The Quasi-Lattice of Indiscernible Elements

Mauri Cunha do Nascimento The Quasi-lattice
Décio Krause of Indiscernible

Hércules de Araújo Feitosa
Elements
Abstract. The literature on quantum logic emphasizes that the algebraic structures
involved with orthodox quantum mechanics are non distributive. In this paper we develop
a particular algebraic structure, the quasi-lattice (I-lattice), which can be modeled by an
algebraic structure built in quasi-set theory Q. This structure is non distributive and
involve indiscernible elements. Thus we show that in taking into account indiscernibility
as a primitive concept, the quasi-lattice that ‘naturally’ arises is non distributive.
Keywords: lattice of indiscernibles, quasi-sets, quantum logic.
Introduction
Ever since the pioneering paper by Birkhoff and von Neumann (1936), the
so called ‘quantum logic’ became a wide field of logic and several distinct
logical systems, including some associated with non-classical logics, such as
paraconsistent logics, have grown up. For an updated review of the field,
see (Dalla Chiara, Giuntini, Greechie 2004) and (Rédei 2007). According to
Birkhoff and von Neumann, the main aspect of quantum logic, in distinction
to ‘classical logic’, which has as a model a Boolean lattice, is that it is not
distributive, namely, the distributive law
x ∧ (y ∨ z) = (x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ z) (1)
does not hold. The explanations vary, but put in a nutshell, we can say
that this reflects the fact that in quantum theories there are observable
which do not commute, that is, they cannot be measured in conjunction;
thus, although the first member of (1) holds, the second one does not. For
historical details, see (Rédei 2007).
A further claim related to orthodox quantum physics is that the basic
elements would be, in certain situations, absolute indiscernible, say when
they enter in superposition states (mainly in the case of bosons). Some
forerunners of quantum physics, such as Heisenberg, Born, and Schrödinger,
Special Issue: The Legacy of Newton da Costa

Edited by Daniele Mundici and Itala M. Loffredo D’Ottaviano
Studia Logica (2011) 97: 101–126

DOI: 10.1007/s11225-010-9300-4 © Springer 2010
102 M. Cunha do Nascimento, D. Krause and H. de Araújo Feitosa
spoke of the lost of individuality and (Schrödinger) spoke even that the
notion of identity of quantum entities should be meaningless. For historical
details, see (French & Krause 2006).
Usually, physicists express this ‘lost of identity’ by assuming certain sym-
metry conditions after having assumed that the basic objects of their con-
sideration are individuated, say by their coordinates or by some individual
description, typical of the usual formalism. Really, in order to express indis-
cernibility, we begin by labeling the considered entities, say by calling them
‘particle 1’, ‘particle 2’, etc., thus reasoning as they were distinct entities,
and then we apply symmetry conditions to represent the relevant states of
the join systems. Saying in brief, physicists consider as relevant just func-
tions (or vectors) which are invariant by any permutation of the labels of
the ‘indiscernible objects’, such as the symmetric and anti-symmetric vec-
tor/functions. In a series of works, we have followed the idea of pursuing
indiscernibility ‘right from the start’, to use H. Post’s words (Post 1973). In
a more adequate formalism, the indiscernibility, as a fundamental concept
in quantum physics, would not be made a posteriori, but would be taken as
a primitive concept (for details see French & Krause 2006). It is a trivial
consequence that it would be interesting to extend this discussion to the al-
gebraic aspects of a ‘quantum logic’ to situations involving indiscernibility.
The aim of this paper is to start this program.
Without revising the history of quantum logic here, we introduce the
I-quasi-lattice of indiscernible elements within the framework of the quasi-
set theory, a mathematical theory built to deal with indiscernible elements
‘directly’, as we shall see below, that is, without using the standard math-
ematical trick of naming the objects first and keeping their discernibility
in the sequence by introducing symmetry conditions. In order to keep the
paper self-contained, we begin by revising some basic concepts which are
common to quantum algebras. Below, we recall some aspects of the quasi
set theory Q that serves as our framework and, finally, we present a par-
ticular model of the I-quasi-lattice, which grow up in a natural way from
indiscernible elements.
1. On quantum algebras
In order to keep the paper self-contained, we begin by recalling some basic

notions of lattice theory and then we present some algebraic concepts proper
of quantum logic.
The Quasi-lattice of Indiscernible Elements 103
Definition 1.1 (Lattice). A lattice is an algebraic structure L = L, ∧, ∨

formed by a nonempty set L and by two binary operations ∧ and ∨ on L
such that, for all x, y, z ∈ L, the following laws hold:
L1 (x ∧ y) ∧ z = x ∧ (y ∧ z) and (x ∨ y) ∨ z = x ∨ (y ∨ z) [associativity];
L2 x ∧ y = y ∧ x and x ∨ y = y ∨ x [commutativity];
L3 (x ∧ y) ∨ y = y and (x ∨ y) ∧ y = y [absorption].
Theorem 1.2. In any lattice, the following laws hold:
L4 x ∧ x = x and x ∨ x = x [idempotency];
L5 x ∧ y = x iff x ∨ y = y [ordering].
From L5 , we have a very natural way to define a partial ordering relation
in a lattice L = L, ∧, ∨, namely:
Definition 1.3 (Order). x ≤ y ⇔ x ∧ y = x ⇔ x ∨ y = y.
Theorem 1.4. The following properties are also valid for the operations ∧
and ∨:
L6 x ≤ x ∨ y and y ≤ x ∨ y;
L7 x ∧ y ≤ x and x ∧ y ≤ y;
L8 x ≤ z and y ≤ z ⇒ x ∨ y ≤ z;
L9 z ≤ x and z ≤ y ⇒ z ≤ x ∧ y;
L10 x ≤ z and y ≤ w ⇒ x ∨ y ≤ z ∨ w;
L11 x ≤ z and y ≤ w ⇒ x ∧ y ≤ z ∧ w.
The proof of above properties can be seen in (Rasiowa & Sikorski 1968).
We have introduced a lattice as an algebraic structure, however a lattice
can also be seen as an ordering structure L = L, ≤, as it is easy to see.
Definition 1.5. A partially ordered set (poset) is a pair L, ≤ such that L
is a nonempty set and ≤ is a partial order on L, that is, the relation ≤ is
reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive on L.
Definition 1.6. Let L, ≤ be a poset and a, b ∈ L. If there exists an
element c ∈ L such that: (i) a ≤ c and b ≤ c
(ii) a ≤ d and b ≤ d ⇒ c ≤ d,
then c is the supremum of {a, b}.
Definition 1.7. Let (L, ≤) a poset and a, b ∈ L. If there exists an element
e ∈ L such that:
(i) e ≤ a and e ≤ b
(ii) f ≤ a and f ≤ b ⇒ f ≤ e,
then e is the infimum of {a, b}.
In general, we denote the supremum of {a, b} by sup{a, b} or a ∨ b and

the infimum of {a, b} by inf{a, b} or a ∧ b. The supremum of {a, b} is also
named the least upper bound of {a, b} and the infimum of {a, b} is called the
greatest lower bound of {a, b}.
Let L, ≤ be an ordered set such that for all a, b ∈ L there exist the
inf{a, b} and the sup{a, b}. Then the algebraic structure determined by
L, ∧, ∨ in which
x ∨ y = sup{x, y} and x ∧ y = inf{x, y}
is a lattice, as it is easy to see.
We can easily to proof that the laws L1 to L11 hold for the poset L, ≤.
Lemma 1.8. In any lattice L = L, ∧, ∨ we have that

L12 (x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ z) ≤ x ∧ (y ∨ z);
L13 x ∨ (y ∧ z) ≤ (x ∨ y) ∧ (x ∨ z).
Proof. Immediate consequence of L6 , L7 , and L8 .
Definition 1.9. The lattice L = L, ∧, ∨ is distributive if the following

distributive laws are valid for all x, y, z ∈ L:
L14 (x ∧ y) ∨ z = (x ∨ z) ∧ (y ∨ z) and (x ∨ y) ∧ z = (x ∧ z) ∨ (y ∧ z).
These distributive laws are known as the distributivity at left-hand side

and, due to the commutative property, the distributive laws at right-hand
side are also valid. Besides, only one of the two distributive laws listed above
would be sufficient to characterize the commutative property.
Definition 1.10. If a lattice L = L, ∧, ∨ has the least element given by

the ordering ≤, then this element is the zero of L and is denoted by 0. On the
other hand, if the lattice L has the greatest element, given by the ordering
≤, then this element is the unit of L and it is denoted by 1.
If L = L, ∧, ∨ has the zero, 0, and the unity, 1, then:

L15 x ∧ 0 = 0 and x ∨ 0 = x;
L16 x ∧ 1 = x and x ∨ 1 = 1.
Definition 1.11. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be a lattice with 0 and 1. Given x ∈ L,

an element y ∈ L is a complement of x in L if x ∧ y = 0 and x ∨ y = 1. A
lattice L is complemented when every element in L has a complement.
In general, a complement of x is denoted by ∼ x.
Definition 1.12. When every element of L = L, ∧, ∨ has exactly one

complement, then the lattice L is uniquely complemented.
Lemma 1.13. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be a distributive lattice with 0 and 1. If there

exists a complement of x, then it is unique.
Proof. If y and z are two complements of x, then x ∧ y = 0, x ∨ y = 1,

x∧z = 0, and x∨z = 1. From that z = 0∨z = (x∧y)∨z = (x∨z)∧(y ∨z) =
1 ∧ (y ∨ z) = y ∨ z, that is, y ≤ z. Analogously, z ≤ y and, hence, z = y.
Definition 1.14. A Boolean algebra B is a distributive and complemented

lattice.
Definition 1.15. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be a lattice with 0 and 1. Given x ∈ L, if

there exists the element −x = max{y ∈ L : x∧y = 0} in L, then x is pseudo-
complemented and −x is its pseudo-complement. The lattice L is pseudo-
complemented when every element x ∈ L has a pseudo-complement −x.
Definition 1.16. A lattice L = L, ∧, ∨ is orthocomplemented if it is com-

plemented and for all a, b ∈ L,
L17 ∼∼ a = a;
L18 a ≤ b ⇒ ∼ b ≤ ∼ a.
Theorem 1.17. If L = L, ∧, ∨ is an orthocomplemented lattice, then the

De Morgan’s laws hold:
L19 ∼ (a ∧ b) = (∼ a ∨ ∼ b);
L20 ∼ (a ∨ b) = (∼ a ∧ ∼ b).
Besides, in this case, sup{a, b} is defined if, and only if, inf{a, b} is also
defined.
Definition 1.18. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be an orthocomplemented lattice. The

element a is orthogonal to b, what is denoted by a⊥b, when:
a⊥b ⇔ a ≤ ∼ b.
Since L is an orthocomplemented lattice, so:
a⊥b ⇔ a ≤ ∼ b ⇒ ∼∼ b ≤ ∼ a ⇔ b ≤ ∼ ⇔ b⊥a. Thus, the
relation of orthogonality ⊥ is symmetric.
Lemma 1.19. In any lattice L = L, ∧, ∨ we have that:

L21 x ≤ z ⇒ x ∨ (y ∧ z) ≤ (x ∨ y) ∧ z.
Definition 1.20. If x ≤ z ⇒ x∨(y ∧z) = (x∨y)∧z, then (y, z) is a modular

pair. A lattice L is modular if every two elements of L determine a modular
pair, that is, if y and z are in L then (y, z) and (z, y) are modular pairs.
Thus, every distributive lattice is a modular lattice.
Definition 1.21. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be an orthocomplemented lattice. Given

a, b, ∈ L, the orthomodular property of a and b is defined by:
a ≤ b ⇒ b = a ∨ (b ∧ ∼ a).
Theorem 1.22. In any modular lattice L = L, ∧, ∨, the orthomodular

property holds.
Proof. Let a ≤ b. Since L is a modular lattice, then (∼ a, b) is a modular

pair. Hence, a ∨ (b ∧ ∼ a) = a ∨ (∼ a ∧ b) = (a ∨ ∼ a) ∧ b = 1 ∧ b = b.
Definition 1.23. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be an orthocomplemented lattice. The

lattice L is orthocomplete if for any pair a, b of orthogonal elements of L the
supremum of {a, b} is in L. If every pairwise orthogonal countable subset of
L has a supremum, the lattice L is σ-orthocomplete.
Definition 1.24. L is an orthomodular poset if it is orthocomplete and for

all a, b ∈ L the orthomodular property holds.
The modular property is a particular case of distributivity because in a

Boolean algebra B = B, 0, 1, ∼, ∧, ∨, if a, b ∈ B and a ≤ b, then:
b = b ∧ 1 = b ∧ (a∨ ∼ a) = (b ∧ a) ∨ (b∧ ∼ a) = a ∨ (b∧ ∼ a),
that is, the modular property holds.
Definition 1.25. A homomorphism from a lattice L = L1 , ∧, ∨ into a

lattice L = L2 , ∧, ∨ is a function h from L1 into L2 such that:
h(x ∧ y) = h(x) ∧ h(y) and h(x ∨ y) = h(x) ∨ (y).
Every homomorphism of lattices preserves ordering, that is,

x ≤ y ⇔ x ∨ y = y ⇒ h(x ∨ y) = h(y) ⇔ h(x) ∨ h(y) = h(y) ⇔ h(x) ≤ h(y).
Definition 1.26. An isomorphism of lattices is a bijective homomorphism

of lattices.
2. Quasi-sets
In this section, we outline some of the most basic notions of quasi-set theory
which will play an important role in the discussion that follows. Of course
we should provide the paper with a cluster of definitions in quasi-set theory,
but the space suggests us to remind the reader the Chap.7 of French and
Krause 2006 and French and Krause 2010 for further details. We will not
present all the postulates and definitions of the theory, so we just revise some
of the main ideas and results which are important for this paper.
Intuitively speaking, a quasi-set or qset is a collection of objects such that
some of them may be indistinguishable without turning out to be identical.
Of course this is not a strict ‘definition’ of a quasi-set, but act more or less as
Cantor’s ‘definition’ of a set as “any collection into a whole M of definite and
separate, that is, distinguishable objects m of our intuition or our thought”
serving just to provide an intuitive account of the concept. For detail we
recommend the discussion in (French & Krause 2006). By ‘indistinguishable’
we mean agreement with respect to all properties, and in saying that a and
b are ‘identical’ we mean intuitively speaking that they are the very same
entity. The definitions of these concepts depend on the employed language
and logic, but here we consider only their informal meanings.
The quasi-set theory Q has in its main motivations some considerations
taken from quantum physics, mainly in considering Schrödinger’s idea that
the concept of identity does not make sense when applied to elementary
particles in orthodox quantum mechanics (Schrödinger 1952, p. 17-18). An-
other motivation, in our opinion, is the need, stemming from philosophical
difficulties of dealing with collections of absolutely indistinguishable items
that would be not ‘the same’ entity.1 Of course, from a formal point of view,
Q can also be formally developed independently of any intended interpreta-
tion, but here we shall always keep in mind this ‘quantum’ motivation since,
after all, it is the intended interpretation that has motivated the development
of the theory.
The first point is to guarantee that identity and indistinguishability (or
indiscernibility) will not collapse into one another when the theory is for-
mally developed. We of course could just take an equivalence relation (or a
congruence) within a standard set theory such as ZF to mimic indiscernibil-
ity, but this is just what we don’t want to do; instead, we wish to deal with
‘legitimate’ (in a sense of the word to be explicated below) indistinguishable
objects. Thus, we assume that identity, that will be symbolized by ‘=’, is
not a primitive relation, but that the theory has a weaker concept of in-
distinguishability, symbolized by ‘≡’. This is just an equivalence relation
and holds among all objects of the considered domain. The ur-elements of
the domain are divided up into two classes of objects, the m-objects, that
1
This is of course a way of speech. Despite some interpretations (such as Bohm’s)
presuppose an ontology similar to that of classical physics, in the sense of dealing with
individuals, we shall keep here with the mainstream account of assuming that quantum
objects may be ‘absolutely indiscernible’ in certain situations.
stand for ‘micro-objects’, and M -objects, for ‘macro-objects’.2 Quasi-sets

are those objects of the domain which are not ur-elements. Identity is de-
fined for M -objects and ‘sets’ (entities that obey the primitive predicate Z)
only. Thus, if we take just the part of theory obtained by ruling out the
m-objects and collections (quasi-sets) which have m-objects in their transi-
tive closure, we obtain a copy of ZFU (ZF with ur-elements); if we further
eliminate the M -objects, we get just a copy of the ‘pure’ ZF.
Indiscernible m-objects are termed non-individuals by historical reasons
(French & Krause 2006). From the axioms of the theory Q we can form
collections of m-objects which may have a cardinal, termed its quasi-cardinal,
but not an associated ordinal. Thus, the concepts of ordinal and cardinal
are independent, as in some formulations of ZF proper, so, there are quasi-
sets that cannot be ordered. Informally speaking, there may be quasi-sets
of m-objects such that its elements cannot be identified by names, counted,
ordered, although there is a sense in saying that these collections have a
cardinal which cannot be defined in terms of ordinals. It is just by using
quasi-cardinals that we can say (within Q) that a quasi-set has ‘more than
one’ element. This discourse is of course dubious if we realize that the notion
of identity does not hold in certain situations, but here the number (the
quasi-cardinal) is what counts, and this resembles the Fock space formalism
—see Teller (1995).
It is important to remark that, when Q is used in connection with quan-
tum physics, the m-objects are thought of as representing quantum entities
(henceforth q-objects), but they are not necessarily ‘particles’ in the stan-
dard sense. Generally speaking, whatever ‘objects’ sharing the property of
being indistinguishable can also be values of the variables of Q. For a sur-
vey of the various different meanings that the word ‘particle’ has acquired
in connection with quantum physics see (Falkenburg 2007, chap.6).
Another important feature of Q is that standard mathematics can be
developed using its resources, because the theory is conceived in such a way
that ZFU (and hence also ZF, perhaps with the axiom of choice, ZFC) is a
subtheory of Q. In other words, the theory is constructed so that it extends
standard Zermelo-Fraenkel with ur-relements (ZFU); thus standard sets of
ZFU must be viewed as particular qsets, that is, there are qsets that have
all the properties of the sets of ZFU, and the objects of Q that correspond
to the ur-elements of ZFU are identified with the M -atoms of Q. To make
2
Within Q, there are no explicit relations among m and M atoms, but we guess that
the theory could be supplemented by mereological axioms enabling us to say that the M
objects can be ‘formed’ by m objects in some sense. But this is still a work to be done.
the distinction, the language of Q encompasses a unary predicate Z such

that Z(x) says that x is (a copy of) a set of ZFU.
It is also possible to show that there is a translation from the language
of ZFU into the language of Q, so that the translations of the postulates of
ZFU become theorems of Q; thus, there is a ‘copy’ of ZFU in Q, and we refer
to it as the ‘classical’ part of Q. In this copy, all the usual mathematical
concepts can be stated, as for instance, the concept of ordinal (for Z-sets).
This ‘classical part’ of Q plays an important role in the formal developments
of the next sections.
Furthermore, it should be recalled that the theory is constructed so that
the relation of indiscernibility, when applied to M -atoms or Z-sets, collapses
into standard identity of ZFU. The Z-sets are qsets whose transitive closure,
as usually defined, does not contain m-atoms or, in other words, they are
constructed in the classical part of the theory as in the figure (1).
BB BB BB Q
B B B
On
B B B
B pure qsets B copies of ZFU-sets B copies of ZF-sets
B B B
B B (sets with M -atoms) B (‘pure’ sets)
B (here, no identity) B '$ B
B x≡y B a B
B B c B
B '$ B b B
B B &% (here we can speak ofB x = y)
B ∗ B '$B
B ∗ ∗ '$ B d B
B &% B f B
IndiscernibleB qsets ∗∗ B e B
B ∗ B &% B
B &% B B
B B B
B m-atoms B M -atoms B ∅
Figure 1. The Quasi-Set Universe Q: On is the class of ordinals, defined in the classical
part of the theory.
In order to distinguish between Z-sets and qsets that may have m-atoms
in their transitive closure, we write (in the metalanguage) {x : ϕ(x)} for
the former and [x : ϕ(x)] for the latter. In Q, we term ‘pure’ those qsets
that have only m-objects as elements (although these elements may be not
always indistinguishable from one another, that is, the theory is consistent
with the assumption of the existence of different kinds of m-atoms, i.e., not
all of them must be indiscernible from one each other).
The concept of extensional identity, as said above, is a defined notion,
and it has the properties of standard identity of ZFU. More precisely, we
write x = y (read ‘x and y are extensionally identical’) iff they are both
qsets having the same elements (that is, ∀z(z ∈ x ⇔ z ∈ y)) or they are
both M -atoms and belong to the same qsets (that is, ∀z(x ∈ z ⇔ y ∈ z)).
Since m-atoms may be indiscernible, in general is not possible to at-
tribute an ordinal to collections of m-atoms. As a consequence, for those
collections it is not possible to define the notion of cardinal number in the
usual way, that is, through ordinals.3 In the version of the theory, to rem-
edy this situation, we admit also a primitive concept of quasi-cardinal which
intuitively stands for the ‘quantity’ of objects in a collection.4 The axioms
for this notion grant that certain quasi-sets x, in particular, those whose el-
ements are m-objects, may have a quasi-cardinal, written qc(x), even when
it is not possible to attribute an ordinal to them.
To link the relation of indistinguishability with qsets, the theory also
encompasses an ‘axiom of weak extensionality’, which states, informally
speaking, that those quasi-sets that have the same quantity, expressed by the
quasi-cardinals, of elements of the same sort (in the sense that they belong to
the same equivalence class of indistinguishable objects) are indistinguishable
by their own. One of the interesting consequences of this axiom is related
to the quasi-set version of the non observability of permutations in quan-
tum physics, which is one of the most basic facts regarding indistinguishable
quanta (French & Rickles 2003). In brief, remember that in standard set
theories, if w ∈ x, then
(x − {w} ) ∪ {z} = x ⇔ z = w.
We can ‘exchange’ (without modifying the original arrangement) two ele-
ments iff they are the same elements, by force of the axiom of extensionality.
In contrast, in Q we can prove the following theorem, where [[z]], and sim-
ilarly [[w]], stand for a quasi-set with quasi-cardinal 1 whose only element
is indistinguishable from z and, respectively, from w (the reader should not
think that this element is identical to either z or w, because the relation of
equality does not apply to these items; the set theoretical operations can be
understood according to their usual definitions):
3
We just recall that an ordinal is a transitive set which is well-ordered by the member-
ship relation, and that a cardinal is an ordinal α such that for any β < α there does not
exist a bijection from β to α (Devlin 1993).
4
The notion of quasi-cardinal was defined for finite quasi-sets in Domenech & Holik
2007, and independently by Arenhart 2008.
Theorem 2.1 (Unobservability of Permutations). Let x be a finite quasi-set

such that x does not contain all indistinguishable from z, where z is an m-
atom such that z ∈ x. If w ≡ z and w ∈ / x, then there exists [[w]] such that:
(x − [[z]] ) ∪ [[w]] ≡ x.
The theorem works to the effect that, supposing that x has n elements,
then if we ‘exchange’ their elements z by corresponding indistinguishable el-
ements w (set theoretically, this means performing the operation (x−[[z]] )∪
[[w]]), then the resulting quasi-set remains indistinguishable from the one we
started with. In a certain sense, it does not matter whether we are deal-
ing with x or with (x − [[z]] ) ∪ [[w]]. So, within Q, we can express that
‘permutations are not observable’, without necessarily introducing symme-
try postulates, and in particular we derive ‘in a natural way’ the quantum
statistics (Krause et alli 1999; French, Krause 2006, Ch. 7). Further appli-
cations to the foundations of quantum mechanics can be seen in (Domenech
et alli 2008, 2010).
3. Clouds
In this section we shall be working within the theory Q, and we will empha-
size the case that involves m-atoms only. Here we follow Krause (2005), with
slight modifications. Thus, keeping with quasi-set theory in mind, we begin
with a characterization of certain relational structures in which the involved
relations do not depend on particular elements. It should be recalled that
in standard extensional set theories (say, in ZF with regularity), a relation
is a set of n-tuples of elements. Thus, the relation is ‘formed’ only after the
‘formation’ of its elements. In quasi-set theory, due to the indiscernibility
of some elements, we can form ‘quasi-relations’ which remain ‘unaltered’
when its elements are exchanged by indiscernible ones. The analogy with
chemistry is immediate; a chemical compound, say a water molecule H2 O
‘remains unaltered’ if by some device the particular atoms are changed by
other of similar species (we mean, H atoms changed by H atoms and O
atoms changed by O atoms). The same happens in a process of ionization;
let us suppose a Helium atom in its fundamental state. After an ionization
process, an electron may be realized, getting a positive ion He+ . But we
can capture an electron getting a neutral atom again. For all the physical
purposes, the two neutral atoms, the original one and that obtained after
the process, are absolutely indiscernible, and the same happens with the
electrons which were realized and captured. We can express this fact in Q
as follows.
A quasi-relation on a qset A is a qset R whose elements are ordered ‘pairs’

that belong to A. These ‘pairs’ must be understood in the right way (in terms
of the postulates of Q). Since the identity relation is not defined for m-atoms,
it cannot be used here, so an ordered ‘pair’ z, w, becomes something like
the collection (qset) of the indistinguishable element from z that belong to
A, denoted by [z], and the collection of the indistinguishable from either z
or w, denoted by [z, w], that belong to A; in symbols, z, w, := [[z], [z, w]],
which resembles Wiener-Kuratowski’s definition of ordered pair. So, each
‘pair’ may contains more than two elements (the word ‘pair’ here looks like
‘pair of kinds’). So, a (binary) quasi-relation R on A is a qset which obeys
the following predicate :
(R) := ∀z(z ∈ R → ∃u∃v(u ∈ A ∧ v ∈ A ∧ z = u, v)).
Then, in an analogy with the chemical examples mentioned above, we
can formulate the following
Question: given a certain n-ary q-relation R on a pure qset A, if
R(x1 , . . . , xn ) holds, does R(x1 , . . . , xn ) also hold when xi ≡ xi ? In other
words, are the relations ’preserved’ when the relata are exchanged by indis-
tinguishable ones?
The first and direct answer to the above question is that it depends on
the relation. If R is membership, then the intended result fails, because
if x ∈ y and x ≡ x , y ≡ y , then nothing in the axioms of the theory Q
entails that x ∈ y . This is one of the basic results that make the primitive
relation of indistinguishability distinct from identity.5 Membership is the
only primitive relation of Q which does not enable substitutivity by indis-
tinguishable (French, Krause 2006, Ch. 7). So, let us take R to be whatever
relation distinct from membership; furthermore, we shall work with binary
relations only for simplicity and we will be paying attention to relations
on qsets whose elements are m-atoms only. So, we can reformulate the
above question: if R is a binary relation, distinct from membership, and if
R(x, y) ∧ x ≡ x ∧ y ≡ y, does this entail that R(x , y ) holds as well? The
most interesting case is of course when both x and y are m-atoms, because
if there are no m-atoms involved, then ≡ becomes the extensional identity
and the answer is a straightforward yes. Thus, there is in whatever structure
built in Q a ‘natural’ automorphism, namely, the q-function which associates
to a certain element of the domain one indistinguishable one. If the element
is ‘classical’ (an M -atom or a set), then of course this automorphism is the
identity function, but it is not so in the case of m-atoms.
5
In ZF, if x ∈ y and x = x , then x ∈ y; if y ∈ x and x = x , then y ∈ x .
D
' $
'$
A
x x
y y
A
&%
& %
Figure 2. The quasi-set A and its cloud related to D.
Let us fix a finite domain (a pure qset) D and suppose for simplicity that
R is defined on A ⊆ D, which is enough for our purposes. R(x, y) means
x, y ∈ R, that is, [[x], [x, y]] ∈ R, where [x] is the qset of all indistinguish-
able from x that belong to A, which may contain more than one element),
and [x, y] is the qset of the indistinguishable of either x or y that belong to
A. Furthermore, x and y are not playing the role of names for objects of
the domain; they act as generalized names instead, meaning something like
‘some’ indistinguishable from x or y respectively. So, a binary relation in the
theory Q is not a well ‘defined’ (by its extension) collection of ordered pairs
of the elements of some set. If R(x, y) holds, we are not saying that that spe-
cific x and that specific y are in the relation (since we cannot express these
entities—as individuals—in the language), but that some indistinguishable
from x is in the relation with some indistinguishable from y. The problem
now is to explain in what sense we can explain, when R is defined on a
certain A, if x and y are indistinguishable respectively from x and y, if
R(x, y) is true, the same happens with R(x , y ) (for x and y may be not
members of A). So, the apparent answer to our Question above would be in
the negative.
But there is a sense according to which we can circumvent this ‘no’, that
is, the answer to the above claim can be an ‘yes’. It is enough to consider
what we shall term the surroundings of the qset A, or the cloud of A, denoted
A. The cloud of A is defined relatively to the qset D which that contains A
as follows:
A := [y ∈ D : y ≡ x ∧ x ∈ A].6
In words, the cloud of A relative to D is the qset of the elements of D
which are indistinguishable from the elements of A. Intuitively, A acts as
the surroundings from where A can ‘exchange’ elements (Figure 2). Let us
suppose that R is the extension of R to A, that is R is the qset of all ‘pairs’
6
Taking some lessons from standard algebra, we could call the cloud an i-orbit, the i
coming to express indiscernibility. But we shall keep with our original terminology.
x, y with x and y in the A such that x, y ∈ R when x, y ∈ A. Then we

can prove in Q the following result:
Theorem 3.1. If A ⊆ D, x, y ∈ A and R(x, y), where R is a quasi-relation
, y ).
on A, then there exist x , y ∈ D − A such that x ≡ x, y ≡ y and R(x
, y ), then [[x ], [x , y ]] ∈
Proof. If ¬R(x hence [x ] ∈
/ R, or [y ] ∈
/ R or
/ R

both. But if [x ] ∈
/ R, then [x] ∈ / R, against the hypothesis. The same

for [y ].
Intuitively, the theorem says that if R(x, y) holds for x, y ∈ A, then if

x and y are indistinguishable from x and y respectively and belong to a
qset D which includes A, then R holds for these elements, that is, R(x
, y)
holds. We remark that there would be no mathematical sense in saying, in
the general case, that R(x , y ) holds, for x and y may do not belong to A,
and R is a quasi-relation defined on A. The extension R of R plays the role
of R for the elements of the cloud of A and coincides with R within A. So, in
, y ) holds, we are in a certain sense granting that the relation
saying that R(x
R is maintained (though R) when the elements it relates are exchanged
by suitable indistinguishable ones (say, taken from its neighborhood, like
a measurement apparatus in a physical experience), and hence it does not
depend on the particular relata it relates, as they were individuals. It seems
to us that this is precisely what the chemical situations involving ionization
and others among the above exemplified cases are suggesting us.
Next, we introduce, still in Q, the following definition. Intuitively speak-
ing, we can regard x as a potential element of y when there is in y one element
indistinguishable from x; let us write x y to represent that, that is,
Definition 3.2. x y := ∃z(z ∈ y ∧ z ≡ x).
Thus, its negation x y reads ∀z(x ∈ y → z ≡ x), that is, x is not a
potential element of y when there are no indiscernible from x that belong
to y. By using this concept, we can introduce the fuzzy complement of x
relative to a certain previously given qset z, with x ⊆ z, as the collection
(qset) of the elements of z for which we can not prove that they are not
potential elements of x. This is precisely the cloud of x relative to z, namely,
which can be written alternatively as being the qset (see definition 4.7)
xz := [t ∈ z : t x].
The concept of cloud of a qset suggests the idea that a qset x is something
in between its extension Ext(x), namely, the qset of the objects that belong
to x and its cloud xz for some z, the qset of its ‘potential’ elements. Due to
this fact that the elements of a pure qset do not have well defined identity
criteria, we may say that a qset is not strictly determined by its elements,
hence, some degree of intentionality is also present here. Thus, quasi-set
theory enables us to interpret the collections from both perspectives: an
intensional one and an extensional one.
Since the m-atoms do not have identity criteria, then there is still a
certain epistemic indeterminacy whether a certain element does belong to
a certain qset or not; all we can say is that there may be traces of some-
thing which behaves like such an element in the collection (when there is
some indistinguishable from it in the qset), but we can never prove that a
certain element is exactly that element, although we can formulate an infor-
mal discourse about an element whatever, as physicists usually do. Really,
we have elements (this is particularly important for non-individual entities)
which ‘could be’ in x, but we can not prove that they really are or are not
elements of x.
Of course, the idea of the cloud of x may suggest several applications.
In the next section we shall see some of them.
4. The quasi-lattice I
We recall that the typical algebraic structure arising from the mathematical
formalism of quantum mechanics is not a Boolean algebra, but an orthocom-
plete (σ-orthocomplete in the general case) and orthomodular lattice. We
shall see from now on that in quasi-set theory, by considering indiscernibility
right from the start, a similar structure ‘naturally’ arises.
Let us begin by considering the concepts of Tarski’s system and that of
topological space.
Definition 4.1. A Tarski’s space (deductive system or closure space) is a
pair T = E,− where E is a nonempty set and − is a function − : P(E) →
P(E), called the Tarski’s consequence operator, such that:
(i) A ⊆ A;
(ii) A ⊆ B ⇒ A ⊆ B;
(iii) A ⊆ A.
Theorem 4.2. If E,− is a Tarski’s space, then the following holds:
(i) A = A;
(ii) A ∪ B ⊆ A ∪ B;
(iii) A ∩ B ⊆ A ∩ B;
(iv) A ∪ B = A ∪ B;
(v) A ∩ B = A ∩ B.
Proof. See (Feitosa, Grácio, Nascimento 2007).
Definition 4.3. Let E,− be a Tarski’s Space and A ⊆ E. The set A is

closed in E,− when A = A and A is open in E,− when its complement
relative to E, denoted by AC , is closed.
Definition 4.4. Let E,− be a Tarski’s Space and A ⊆ E. The set A is

the closure of A and the set Å = (AC )C is the interior of A. The frontier of
A, denoted by ∂A, is the set ∂A = A − Å.
Theorem 4.5. In any Tarski’s Space E,− it follows that: Å ⊆ A ⊆ A.
Proof. Immediate from the above definition.
Definition 4.6. A topological space is a pair E,− where E is a nonempty

set and − is a function − : P(E) → P(E), such that:
(i) A ⊆ A;
(ii) A ⊆ A;
(iii) A ∪ B = A ∪ B;
(iv) ∅ = ∅.
In any topological space it is immediate to observe that the condition A ⊆

B ⇒ A ⊆ B holds, since A ⊆ B ⇒ A ∪ B = B ⇒ A ⊆ A ∪ B = A ∪ B = B.
From now on we shall be working within Q. Now we use the concept
of cloud, as pointed out in the previous section, in order to delineate the
algebraic aspects of indiscernible elements. By simplicity of notation, we
shall term A (instead of CloudU (A)) the cloud of A relative to a universal
qset U . Recalling what was said at page 113 about the cloud of a quasi-set,
we introduce the following definition:
Definition 4.7. Let U be a non empty qset and A be a subqset of U . The

cloud of A in U is the qset:
A = [y ∈ U : x ≡ y ∧ x ∈ A]
Intuitively speaking, A is the qset of the elements of U , the universe,

which are indistinguishable from the elements of A. If A is a set in Q (we
shall say that these qsets are ‘Z-sets’), that is, a copy of a set of ZFU, then
of course the only indistinguishable of a certain x is x itself and A = A.
In Q the concept of function must be generalized, because if there are
m-atoms involved, a mapping in general does not distinguish between ar-
guments and values. Thus we use the notion of q-function, which leads
indistinguishable objects into indistinguishable objects, and which reduces
to standard functions when there are no m-atoms involved. Thus, from the
formal point of view, the defined mapping may associate to A whatever qset
from a collection of indistinguishable qsets.
Theorem 4.8. The application that associates to every subqset of U its cloud
is a Tarski’s operator and U,− is a Tarski’s Space.
Proof. (i) A ⊆ A: If t ∈ A, by the reflexivity of ≡, we have that t ≡ t,

hence t ∈ A;
(ii) A ⊆ B ⇒ A ⊆ B: Let A ⊆ B. If t ∈ A, then there exists x ∈ A
such that t ≡ x. Since x ∈ B, then t ∈ B;
(iii) A ⊆ A: If t ∈ A, then there exists x ∈ A such that t ≡ x. But
then there exists y ∈ A such that x ≡ y and, by the transitivity of ≡, it
follows that t ≡ y, and hence t ∈ A.
From now on, we shall suppose that U is a nonempty closed qset and for
A ⊆ U , A is the cloud of A relative to U . Hence, by hypothesis, U contains
all the indistinguishable objects of its own elements (this can be seen as a
working hypothesis that avoids us to refer to another qset containing U and
so on). Some interpretations linked to physical situations are possible. For
instance, A can be thought as the region where the wave function A of a
certain physical system is different from zero. Another possible interpreta-
tion is to suppose that the clouds describe the systems plus the cloud of
virtual particles that accompany those of the considered system. But in this
paper we shall be not considering these motivations, but just to explore its
algebraic aspects.
It is immediate to prove the following theorem:
Theorem 4.9. U,− is a topological space.
Proof. Since U,− is a Tarski’s Space, we only need to prove:

(i) A ∪ B = A ∪ B: As A ⊆ A ∪ B, so A ⊆ A ∪ B. In the same way,
B ⊆ A ∪ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B. Thus A ∪ B ⊆ A ∪ B. Conversely, suppose
that t ∈ A ∪ B. Then there is x ∈ A ∪ B such that t ≡ x, that is, t ≡ x and
x ∈ A or x ∈ B. In this way t ∈ A or t ∈ B and therefore t ∈ A ∪ B;
(ii) ∅ = ∅: it follows immediately from the definition of cloud.
Since U,− is a topological space, then A ∪ B = A ∪ B.
Example:
(a) Let U = {a, b, c} such that the quasi-cardinal of U is 3 , with b ≡ c but
a ≡ b and A = {a, b}, B = {b} and C = {c}. In this case we have that ∅ = ∅,
A = U , B = {b, c} = C and even as A ∩ C = ∅, we have A ∩ C = C = ∅.

Hence, we observe that A ∩ C = A ∩ C.
The next definition introduces operations on subqsets of an universe U .
Definition 4.10. Let A, B ⊆ U . The I-lattice operations are defined by:

):
( AB =A∩B
):
( AB =A∪B
(0): 0=∅
(1): 1 = U.
Like in the usual quantum algebra, the motivation for the definition of
and comes from the fact that there the intersection of two closed subspaces
of a Hilbert Spaces is a closed subspace and here the intersection of clouds
is a cloud, but there in general the union is not a Hilbert Space, so it is
considered the generated space by the two given spaces; and here we take
the cloud generated by the union of the two qsets.
Now we can caracterize the lattice of indiscernible elements of Q.
Theorem 4.11. In the structure (P(U ), , , 0, 1) the following holds:

Associativity: A (B C) = (A B) C and A (B C) = (A B) C;
Commutativity of A B = B A and A B = B A;
Absorption: A (A B) = A e A (A B) = A;
Zero 0 = ∅: ∅ A = ∅ and ∅ A = A;
One 1 = U : U A = A and U A = A.
Proof. Since the operation is defined by the usual intersection A B =

A ∩ B, then it is associative and commutative. The commutativity of is
immediate in the two cases.
Associativity of : Given A, B, C ∈ P(U ) it follows that: A (B C) =
A (B ∪ C) = A (B ∪ C) = A ∪ (B ∪ C) = A ∪ (B ∪ C) = A ∪ (B ∪ C) =
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ B) C =
(A B) C.
Commutativity of : Given A, B ∈ P(U ) it follows that: A B = A ∪ B =
B ∪ A = B A.
Absorption: A (A B) = A ∩ (A B) = A, because A ⊆ A B;
A (A B) = A (A ∩ B) = A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A.
Zero: 0 A = ∅ ∩ A = ∅ = 0. And 0 A = ∅ ∪ A = A.
One: A 1 = A ∩ U = A. And A 1 = A ∪ U = U = U = 1.
Since A (A B) = A and 0 A = A, the structure (P(U ), , , 0, 1) is

not a lattice, but a particular variation of lattice.
Theorem 4.12. For every A, B ∈ P(U ) the following holds:

(i) A ⊆ A B and B ⊆ A B;
(ii) A B ⊆ A and A B ⊆ B;
(iii) A B = A B = A B and A B ⊆ A B ⊆ A B;
(iv) A B ⊆ A B;
(v) A A = A;
(vi) A A = A.
Proof. Immediate.
Example:
(a) Let U = {a, b, c, d} such that a ≡ d, b ≡ c, but a ≡ b, A = {a, b} and
B = {a, c}. Hence, A B = A ∩ B = {a}, A B = {a, d}, A B = A ∩ B =
{a, b, c, d} ∩ {a, b, c, d} = {a, b, c, d}.
If A and B are closed, then A∪B and A∩B are closed too, AB = A∩B
and A B = A ∪ B.
Theorem 4.13. Let C be the qset of all closed subqsets of U . Then the
structure C = C, , , 0, 1 is a distributive lattice with 0 and 1.
Proof. In this case, for every A ⊆ U , it holds that A = A and then we can
see the operation − simply as the identity function and, of course, all the
result are valid.
This result is not surprising, because in that case we would be dealing

exactly with set theoretical operations which, defined on the closed qsets of
U , act as the usual set theoretical properties on standard sets. But when we
consider all qsets of U and not only the closed ones, some lattice laws and
the distributive laws do not hold.
We can show that the structure (P(U ), , , 0, 1) is, in general, not dis-
tributive.
Example:
(a) Let U = {a, b, c} such that a ≡ b ≡ c, A = {a}, B = {b} and C = {c}.
The structure (P(U ), , , 0, 1) is not distributive, because:
A (B C) = A ∅ = A = {a} and
(A B) (A C) = U U = U = {a}.
Since the corresponding structure I = (P(U ), , , 0, 1) emerges from

aspects of indiscernible elements and it has similarities with a lattice with 0
and 1, we propose to call it quasi-lattice of indiscernibility, or just I-quasi-

lattice.
Others distinctive characteristics of this ‘quasi-lattice’ are obtained when
we introduce other similar operations to those of order and complement.
As in Q we have the relation of inclusion we could define an order relation
as ⊆, but in that case we can not use the operations to caracterize that
ordering. So we can introduce another order into I.
Definition 4.14. (The I-order of I) A B ⇔ A B = B.
Theorem 4.15. The I-order obeys the following properties:
(i) A B ⇔ A ⊆ B;
(ii) A A, A A and A A;
(iii) A B and B A ⇒ A = B;
(iv) A B and B C ⇒ A C.
Proof. (i) A B ⇔ B = A B = A ∪ B = A ∪ B ⇔ A ⊆ B; (ii), (iii),

and (iv) follow from (i) and the definition.
From the item (iii) of the previous theorem we observe that is not
exactly a parcial order as usual, but just an almost parcial order.
The order defined by A B = A ⇔ A ⊆ B is the usual ordering and
hence distinct from the order .
Corollary 4.16. The I-order obeys the following properties:
(i) A B A;
(ii) C A and C B ⇒ C A B;
(iii) A A B;
(iv) A C and B C ⇒ A B C.
Proof. Immediate.
Relative to the complement we have two choose. We can define the com-
plement as the usual complement of sets A = AC whose is orthocomplete
or a new complement as in the following.
Definition 4.17. The I-complement of the qset A is defined by:
A⊥ = U − A = A .
Thus, the I-complement of a qset A relative to the universe U is a subqset
of U , termed A⊥ , which has no indistinguishable element from any element
of A, that is, in A⊥ there are no elements indiscernible from the elements of
A, in accordance to definition of cloud.
Theorem 4.18. Let A, B ∈ P(U ). Then:

(i) ∅⊥ = U ;
(ii) U ⊥ = ∅;
(iii) U − A⊥ = (A⊥ ) = A;
⊥
(iv) A = A⊥ ;
⊥
(v) A⊥ = Å;
(vi) A B ⇒ B ⊥ A⊥ .
Proof. (i) ∅⊥ = U − ∅ = U − ∅ = U ;
(ii) U ⊥ = U − U = U − U = ∅;
(iii) U − A⊥ = U − (U − A) = A = A;
⊥
(iv) A = U − A = U − A = A⊥ ;
⊥ ⊥ − ˚ = Å;
(v) A⊥ = A = A = A
(vi) A B ⇔ A B = B, hence A ∪ B = B and A ⊆ B. But this implies
that B ⊆ A , that is, B ⊥ ⊆ A⊥ . So B ⊥ ∪ A⊥ = A⊥ , then B ⊥ ∪ A⊥ = A⊥ ,
hence B ⊥ A⊥ = A⊥ or B ⊥ A⊥ .
The property (v) show us that the operation ⊥ is not exactly a comple-
ment over P(U ), , , ,⊥ , 0, 1. However, as we can see now, the operation
⊥ generate the least complement for A.
Lemma 4.19. In an I-lattice it holds A ∩ B ⊆ A ∩ B .
Proof. A ∩ B ⊆ A ⇒ A ∩ B ⊆ A. From that we have A ∩ B ⊆ A ∩ B and

(A ∩ B) ⊆ (A ∩ B) .
Theorem 4.20. If A, B ∈ P(U ), then:

(i) A A⊥ = 1;
(ii) A A⊥ = 0;
(iii) A (B B ⊥ ) = A;
(iv) A (B B ⊥ ) = A;
(v) (A B)⊥ = A⊥ B ⊥ ;
(vi) A⊥ B ⊥ (A B)⊥ .
Proof. (i) If x ∈ U , then x ∈ A or x ∈ A . If x ∈ A, then x ∈ A ∪ A⊥ ⊆

A ∪ A⊥ = A ∪ A⊥ = A A⊥ . If x ∈ A = A⊥ , then x ∈ A ∪ A⊥ ⊆ A ∪ A⊥ =
A ∪ A⊥ = A A⊥ . Hence, U ⊆ A A⊥ and since A A⊥ ⊆ U , we have
U = A A⊥ .
(ii) A A⊥ = A A = A ∩ A = ∅ = 0;
(iii) A (B B ⊥ ) = A 0 = A;
(iv) A (B B ⊥ ) = A 1 = A;
⊥
(v) (AB)⊥ = A ∪ B = (A∪B)⊥ = (A ∪ B) = (A ∪ B) = (A∪B) =
A ∩ B = A⊥ B ⊥ ;
(vi) A⊥ B ⊥ = A⊥ ∪ B ⊥ = A ∪ B = (A ∩ B) ⊆ A ∩ B = (A ∩ B)⊥
= (A B)⊥ .
The operation of the I-lattice P(U ), , , ,⊥ , 0, 1 has the following

I-orthomodular property:
A B ⇒ B = A (B A⊥ ).
Theorem 4.21. Given A, B ∈ P(U ): A B ⇒ B = A (B A⊥ ).
Proof. A(BA⊥ ) = A ∪ (B ∩ A⊥ ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ A⊥ ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ U
= (A ∪ B) = A ∪ B = A ∪ B = A B = B.
Let A, B ⊆ U . The qset A is orthogonal to B, what is written A ⊥ B, if

A B ⊥ . Furthermore, a collection S of elements of P(U ) is called pairwise
orthogonal if for any A, B ∈ S such that A = B, it results that A ⊥ B.
Theorem 4.22. If A, B ∈ P(U ), then:
(i) A ⊆ B ⊥ ⇔ A ⊆ B ⊥ ;
(ii) A ⊥ B ⇔ A B = ∅.
Proof. (i) (⇒) Suppose that there exists x ∈ A such that x ∈/ B ⊥ . Then
x ∈ A ⊆ A ⊆ B ⊥ . But x ≡ b ∈ B ⊥ = B implies that b ∈ / B and
x∈ / B ⊥ = B ⇒ x ∈ B ⇒ b ∈ B, that is a contradiction. Hence, A ⊆ B ⊥ .
(⇐) Immediate.
(ii) A B = ∅ ⇔ A ∩ B = ∅ ⇔ A ⊆ B ⇔ A ⊆ B ⊥ ⇔ A ⊆ B ⊥ ⇔
A ∪ B ⊥ = B ⊥ ⇔ A ∪ B ⊥ = B ⊥ ⇔ A B ⊥ = B ⊥ ⇔ A B ⊥ ⇔ A ⊥ B.
Intuitively speaking, A B = ∅ says that A has no indistinguishable

element from the elements of B.
In quantum logic, the operations and ⊥ are usually understood as an
implication and a negation respectively. Thus, we may introduce the concept
of logical incompatibility just using the idea of orthogonality (Dalla Chiara,
Giuntini, Greechie 2004, p. 12): A is incompatible with B iff A implies the
negation of B iff they are orthogonal. The negation of the relation ⊥ is
called accessibility, written A ⊥ B.
All of this show that our structure I resembles an structure non-distribu-
tive with similarities of an orthocomplete orthonormal lattice, and it is a
Boolean lattice if we consider only the closed qsets.
In the next section we begin an algebraic theory about the I-lattice.
5. Algebraic elements from the model I-lattice
In this section we try to put in an algebraic context all the conceptions of

the I-lattice and develop it.
We begin with the definition of topological Boolean algebra (Rasiowa 1974).
Definition 5.1. A topological Boolean algebra is an abstract algebra B, 0, 1,

∧, ∨, ∼, • such that B, 0, 1, ∧, ∨, ∼ is a Boolean algebra and • is an unary
operation that respects the following:
(i) •(a ∨ b) = •a ∨ •b
(ii) a ∨ •a = •a
(iii) • • a = •a
(iv) •0 = 0.
Definition 5.2. An I-lattice is an abstract algebra (B, 0, 1, ∧, ∨, ∼, •, )

such that B, 0, 1, ∧, ∨, ∼, • is a topological Boolean algebra and is a
binary operation defined by:
a b = •(a ∨ b).
Theorem 5.3. Every lattice is an I-lattice.
Proof. Given a lattice L, if we take the identity function i as •, naturally

we have an I-lattice.
However we can prove that not every I-lattice is a lattice, but we shall
postpone this and other proofs for another paper.
6. Conclusions
The algebraic aspect of structures that arises from motivations taken from
quantum mechanics is of course very rich and can motivate not only math-
ematical developments but some other ‘physical’ ones, closer to some as-
sumptions made by quantum theory itself. The case of indiscernibility of
quantum objects is a field that has raised much discussion but mainly from
a philosophical point of view. Quasi-set theory is the first mathematical
theory that intents to consider seriously the issue of pursuing indiscernibil-
ity not as something that need to be treated by a trick (as by postulating
symmetry conditions) but as something that would hold from the start. To
develop the algebraic counterpart sounds quite natural, and in this paper
we have started this job. We aim at to improve the results of this paper in
further works.
Acknowledgements. This work has been sponsored by FAPESP. The

second author is partially supported by The National Council for Scientific
and Technological Development (CNPq): #304540/2006-4. The authors still
would like to thank the anonymous referees for corrections and suggestions.
Of course what still remains is our fault.
References
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Mauri Cunha do Nascimento

São Paulo State University
São Paulo, Brasil
mauri@fc.unesp.br
Décio Krause
Santa Catarina Federal University
Florianópolis, Brasil
deciokrause@gmail.com
Hércules de Araújo Feitosa

São Paulo State University
São Paulo, Brasil
haf@fc.unesp.br

The Quasi-Lattice of Indiscernible Elements

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The Quasi-Lattice of Indiscernible Elements

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Mauri Cunha do Nascimento The Quasi-lattice

Décio Krause of Indiscernible

Keywords: lattice of indiscernibles, quasi-sets, quantum logic.

Special Issue: The Legacy of Newton da Costa

Studia Logica (2011) 97: 101–126

In order to keep the paper self-contained, we begin by recalling some basic

Definition 1.1 (Lattice). A lattice is an algebraic structure L = L, ∧, ∨

In general, we denote the supremum of {a, b} by sup{a, b} or a ∨ b and

Lemma 1.8. In any lattice L = L, ∧, ∨ we have that

Proof. Immediate consequence of L6 , L7 , and L8 .

Definition 1.9. The lattice L = L, ∧, ∨ is distributive if the following

These distributive laws are known as the distributivity at left-hand side

Definition 1.10. If a lattice L = L, ∧, ∨ has the least element given by

If L = L, ∧, ∨ has the zero, 0, and the unity, 1, then:

Definition 1.11. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be a lattice with 0 and 1. Given x ∈ L,

In general, a complement of x is denoted by ∼ x.

Definition 1.12. When every element of L = L, ∧, ∨ has exactly one

Lemma 1.13. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be a distributive lattice with 0 and 1. If there

Proof. If y and z are two complements of x, then x ∧ y = 0, x ∨ y = 1,

Definition 1.14. A Boolean algebra B is a distributive and complemented

Definition 1.15. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be a lattice with 0 and 1. Given x ∈ L, if

Definition 1.16. A lattice L = L, ∧, ∨ is orthocomplemented if it is com-

Theorem 1.17. If L = L, ∧, ∨ is an orthocomplemented lattice, then the

Definition 1.18. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be an orthocomplemented lattice. The

Lemma 1.19. In any lattice L = L, ∧, ∨ we have that:

Definition 1.20. If x ≤ z ⇒ x∨(y ∧z) = (x∨y)∧z, then (y, z) is a modular

Thus, every distributive lattice is a modular lattice.

Definition 1.21. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be an orthocomplemented lattice. Given

Theorem 1.22. In any modular lattice L = L, ∧, ∨, the orthomodular

Proof. Let a ≤ b. Since L is a modular lattice, then (∼ a, b) is a modular

Definition 1.23. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be an orthocomplemented lattice. The

Definition 1.24. L is an orthomodular poset if it is orthocomplete and for

The modular property is a particular case of distributivity because in a

Definition 1.25. A homomorphism from a lattice L = L1 , ∧, ∨ into a

Every homomorphism of lattices preserves ordering, that is,

Definition 1.26. An isomorphism of lattices is a bijective homomorphism

stand for ‘micro-objects’, and M -objects, for ‘macro-objects’.2 Quasi-sets

the distinction, the language of Q encompasses a unary predicate Z such

Theorem 2.1 (Unobservability of Permutations). Let x be a ﬁnite quasi-set

A quasi-relation on a qset A is a qset R whose elements are ordered ‘pairs’

Figure 2. The quasi-set A and its cloud related to D.

x, y with x and y in the A such that x, y ∈ R when x, y ∈ A. Then we

Intuitively, the theorem says that if R(x, y) holds for x, y ∈ A, then if

Proof. See (Feitosa, Grácio, Nascimento 2007).

Definition 4.3. Let E,−  be a Tarski’s Space and A ⊆ E. The set A is

Definition 4.4. Let E,−  be a Tarski’s Space and A ⊆ E. The set A is

Theorem 4.5. In any Tarski’s Space E,−  it follows that: Å ⊆ A ⊆ A.

Proof. Immediate from the above deﬁnition.

Definition 4.6. A topological space is a pair E,−  where E is a nonempty

In any topological space it is immediate to observe that the condition A ⊆

Definition 4.7. Let U be a non empty qset and A be a subqset of U . The

Intuitively speaking, A is the qset of the elements of U , the universe,

Proof. (i) A ⊆ A: If t ∈ A, by the reﬂexivity of ≡, we have that t ≡ t,

Theorem 4.9. U,−  is a topological space.

Proof. Since U,−  is a Tarski’s Space, we only need to prove:

Since U,−  is a topological space, then A ∪ B = A ∪ B.

A = U , B = {b, c} = C and even as A ∩ C = ∅, we have A ∩ C = C = ∅.

Definition 4.10. Let A, B ⊆ U . The I-lattice operations are deﬁned by:

Theorem 4.11. In the structure (P(U ), , , 0, 1) the following holds:

Proof. Since the operation  is deﬁned by the usual intersection A  B =

Since A  (A  B) = A and 0  A = A, the structure (P(U ), , , 0, 1) is

Theorem 4.12. For every A, B ∈ P(U ) the following holds:

This result is not surprising, because in that case we would be dealing

Definition 1.1 (Lattice). A lattice is an algebraic structure L = L, ∧, ∨

Lemma 1.8. In any lattice L = L, ∧, ∨ we have that

Definition 1.9. The lattice L = L, ∧, ∨ is distributive if the following

Definition 1.10. If a lattice L = L, ∧, ∨ has the least element given by

If L = L, ∧, ∨ has the zero, 0, and the unity, 1, then:

Definition 1.11. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be a lattice with 0 and 1. Given x ∈ L,

Definition 1.12. When every element of L = L, ∧, ∨ has exactly one

Lemma 1.13. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be a distributive lattice with 0 and 1. If there

Definition 1.15. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be a lattice with 0 and 1. Given x ∈ L, if

Definition 1.16. A lattice L = L, ∧, ∨ is orthocomplemented if it is com-

Theorem 1.17. If L = L, ∧, ∨ is an orthocomplemented lattice, then the

Definition 1.18. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be an orthocomplemented lattice. The

Lemma 1.19. In any lattice L = L, ∧, ∨ we have that:

Definition 1.21. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be an orthocomplemented lattice. Given

Theorem 1.22. In any modular lattice L = L, ∧, ∨, the orthomodular

Definition 1.23. Let L = L, ∧, ∨ be an orthocomplemented lattice. The

Definition 1.25. A homomorphism from a lattice L = L1 , ∧, ∨ into a

x, y with x and y in the A such that x, y ∈ R when x, y ∈ A. Then we

Definition 4.3. Let E,− be a Tarski’s Space and A ⊆ E. The set A is

Definition 4.4. Let E,− be a Tarski’s Space and A ⊆ E. The set A is

Theorem 4.5. In any Tarski’s Space E,− it follows that: Å ⊆ A ⊆ A.

Definition 4.6. A topological space is a pair E,− where E is a nonempty

Theorem 4.9. U,− is a topological space.

Proof. Since U,− is a Tarski’s Space, we only need to prove:

Since U,− is a topological space, then A ∪ B = A ∪ B.

A = U , B = {b, c} = C and even as A ∩ C = ∅, we have A ∩ C = C = ∅.

Theorem 4.11. In the structure (P(U ), , , 0, 1) the following holds:

Proof. Since the operation is deﬁned by the usual intersection A B =

Since A (A B) = A and 0 A = A, the structure (P(U ), , , 0, 1) is

Since the corresponding structure I = (P(U ), , , 0, 1) emerges from

Proof. (i) A B ⇔ B = A B = A ∪ B = A ∪ B ⇔ A ⊆ B; (ii), (iii),

Lemma 4.19. In an I-lattice it holds A ∩ B ⊆ A ∩ B .

The operation of the I-lattice P(U ), , , ,⊥ , 0, 1 has the following

Intuitively speaking, A B = ∅ says that A has no indistinguishable