Chapter 1 - pg.

18
#1, 2, 3, 6-8, 12
1. Studying psychology is a way to further understand the brain and why it functions the
way it does. By doing so, we essentially discover more about ourselves and describe,
explain, predict, and change the way we wish to behave.
2. The four goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict, and change behaviours.
Psychologists can change or control these behaviours by manipulating the known
variables.
3. Dualism the the concept, as introduced by Rene Descartes, that a person is made from
two different entities: the mind and the body, which interact to construct the whole that is
the person.
4. Wilhelm Wundt.
5. Introspection
6. The single function of all the activities in the mind is to help survive as a species.
7. Behaviourists investigate observable behaviour. Three of these behaviourists include
Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner. Skinner influenced the formation of
communities based on learning/conditioning principles. The name of these communities
is Walden Two communities.

Chapter 2 - pg. 50
#1-3, 6-8
1. Classical conditioning is a type of learning when an old response becomes attached to a
new stimulus. Some terms Pavlov used: unconditioned stimulus (food), unconditioned
response (salivating), conditioned stimulus (tuning fork), and conditioned response
(salivating upon hearing the fork). Extinction occurred when no food was given after the
tuning fork because the conditioned response has died out.
2. B.F. Skinner is most closely associated and responsible for operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning emphasizes that the stimuli elicits the response because in
operant conditioning, responses can be encouraged and discouraged.
3. Positive consequences are called pleasant while negative consequences are called
aversive. To have a behavior repeated, one may use rewards or praise when the desired
behavior is exhibited. To prevent a behavior from being exhibited, one may use
punishment or remove stimuli causing the behavior.
4. (6) Two ways aversive stimuli can be used are negative reinforcement and punishment.
Negative reinforcement requires an unpleasant stimulus to be removed, and
escape/avoidance behaviour is repeated and increases in frequency. Punishment is
where a behavior is punished and decreases/is not repeated. Escape conditioning is
when a person’s behavior causes the unpleasant stimuli to cease while avoidance
conditioning is when the person’s behavior has the effect of preventing an unpleasant
situation.
5. (7) It was an accidental discovery with Seligman’s experiment with the dogs and electric
shocks. Dogs who were exposed to the shocks with no warning/way of escape gave up
trying to avoid the shocks. If a person feels helpless after taking an exam, they’re most
 likely thinking about their own internal issues, expressing the three elements of learned
helplessness: stability, globality, internality. They must be focusing on internal reasons
for failure.
6. (8) The process in which a person is reinforced for closer approximations of the desired
behavior is called shaping. The name of the sequence in which one response produces
the signal for the next response is called response chains.

Chapter 3 - pg. 76
#1-4, 7, 9 & 10
1. The three steps of information processing include: input (information people receive from
senses), central processing (storing and sorting of the information), and output (ideas
and actions that result from processing)
2. The first two processes that help people narrow sensory inputs are selective attention
and feature extraction.
3. Factors that make one input more important than another are needs like hunger and
thirst.
4. Sensory storage holds information for only a second or so. Short term memory is longer
but will go away if you stop repeating the information. Long-term memory is stored
indefinitely once memorized.
5. (7) Implicit memory (procedural memory) does not require conscious recollection to have
past learning or experiences impact performance. Explicit memory (declarative) is
knowledge one can call forth consciously and use whenever needed (includes semantic
and episodic memory).
6. (9) Some methods to improve memory include efficient organization and chunking,
overlearning, meaningfulness, association, lack of interference, degree of original
learning, and mnemonics.
7. (10) Four units of thought (from least to most complex) include: images, symbols,
concepts, and rules.