses to compete on the basis of flexibility rather than cost or quality, it
may be a candidate for flexible manufacturing, especially if it is suited for low- to
mid-volume production. This is particularly true if the firm is in an industry where
products change rapidly, and the ability to introduce new products may be more

important than minimizing cost. In this scenario, scale is no longer the main
concern and size is no longer a barrier to entry.
However, an FMS may not be appropriate for some firms. Since new technology is
costly and requires several years to install and become productive, it requires a
supportive infrastructure and the allocation of scarce resources for implementation.
Frankly, many firms do not possess the necessary resources. Economically
justifying an FMS can be a difficult task—especially since cost accounting tends to
be designed for mass production of a mature product, with known characteristics,
and a stable technology. Therefore, it is difficult to give an accurate indication of
whether flexible manufacturing is justified. The question remains of how to
quantify the benefits of flexibility. In addition, rapidly-changing technology and
shortened product life cycles can cause capital equipment to quickly become
obsolete.
For other firms, their products may not require processes at the technological level
of an FMS. IBM found that a redesigned printer was simple enough for high-
quality manual assembly and that the manual assembly could be achieved at a
lower cost than automated assembly. Potential FMS users should also consider that
some of the costs traditionally incurred in manufacturing may actually be higher in
a flexible automated system than in conventional manufacturing. Although the
system is continually self-monitoring, maintenance costs are expected to be higher.
Energy costs are likely to be higher despite more efficient use of energy. Increased
machine utilization can result in faster deterioration of equipment, providing a
shorter than average economic life. Finally, personnel training costs may prove to
be relatively high.

For some firms, worker resistance is a problem. Workers tend to perceive

automation as an effort to replace them with a tireless piece of metal that does not
eat, take breaks, or go to the bathroom. To combat this perception, many firms
stress that workers are upgraded as a result of FMS installation, and that no loss of
jobs ensues. Despite any problems, use of flexible manufacturing systems should
continue to grow as more firms are forced to compete on a flexibility basis and as
technology advances. It has shown many advantages in low- to mid-volume, high-
mix production applications. Future systems will probably see lower and lower
quantities per batch. FMS can somewhat shift emphasis in manufacturing from
large-scale, repetitive production of standard products to highly-automated job
shops featuring the manufacture of items in small batches for specific customers.
The increased availability of flexible manufacturing technology will also give
multi-product firms more choices of how to design production facilities, how to
assign products to facilities, and how to share capacity among products.

AGILE MANUFACTURING :
Fliedner and Vokurka, in their Production and Inventory Management Journal

article on agile manufacturing, define agile manufacturing as the ability to
successfully market low-cost, high-quality products with short lead times (and in
varying volumes) that provide enhanced customer value through customization. An
agile firm manages change as a matter of routine. The difference between agility
and flexibility is whether or not the change in market demand has been predicted.
Flexibility refers to the capability of rapidly changing from one task to another
when changing conditions are defined ahead of time. Agility refers to the ability to
respond quickly to unanticipated market-place changes. Fliedner and Vokurka
present four, key dimensions of agile competition:
1. Enriching the customer. This requires a quick understanding of the unique

requirements of individual customers and rapidly meeting those
requirements.
2. Cooperating to enhance competitiveness. This includes better
intraorganizational cooperation and may extend to interorganizational
cooperation—such as supplier partnerships and virtual relationships.
3. Organizing to master change and uncertainty. This involves utilizing new
organizational structures provided by such techniques as concurrent
engineering and cross-functional teams.
4. Leveraging the impact of people and information. This places great
emphasis on the development of employees through education, training, and
empowerment.

IMPLEMENTING AGILE MANUFACTURING
Finally, the two authors prescribe a series of internal and external initiatives for
successful implementation of agile manufacturing. The internal initiatives include
the following:
1. Business process reengineering. This is the rethinking and radical redesign

of business processes so that dramatic improvements in critical areas can be
achieved.
2. Management planning and execution tools. This involves the use of such
techniques as manufacturing resource planning, real-time manufacturing
execution systems, production planning configurations, and real-time
threaded scheduling.
3. Design for manufacturability/assembly. The results include modular
products that allow for future upgrades, fewer parts for enhanced reliability,
and recycling.
4. Reorganization processes. Process reorganization could include the use of
flexible manufacturing systems or cellular manufacturing.
5. Intraorganizational cooperation. This form of cooperation calls for the use of
employee empowerment/involvement techniques and employee education
and training.
External initiatives include:
1. Interorganizational cooperation. This means early supplier involvement in

product and process designs, training suppliers in such activities as vendor-
managed inventories, and joint research efforts.

2. Supply chain practices. The use of outsourcing, schedule sharing, and

postponement of product design are included.
3. Information technology. Some companies are using technology to improve
supply chain improvement. For example, the move from centralized,
mainframe computing to decentralized, client and server computing.
4. Point-of-sale data collection. Reductions in order entry time are being
achieved with electronic data interchange (EDI), radio frequency
communications tools, bar coding, and electronic commerce.

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AUTOMATION IN MANUFACTURING 10ME757

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT (Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 1

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 2

Sl.No Particulars Page -No

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 3

Automation is the use of machines, control systems and information technologies to

Automation has had a notable impact in a wide range of industries beyond

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 4

Advantages and disadvantages

The main advantages of automation are:

 Increased throughput or productivity.

The following methods are often employed to improve productivity, quality, or

 Install automation in operations to reduce cycle time.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT (Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 5

The main disadvantages of automation are:

 Security Threats/Vulnerability: An automated system may have a limited level

In manufacturing, the purpose of automation has shifted to issues broader than

Reliability and precision

Automation is now often applied primarily to increase quality in the manufacturing

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT (Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 6

Health and environment

The costs of automation to the environment are different depending on the

Convertibility and turnaround time

Digital electronics helped too. Former analogue-based instrumentation was replaced

Discrete manufacturing plants adopted these technologies fast. The more

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 7

Human-machine interfaces (HMI) or computer human interfaces (CHI), formerly

Different types of automation tools exist:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 8

 ANN - Artificial neural network

 Current technology is unable to automate all the desired tasks.

humans is more cost-effective than mechanical approaches even where automation of

Automated manufacturing refers to the application of automation to produce things

Home automation (also called domestics) designates an emerging practice of

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 10

Industrial automation deals with the optimization of energy-efficient drive systems

Agent-assisted Automation: refers to automation used by call center agents to handle

Material-handling applications include material transfer and machine loading and

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 11

In robotic processing operations, the robot manipulates a tool to perform a process on

The design of the product is an important aspect of robotic assembly. Assembly

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 12

Inspection is another area of factory operations in which the utilization of robots is

1. To increase labour productivity. Automating a manufacturing operation

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 13

3. To mitigate the effects of labor shortages. There is a general shortage of

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 14

using computer numerical control. These processes can only be realized by

Reasons for opposing Automation

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 15

How manufacturers can successfully compete by employing modern

 Automation. The use of automated equipment compensates for the labor

 Lean production. Accomplishing more work with fewer resources is the

A production system is a collection of people, equipment, and procedures

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 18

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 19

Worker-machine Systems. In a worker-machine system, a human worker

Automated systems. An automated system is one in which a process is

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRMVIT(Ramesh C G & Hanamantraygouda M B) Page 20

To operate the production facilities efficiently, a company must organize itself

Manufacturing support involves a cycle of information-processing activities.

Business Functions. The business functions are the principal means of