18
Development
After you have finished reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Outline the main events that characterize embryonic development.
Describe the events that occur during human prenatal development.
Discuss the growth and development stages of the human life cycle.
Introduction
The world was stunned in February 1997 when newspapers such as The
New York Times printed in headlines: “Scientist Reports First Cloning Ever
of Adult Mammal: Researchers Astounded.” British scientists had suc-
ceeded in creating a lamb, named Dolly, which lived for six years, using
DNA from a body cell of an adult sheep. But students were still reading in
textbooks, “Cloning uses the information present in one of your cells to
build a whole new you . . . It has not been achieved in mammals . . . Such
a procedure is not likely to be possible for human beings for a long time
if, in fact, it ever becomes possible.” (See Figure 18-1 on page 382.)
Yet by 2001, a group of scientists announced their plans to proceed,
despite intense controversy, within the next two years to try to clone
human babies to help infertile couples with no other means to have their
own children. Others predicted that cloning technology would begin to
be used by fertility clinics by about 2005.
When you read about scientific advances such as these, you should
keep in mind that science is not only a subject you take in school. Science
is an activity that occurs when we learn about the world around us. This
world includes ourselves and how our bodies stay alive and grow. One of
381
Figure 18-1 Dolly,
the first mammal
cloned from the
DNA of an adult cell.
the sperm join. This event makes it possible for the haploid nuclei of the
two cells to fuse. The moment of fusion has another significant conse-
quence. A complex series of changes occurs on the outside of the newly
fertilized egg that prevents another sperm from entering. Regardless of
how many sperm reach the egg, only one—the first one—gets in. (See
Figure 18-2.)
Ovum
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Sperm
Figure 18-2 Embryonic development
begins after the egg is fertilized.
The changes that begin to occur after fertilization, and that will con-
tinue until death, are known as development. The most dramatic devel-
LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 18-2 s/s
opmental changes—growth and differentiation—occur early in the life
of an organism. Through growth, the organism becomes larger as the
number of its cells increases. Differentiation occurs as these cells begin
to develop their own specific structures and functions. We increase in size
because our bodies are made up of many cells. However, we stay alive
because our cells differentiate into more than 200 types, including blood,
skin, muscle, and bone cells.
Compared to a typical cell in an animal, a fertilized egg has an enor-
mous amount of cytoplasm. Once it joins with a sperm, the fertilized egg,
or zygote, immediately begins to divide. All divisions of a zygote after fer-
tilization are mitotic cell divisions. The diploid number of chromosomes
is maintained at each division. Therefore, the cells in the adult body still
have the same complete diploid set of chromosomes found in the fertil-
ized egg cell. The first series of mitotic cell divisions is called cleavage. The
overall original size of the zygote does not change, but the number of
cells in the zygote increases. (See Figure 18-3 on page 384.)
At the end of cleavage, the zygote has become a ball of cells called a
blastula. The blastula consists of a single layer of cells that is hollow (no
cells) in the middle and filled with liquid. It is important to remember
that all the cells and tissues of the adult organism will eventually develop
from the cells of this embryo. You might wonder when the cells in an
embryo “know” what part of the animal they will become. This is one of
the basic kinds of questions asked by embryologists, biologists who study
384 Reproduction, Growth, and Development
Blastopore
Ectoderm
Endoderm
Archenteron
Figure 18-5 The mature
Mesoderm gastrula has three germ layers:
Blastocoel the ectoderm, mesoderm, and
endoderm.
The endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm are the three embryonic germ
layers. In vertebrates, the endoderm develops into the liver, pancreas,
LIVING ENVIRONMENT
digestive system, andBIOLOGY, 2e/fig.system.
respiratory 18-5 s/s The ectoderm becomes the epi-
dermis of the skin and the nervous system. The mesoderm gives rise to all
other body parts, including the muscles, bones, circulatory system, excre-
tory system, and sex organs. (See Figure 18-6 on page 386.)
The next significant step that occurs is the beginning of the nervous
system. Perhaps because of its central role in coordinating activities of
the organism, the nervous system begins development early. For what-
ever reason, after the three germ layers have formed, the ectoderm cells
386 Reproduction, Growth, and Development
Mesoderm
• Muscles • Lymphoid tissue
• Skeleton • Middle ear
• Blood • Epithelium of kidneys
• Dermis of skin • Epithelium of gonads
• Endothelium of
blood vessels
Ectoderm
Endoderm • Epidermis of skin
• Epithelium of digestive (including hair, nails, and
tract and its glands sweat glands)
• Epithelium of lower • Entire nervous system
respiratory tract • Lens, cornea, eye
• Epithelium of urinary muscles (internal)
bladder • Internal and external ear
• Glandular epithelium • Epithelium of mouth, nose,
(thyroid, parathyroid, salivary glands, and anus
pancreas, thymus) • Tooth enamel (in mammals)
• Epithelium of vagina • Epithelium of adrenal
and accessory sex medulla and pineal gland
structures
Figure 18-6 In vertebrates, the three embryonic germ layers are each destined to
develop into specific body parts.
Chorioallantoic membrane
Allantoic stalk
Embryo
Amniotic cavity
Amnion
Yolk Allantois
Figure 18-7 Extraembryonic
membranes surround the embryos
of birds.
In most vertebrates, by the time birth occurs, all the major structures
of the animal have been formed. The development that occurs after birth
is mostly confined to an increase in size as the animal develops into its
adult form.
■■ HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Early stages of development are amazingly similar in all animals and are
especially similar in all vertebrates. We have learned about how the
human body forms by observing the development of sea urchins, frogs,
chicks, and mammals such as mice. We will now examine some of the
specific events that occur in human development.
As you read in Chapter 17, human egg cells are released about once a
month from an ovary. The egg is fertilized in the oviduct and continues
to move down this tube. The first cell division, which is the beginning of
cleavage, occurs in the oviduct. This first division occurs about 36 hours
after fertilization. Twenty-four hours later, the second division occurs.
Twelve hours after this division, the third cell division occurs. Now, after
three days and three cell divisions, the embryo consists of eight cells. The
388 Reproduction, Growth, and Development
2-cell
stage
Sperm 4-cell
stage
Fertilized 8-cell
egg stage
Morula
Oviduct
Unfertilized Uterus
egg
Blastocyst
Implantation
on uterine wall
Figure 18-8 In the development of a human embryo, the fertilized egg travels
through the oviduct and implants on the wall of the uterus.
In the next step, the chorion begins to grow into the mother’s tis-
sues. Blood vessels develop in this fetal tissue. At the same time, tissue
with its own blood vessels grows from the uterine lining of the mother.
This newly connected fetal and maternal tissue becomes a structure called
the placenta. In the placenta, the fetus’s blood vessels and the mother’s
blood vessels are close enough to each other to allow the diffusion of sub-
stances between them. The mother’s blood and the fetus’s blood do not
mix. However, nutrients and oxygen can move from the mother’s blood
into the fetus, and wastes from the fetal blood can move into the
mother’s blood. The umbilical cord connects the placenta to the fetus.
We can all point to the place on our bodies where, when each of us was
once a fetus, the umbilical cord was attached—the navel, or belly but-
ton. (See Figure 18-9.)
Amniotic
Chorion cavity
Amnion
Umbilical
cord Chorionic
cavity
Umbilical
blood
vessels Placenta
Figure 18-9 The umbilical cord connects the placenta to the fetus.
fifth month, the mother can feel these kicking movements. Also, the fetal
heartbeat can be heard for the first time. Most organs are developed by the
end of the second trimester and can function at least partially. However,
a fetus has very little chance of surviving outside the mother on its own
before the seventh month.
During the last three months of pregnancy, the fetus increases in
weight a great deal. By birth, the fetus is five to six times heavier than at
the beginning of the third trimester. The most important change that
occurs during the third trimester is the development of the brain. For the
brain to develop normally, the fetus must receive a high level of protein
from the mother. Thus, it is essential that the mother have a protein-rich
diet herself at this time. By the end of the ninth month, the fetus is able
to control its own breathing. Being able to use its fully developed lungs
to breathe on its own is the key reason why an infant is ready to survive
outside of its mother. (See Figure 18-10.)
And then it happens. For reasons that are not yet clearly understood,
hormone levels in the mother change. Events begin that lead to the baby’s
birth. First, the amniotic sac breaks and the fluid inside is released
through the vagina. It is said that the mother’s “water has broken.” Mus-
cular contractions cause the cervix to dilate, or become wider. This
increase in size allows the fetus to begin to be pushed out, normally head-
first. More contractions continue to move the fetus out of the uterus.
After the baby comes out of the birth canal, the placenta separates from
the uterus. Now called the afterbirth, the placenta is pushed out through
the vagina by some final contractions. Those assisting in the birth usually
clamp the umbilical cord, cut it, and tie it off. Without oxygen from the
mother, the baby’s lungs fill with air for the first time. Along with the
first gulps of air comes that wonderful sound, the loud strong cries of a
newborn baby.
Placenta
Umbilical
cord
Chorion Uterus
Amnion
Amniotic fluid
Figure 18-10 A developed fetus,
ready for birth. Birth canal
Chapter 18 / Growth and Development 391
It has often been said that there is no place as safe as a mother’s womb,
or uterus. Surrounded by a watery cushion, kept warm and nourished, a
fetus does have its safety provided by the mother. It is true that most
infections that may make a mother ill cannot cross over the placenta and
into the fetus. It is not true, however, that the fetus is entirely safe. Dan-
gers can intrude into the small world of the fetus.
Some forms of radiation can pass through the tissues of the mother
and into the fetus. X rays, for example, can affect a fetus. The fetus is a
place of tremendous cellular activity. Cells are dividing, growing, and
changing. Dividing cells are easily damaged by X rays. Damage to even a
few cells early in fetal development can produce disastrous effects. If the
genetic material in one cell is altered, then every one of the millions of
cells that develop from that damaged single cell will contain the same
392 Reproduction, Growth, and Development
INTRODUCTION
Unlike animals, plants cannot move from place to place. In their envi-
ronment, however, plants must orient themselves to have the best chance
of survival. Light is the most obvious factor that plants react to in their
environment. Plants usually grow toward the sunlight. This response and
other responses that plants show to environmental stimuli are called tro-
pisms. It was from the study of phototropism—the movement of a plant
toward light—that our knowledge of plant hormones and their effects on
plant growth began. Plants are also able to respond to the effects of grav-
ity. The plant shoot must be able to grow upward and the roots must grow
downward. The response to gravity is called gravitropism, and it is the
subject of this extended investigation.
MATERIALS
Clear plastic cups, thick absorbent paper (blotting paper), scissors, corn
seeds, bean seeds, water
PROCEDURE
1. Prepare four cups in the following manner. Cut a piece of absorbent
paper to the same height as the cup. Roll up the strip and place it in
the cup. The paper should unroll and be held in position by the walls
of the cup. Place several of the same kinds of seeds between the paper
and the walls of the cup. Place the seeds midway between the top and
the bottom of the cup. Leave room between the seeds. You should have
a circle of seeds all at about the same height. Pour water into the bot-
tom of the cup. The water should move up the paper. In time, the
paper will be uniformly moist. Keep a small reserve of water in the bot-
tom of the cup as this investigation proceeds. It will keep the seeds
moist as they grow.
2. Place the four cups in a dark place to eliminate light as an environ-
mental growth factor.
3. Record your observations in a log book as the plants begin to grow.
Make careful observations of the growth of the roots and shoots from
the seedlings.
■■ CHAPTER 18 REVIEW
VOCABULARY
The following list contains all of the boldfaced terms in this chapter. Define
each of these terms in your own words.