Fluid Flow

EC311 FLUID MECHANICS LECTURE NOTES
PRINCIPLES OF FLUID FLOW
Classification of flows
In order to study the flow pattern it is necessary to classify the various types of flow. The
classification depends upon whether the flow parameters (i.e. velocity, pressure and density) vary
from one point to another, or from one instance of time to another, or may vary with both position
and time.
Fluids may be classified as follows:
(i) Steady or unsteady flow

(ii) Uniform or non-uniform flow
(iii) Laminar or turbulent flow
(iv) Rotational or irrotational flow
(v) Compressible or incompressible flow
(vi) Ideal or real flow
Steady flow
This is the type of flow in which the various parameters of flow at any point do not change with
time. Thus
v P
0;  0; etc
t t
Unsteady flow
This is that type of flow in which the velocity, pressure, density or cross-section at a point change
with respect to time. Thus
v P
 0;  0; etc
t t
Uniform flow
This is the type of flow in which the velocity and other flow parameters at any given time does not
change with respect to space.
v P
0;  0; etc
s s
Non-uniform flow
This is that type of flow in which the velocity and other flow parameters at any given time changes
with respect to space. Thus
v P
 0;  0; etc
s s
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Combining the above, one can classify any flow into one of four types:
(i) Steady uniform flow: conditions do not change with position in the stream or with time.
An example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant velocity.
(ii) Steady non-uniform flow: conditions change from point to point in the stream but do
not change with time. An example is flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the
inlet – velocity will change as flow moves along the length of the pipe toward the exit.
(iii) Unsteady uniform flow: at a given instant in time the conditions at every point are the
same, but will change with time. An example is a pipe of constant diameter connected to
a pump, pumping at a constant rate which is then switched off.
(iv) Unsteady non-uniform flow: every condition of the flow may change from point to point
and with time at every point. An example is surface waves in an open channel.
If these four types of flows were to be considered for analysis, steady uniform flow is by far the
simplest while the other three are complex.
Rotational flow
A flow is said to be rotational if the fluid particles while moving in the direction of flow rotate about
their mass centres. Flow near a solid boundary is rotational.
Irrotational flow
A flow is said to be irrotational if the fluid particles while moving in the direction of flow do not
rotate about their mass centres. Flow outside the boundary layer is generally considered
irrotational.
Laminar flow
A laminar flow is one in which paths taken by the individual particles do not cross one another and
moves along well defined paths. This type of flow is also called streamline flow or viscous flow.
Turbulent flow
A turbulent flow is that flow in which fluid particles move in a zigzag way. The motion is not orderly.
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Laminar and turbulent flows are characterised on the basis of Reynolds number (Re).
For Reynolds number (Re) < 2000 -----------------flow in pipes is laminar
For Reynolds number (Re) > 4000 ------------------flow in pipes is turbulent
For Reynolds number (Re) between 2000 and 4000 ---------flow is transitional
Compressible flow
It is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid changes from point to point. Flow of gases
through orifices, nozzles, gas turbines, is an example.
Incompressible flow
It is that type of flow in which density is constant for the fluid. Liquids are generally considered
flowing incompressibly.
Ideal flow
Ideal fluid is non-viscous and incompressible. Shear force between the boundary surface and fluid or
between the fluid layers is absent and only pressure forces and boundary forces are controlling.
Real flow
Real fluids have viscosity and surface shear forces are involved during flow.
FLOW VISUALISATION
When analyzing fluid flow it is useful to visualise the flow pattern. Flow can be visualised in one of
the following forms:
(i) Pathline or particle path: the line followed by a particle in the fluid released at some point
in the flow. Thus, a pathline represents an integrated history of where a fluid particle has
been.
(ii) Streakline or dyeline: is an instantaneous line whose points are occupied by particles
which have earlier passed through a prescribed point in space. A streakline is hence an
integrated pattern. A streakline can be formed by injecting dye continuously into the fluid
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at a fixed point in space. As time marches on, the streakline gets longer and longer, and
represents an integrated history of the dye streak.
(iii) Streamlines: These are imaginary lines joining points of equal velocity – velocity contours.
At all points the direction of the streamline is the direction of the fluid velocity. Close to
the wall the velocity is parallel to the wall so the streamline is also parallel to the wall.
Streamline properties
(a) Since fluid moves in the same direction as streamline, fluid cannot cross a streamline
(b) Streamlines cannot cross each other, meaning that any particle of fluid starting on one
streamline will stay on that same streamline throughout the fluid.
(iv) Streamtube: a useful technique in fluid flow analysis is to consider only a part of the total
fluid in isolation from the rest. This is done by imagining a tubular surface formed by
streamlines along which the fluid flows. This tubular surface is known as a streamtube.
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF FLUID DYNAMICS
Fluid dynamics concerns fluids in motion. Almost all hydraulic problems can be addressed by the
application of one or more of three equations/physical properties:
(i) Conservation of mass (continuity equation)
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(ii) Conservation of energy (Bernoulli’s equation)

(iii) Conservation of momentum (momentum equation)
FLUID FLOW RATE AND THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
The quantity of fluid flowing in a system per unit time can be expressed by the following three
different terms:
(i) Volume flow rate, Q: the volume of fluid flowing past a section per unit time
(ii) Weight flow rate, W: the weight of fluid flowing past a section per unit time
(iii)  : the mass of fluid flowing past a section per unit time
Mass flow rate, m
Volume flow rate
This is the most fundamental of the three terms and is calculated from
Q = Au
Where A is the area of the cross-section and u is the average velocity of flow. Its units are m3/s.
Weight flow rate
The weight flow rate W is related to Q by
W = γQ
Where γ is the specific weight of the fluid. The units of W are N/s.
Mass flow rate
 is related to Q by
The mass flow rate m
m  Q
 are kg/s.
Where ρ is the density of the fluid. The units of m
CONTINUITY OF FLOW
Matter cannot be created or destroyed – (it is simply changed into a different form of matter). This
principle is known as the law of conservation of mass and is used in the analysis of flowing fluids.
The principle is applied to fixed volumes, known as control volumes (or surfaces)
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For any control volume the principle of conservation of mass says:
Mass entering per unit time = mass leaving per unit time + increase of mass in the control volume
per unit time
For steady flow there is no increase in the mass within the control volume, so
Mass entering per unit time = mass leaving per unit time
This principle can be applied to steady flow in a streamtube, having a cross-sectional area small
enough for the velocity to be considered as constant over a given cross-section. Thus, between
sections 1 and 2 in the figure below, the following can be stated:
Mass entering per unit time at end 1 = mass leaving per unit time at end 2
1A1u1   2A2u2
This is the equation of continuity for steady flow.
When the fluid can be considered incompressible, i.e. the density does not change ρ1 = ρ2 =ρ. Thus
for a real pipe
A1u1 = A2u2 = Q
APPLICATION OF THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
The principle of continuity can be applied to pipes with cross sections which change along their
length e.g. a pipe with a contraction
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By the continuity principle, the mass flow rate must be the same at each section – the mass going
into the pipe is equal to the mass going out of the pipe.
i.e. 1 A1u1   2 A2u2
For incompressible fluids, ρ1 = ρ2 =ρ. This also says that the volume flow rate (discharge) is constant.
i.e. Discharge at section 1 = Discharge at section 2
Q1 = Q2 or Qin = Qout
A1u1 = A2u2
For circular pipes
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A d 
u 2  1 u1   1  u1
A2  d2 
Another example of the use of the continuity principle is to determine the velocities in pipes coming
from a junction.
Total mass flow into the junction = Total mass flow out of the junction
1Q1   2 Q2   3Q3
When the flow is incompressible (e.g. water)
Q1  Q2  Q3
Example
Oil flows in a pipe which contracts from 450mm diameter at point A to 300mm at point B then splits
into two branches of diameters 150mm and 225mm discharging at C and D respectively. If the
velocity at A is 1.8m/s and the velocity at D is 3.6m/s, what is the discharge at C and D and the
velocity at B and C?
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BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
The Bernoulli’s equation is a statement of the principle of conservation of energy along a streamline.
It is one of the most important equations in fluid mechanics.
Energy of a liquid in motion
A liquid in motion possesses the following types of energy:
(i) Potential energy

(ii) Kinetic energy
(iii) Pressure energy
Potential energy
It is energy possessed by a liquid particle by virtue of its position. If a liquid particle is z metres above
the horizontal datum, the potential head of the particle will be z metres of the liquid. Thus
Potential energy = mgz
Potential energy per unit weight = z
Kinetic energy
It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its motion or velocity. If a liquid particle is
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flowing with a mean velocity u, then the kinetic energy of the particle will be u . Velocity head
2g
2
of the liquid, at that velocity, will be u . Thus
2g
1
Kinetic energy = mu 2
2
u2
Kinetic energy per unit weight =
2g
Pressure energy
It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its existing pressure. If a liquid particle is
P
under a pressure P , then the pressure energy of the particle will be . Pressure head of the liquid
g
P
under that pressure will be . At any given cross-section, pressure generates a force and, as the
g
fluid flows, this cross-section will move forward and work is done. If the cross-section at AB will
move to A’B’, then the distance covered by the fluid is given by:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐵

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐴′ =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝐵
Where
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𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐵 = =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌
Implying that
𝑚
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐴′ =
𝜌𝐴
The force generated by the pressure at AB is given by:
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑃𝐴
Work done by the force in moving the liquid from section AB to A’B’ is given by:
𝑚 𝑃×𝑚
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐴′ = 𝑃𝐴 × =
𝜌𝐴 𝜌
𝑃
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
𝜌𝑔
Total energy
The total energy of a liquid, in motion, is the sum of its potential energy, kinetic energy and pressure
energy. Mathematically total energy is given by
P u2
H  z
g 2 g
All the terms in the energy equation have units of length i.e. metres, and are often referred to as
P 2
total head (H), pressure head ( ), velocity head ( u ) and potential/elevation head (z).
g 2g
RESTRICTION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Bernoulli’s equation has some restrictions in its application. These are:
(i) Flow is steady

(ii) Density is constant
(iii) Friction losses are negligible
(iv) The equation relates the states at two points along a single streamline (not conditions
on two different streamlines).
As stated, the Bernoulli’s equation applies to conditions along a streamline. It can be applied
between two points, 1 and 2, on the streamline in the figure below.
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By the principle of conservation of energy the total energy in the system does not change, thus the
total head does not change. So
Total head at 1 = total head at 2
P1 u12 P u2
   z1  2  2  z 2
g 2 g g 2 g
This equation assumes no energy losses (e.g. from friction) or energy gains (e.g. from a pump) along
the streamline.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION
Consider a reservoir feeding a pipe which changes diameter and rises before falling to its final level.
To analyse the flow in the pipe, apply the Bernoulli equation along a streamline from point 1 on the
surface of the reservoir to point 2 at the outlet nozzle of the pipe. Thus,
P1 u12 P u2
  z1  2  2  z 2
g 2 g g 2 g
The total head H, at the reservoir surface is obtained by considering that P1 is equal to atmospheric
pressure (i.e. P1 = Patm = 0) and the surface is moving very slowly compared to that in the pipe, so
u1 ≈ 0.
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 H  z1
The pressure gradient in the pipe can be obtained by attaching piezometers at points along the pipe.
When the pipe nozzle is closed, there will be zero velocity and all the levels in the piezometers would
be equal and the same as the total head line. At each point on the line, when u = 0, then
P
 z  H (Piezometric head)
g
P
The level in the piezometer is the pressure head and its value is given by .
g
If, on the other hand, the water was flowing with velocity u, the levels in the piezometers would fall
indicating a decrease in pressure. The levels would fall by an amount equal to the velocity head
u2 .
2g
Thus, piezometer levels when fluid is flowing would be:
P u2
H  z
g 2 g
LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION
In a real pipeline there are energy losses due to friction – these must be taken into account as they
can be very significant. This energy loss can be represented graphically by a continuously dropping
energy line (or total head line). Thus,
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The Bernoulli equation with a consideration of energy loss between two points is written as follows:
P1 u12 P2 u 22
  z1    z2  h f
g 2 g g 2 g
Where hf = energy loss due to friction. It is often known as the headloss due to friction.
Example
A pipe carrying water tapers from a cross-section of 0.3 m2 at A to 0.15 m2 at B which is 6 m above
the level of A. At A the velocity, assumed uniform, is 1.8 m/s and the pressure 117 kPa (gauge). If
frictional effects are negligible, determine the pressure at B.
EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
The Bernoulli equation can be applied to a great many situations not just to pipe flow. Its principle
application is in flow measuring devices such as:
(i) Pitot-tube/pitot-static tube

(ii) Venturi meter
(iii) Orificemeter
(iv) Nozzlemeter
PITOT-TUBE
A pitot-tube is a small open tube bent at right angle and is placed in flow such that one leg is vertical
and the other horizontal. It is used to measure the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or channel.
It works on the principle that if the velocity of flow at any point becomes zero, the pressure there is
increased due to the conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure energy.
Consider a pattern of streamlines around the upstream face of a long cylindrical-shaped body
aligned at right angles to the flow stream.
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Due to the symmetrical nature of the flow pattern the central streamline remains undeviated and
intersects the cylinder surface at the point S, where the tangent is at right angles to the streamline.
The velocity at S is therefore zero, the fluid being brought to rest. Appropriately, this point is called a
stagnation point and the corresponding pressure is the stagnation pressure.
From the Bernoulli equation the stagnation pressure can be calculated. Apply Bernoulli along the
central streamline from a point upstream where the velocity is u1 and the pressure p1 to the
stagnation point of the cylindrical body where the velocity is zero, u2 = 0. Also z1 = z2.
p1 u1 p u
  z1  2  2  z 2
g 2 g g 2 g
p1 u1 p
  2
g 2 g g
u12
 p 2  p1 
2
This increase in pressure which brings the fluid to rest is called the dynamic pressure. Thus,
u12
Dynamic pressure =
2
u12
Stagnation pressure  p1 
2
The cylindrical body stopping the fluid does not have to be a solid. It could be a static column of
fluid. Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a pitot tube within the pipe can be used in an
arrangement shown below to measure velocity of flow.
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Using the theory of stagnation, then
u12
p 2  p1 
2
or u1  2g h2  h1 
PITOT-STATIC TUBE
The necessity of two piezometers and thus two readings make the pitot tube arrangement a little
awkward. Connecting the piezometers to a manometer would simplify things but there are still two
tubes. The pitot-static tube combines the tubes and they can be easily connected to a manometer. A
pitot-static tube is shown below. The holes on the side of the tube connect to one side of a
manometer and register the static head h1, while the central hole is connected to the other side of
the manometer to register the stagnation head h2.
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When the two tubes are connected to a differential pressure measuring device, the resulting
difference in pressure, p2 – p1, is a direct measure of the velocity u1:
2 p 2  p1 
u1 

2 gh m   
or u1 

Where u1 = ideal or theoretical velocity. Actual velocity, u actual  Cv u1 . Cv = coefficient of velocity.
The Pitot/Pitot-static tube give velocities at points in the flow. It does not give the overall discharge
of the stream, which is often what is wanted. It also has the drawback that it is liable to block easily,
particularly if there is significant debris in the flow.
Example
A submarine fitted with a pitot tube moves horizontally in the sea. Its axis is 12 m below the surface
of water. The pitot tube fixed in front of the submarine and along its axis is connected to the two
limbs of a U-tube containing mercury, the reading of which is found to be 200mm. Find the speed of
the submarine. Take the specific gravity of sea water = 1.025 times fresh water.
VENTURI METER
A venturi meter is a device for measuring discharge in a pipe. It consists of a rapidly converging
section which increases the velocity of flow and hence reduces the pressure. It then returns to the
original dimension of the pipe by a gently diverging ‘diffuser’ section. By measuring the pressure
differences the discharge can be calculated. This is a particularly accurate method of flow
measurement as energy losses are very small.
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Applying Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2 in the narrow throat of the Venturi
meter we have
By using the continuity equation we can eliminate the velocity u2,
Substituting this into and rearranging the Bernoulli equation we get
To get the theoretical discharge this is multiplied by the area. To get the actual discharge taking into
account the losses due to friction, we include a coefficient of discharge
This can also be expressed in terms of the manometer readings
Thus the discharge can be expressed in terms of the manometer reading:
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Notice how this expression does not include any terms for the elevation or orientation (z1 or z2) of
the Venturi meter. This means that the meter can be at any convenient angle to function.
The purpose of the diffuser in a Venturi meter is to assure gradual and steady deceleration after the
throat. This is designed to ensure that the pressure rises again to something near to the original
value before the Venturi meter. The angle of the diffuser is usually between 6 and 8 degrees. Wider
than this and the flow might separate from the walls resulting in increased friction and energy and
pressure loss. If the angle is less than this the meter becomes very long and pressure losses again
become significant. The efficiency of the diffuser of increasing pressure back to the original is rarely
greater than 80%.
Example
Petrol of specific gravity 0.8 is flowing through a pipe inclined at 30o to the horizontal in an upward
direction. A venturi-meter is fitted in this 25 cm diameter pipe; the ratio of areas of main and throat
is 4 and throat is at a distance of 1.2 m from inlet along its length. The U-tube differential
manometer connected to the inlet and throat section registers a steady reading of 5 cm of mercury;
the tubes above the mercury being full of petrol. Find the discharge and pressure difference in kPa
between the throat and entrance section. The meter has a discharge coefficient of 0.95 and relative
density of mercury is 13.6.
FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE
Consider flow from a tank through a hole in the side close to the base. The general arrangement and
a close up of the hole and streamlines are shown in the figure below.
An orifice used for measuring purposes has a sharp edge to minimise frictional losses by minimising
the contact between the hole and the liquid.
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The streamlines converges towards the orifice and would continue to converge beyond the orifice to
a minimum value when they all become parallel. At this point, the velocity and pressure are uniform
across the jet. This minimum convergence is called the vena contracta. It is necessary to know the
amount of contraction to be able to calculate the flow.
Applying the Bernoulli along the streamline joining point 1 on the surface to point 2 at the centre of
the orifice, then
P1 u12 P u2
  z1  2  2  z 2
g 2 g g 2 g
At the surface velocity is negligible (u1 = 0) and the pressure is atmospheric (P1 = 0). At the orifice the
jet is open to the air so again the pressure is atmospheric (P2 = 0). If the datum line is taken through
the orifice then z1 = h and z2 = 0, leaving
u 22
h or u 2  2 gh
2g
This is the theoretical value of velocity. This is an over estimate of the real velocity because friction
losses have not been taken into account. To incorporate friction, the coefficient of velocity Cv, is
included to correct the theoretical velocity,
uactual = Cvuideal
Each orifice has its own coefficient of velocity, they usually lie in the range (0.97 – 0.99).
To calculate the discharge through the orifice, the velocity is multiplied with the area of the jet. The
actual area of the jet is the area of the vena contracta not the area of the orifice. This area is
obtained by using a coefficient of contraction Cc, for the orifice.
Aactual
Aactual = CcAorifice Cc 
Aorifice
So the discharge through the orifice is given by
Q  Au
Qactual  Aactualu actual  Cc Cv Aorificeuideal  Cd Aorificeuideal  Cd Ao 2 gh
Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge, and Cd = CcCv
Example
Oil of relative density 0.85 issues from a 50 mm diameter orifice under a pressure of 100 kPa
(gauge). The diameter of the vena contracta is 39.5 mm and the discharge is 18 litres/s. What is the
coefficient of velocity?
TIME FOR EMPTYING A TANK
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Consider a tank of uniform cross-sectional area containing some liquid and having an orifice at its
bottom or sides.
Let A =area of the tank
a = area of the orifice
H1 = initial height of the liquid
H2 = final height of the liquid
t =time in seconds for the liquid to fall from height H1 to H2
Let at any instant, h be the height of liquid above the orifice and let it decrease by dh in a small
interval of time dt. Then
Volume of liquid leaving the tank in time, dt,  Adh
Theoretical velocity through the orifice u  2 gh
Volume of liquid flowing through the orifice = Cd a 2 gh  dt
The volume of liquid leaving the tank equals the volume of liquid flowing through the orifice.
  Adh  Cd a 2 gh  dt
 Adh
 dt 
C d a 2 gh
The total time t required to bring the liquid level from height H1 to H2 can be found by integrating
the above expression within the limits H1 and H2.
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t
 dt  
0 H1
H2  Adh
C d a 2 gh
t 
2A
Cd a 2 g
 H1  H 2 
If the tank is to be completely emptied, then H2 = 0.
Example
A swimming pool, 10 m long x 6 m wide, contains water to a depth of 1.25 m. If the water is
discharged through a 0.23 m2 opening at the bottom of the pool, find the time taken to empty it. A
discharge coefficient of 0.62 may be assumed for the opening.
THE MOMENTUM EQUATION
The momentum equation is a statement of Newton’s second law and relates the sum of the forces
acting on an element of fluid to its acceleration or rate of change of momentum.
The simplest definition of momentum is:
Momentum = mass x velocity = mu
Therefore, a body has momentum by virtue of the fact that it is moving. For a body of mass, m:
Force = rate of change of momentum
 F  mu2  u1  / t  m
 u2  u1   Qu2  u1 
Where u1 and u2 represent the initial and final velocity of the body respectively, t is the time over
 is the mass flow rate.
which the change of velocity occurs, m
Consider a two dimensional system in the figure below.
At the inlet, the velocity vector, u1, makes an angle θ1 with the x-axis, while at the outlet, u2 make an
angle θ2. In this case the forces are considered by resolving in the directions of the coordinate axes.
The force in the x-direction
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𝐹𝑥 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑢2𝑥 − 𝑢1𝑥 )

= 𝜌𝑄(𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑢1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 )
And the force in the y-direction
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑢2𝑦 − 𝑢1𝑦 )

= 𝜌𝑄(𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 − 𝑢1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 )
The resultant force is found by combining these forces, i.e. Fx and Fy, vectorially:
y
F
Thus, F  Fx2  Fy2
And the angle which this force acts at is given by
 Fy 
  tan 1  
 Fx 
In summary, it can be stated that
The total force exerted on the fluid = rate of change of momentum through a control volume
 uout  uin   Qu out  uin 

FT  m
This force is made up of three components:
FR = Force exerted on the fluid by any solid body touching the control volume
FB = Force exerted on the fluid body (e.g. gravity)
FP = Force exerted on the fluid by fluid pressure outside the control volume
Therefore, FT  FR  FB  FP
21
The force exerted by the fluid on the solid body touching the control volume is opposite to F R. The
reaction force, R is thus given by:
R   FR
APPLICATION OF THE MOMENTUM EQUATION
The momentum equation is used to analyse forces in the following problems:
(i) Forces due to the flow of fluid round a pipe bend

(ii) Forces on a nozzle at the outlet of a pipe
(iii) Impact of a jet on a plane surface
THE FORCES DUE TO FLOW OF FLUID ROUND A PIPE BEND
Consider a pipe bend with a constant cross section lying in the horizontal plane and turning through
an angle θ.
Steps in analysis:
1. Draw a control volume

2. Decide on coordinate axis system
3. Calculate the total force, FT
4. Calculate the pressure force, Fp
5. Calculate the body force, FB
6. Calculate the resultant force, FR
CONTROL VOLUME
A control volume is an imaginary, enclosed region within a body of flowing fluid, the shape of which
can be selected to suit the problem under investigation. For the pipe bend the control volume is as
follows:
22
COORDINATE AXIS SYSTEM
It is convenient to choose the coordinate axis so that one is pointing in the direction of the inlet
velocity. In the above diagram the x-axis points in the direction of the inlet velocity.
CALCULATE THE TOTAL FORCE, FT
In the x-direction:
In the y-direction:
CALCULATE THE PRESSURE FORCE, FP
In the x-direction:
F px  p1 A1 cos 0  p 2 A2 cos   p1 A1  p 2 A2 cos 
In the y-direction:
F py  p1 A1  p 2 A2 sin    p 2 A2 sin 
CALCULATE THE BODY FORCE, FB
There are no body forces in the x- or y- directions. The only body force is that exerted by gravity.
23
CALCULATE THE RESULTANT FORCE, FR
In the x-direction:
FTx  FRx  FPx  FBx
FRx  FTx  FPx  0  Qu 2 cos   u1   p1 A1  p2 A2 cos 
In the y-direction:
FTy  FRy  FPy  FBy
FRy  FTy  FPy  0  Qu 2 sin   p 2 A2 sin 
And the resultant force on the fluid is given by:
FR  FRx2  FRy2
And the direction of application is:
 FRy 
  tan 1  
 FRx 
The force on the bend is the same magnitude but in the opposite direction, i.e.
R   FR
Example
Linseed oil with a specific gravity of 0.93 enters the reducing bend shown in the figure below with a
velocity of 3 m/s and a pressure of 275 kPa. The bend is in a horizontal plane. Calculate the
magnitude and the direction of the force acting on the bend.
Out
24
75 mm
150 mm
30o
In
Example
A reducer bend having an outlet diameter of 15 cm discharges water freely. The bend, connected to
a pipe of 20 cm diameter, has a deflection of 60o and lies in a horizontal plane. Determine the
magnitude and direction of force on the anchor block supporting the pipe when a discharge of 0.3
m3/s passes through the pipe.
60o
25
BEHAVIOUR OF REAL FLUIDS
The flow of a real fluid is more complex than that of an ideal fluid, owing to the phenomena caused
by the existence of viscosity. Viscosity introduces resistance to motion by causing shear and friction
forces between fluid particles and boundary walls. For flow to take place, work must be done against
resistance forces, and in the process energy is converted to heat.
However, some liquids, including water, are near to an ideal fluid, and this simplifying assumption
enables mathematical or graphical methods to be adopted in the solution of certain flow problems.
For Newtonian fluids (which includes most fluids of interest), the shear stress (shear force per unit
area) between liquid layers and the boundary wall is given by Newton’s viscosity law:
du
 
dy
Where  = shear stress, N/m2

 = dynamic viscosity, N.s/m2 or Pa.s
du
= velocity gradient
dy
26
The inclusion of viscosity also allows the possibility of two physically different flow regimes, laminar
and turbulent flows.
DEMONSTRATION OF THE DIFFERENT FLOW REGIMES
The phenomenon was first investigated by Osborne Reynolds. He demonstrated the two kinds of
flows using a straight length of circular glass tube with smoothly rounded flared inlet. This was
placed in a large glass-walled tank full of water. Water from the tank could flow out along the glass
tube at a rate controlled by a valve at the outlet end. A fine nozzle connected to a small reservoir of
a liquid dye discharged a coloured filament into the inlet of the glass tube.
OBSERVATIONS
Reynolds discovered that, at lower velocities, especially when the water in the tank had previously
been allowed to settle for some time so as to eliminate all disturbances, the filament of dye would
pass down the tube without mixing with water. The flow was steady as almost to seem stationery.
This type of flow is known as laminar flow. In laminar flow the motion of the particles of fluid is very
orderly with all particles moving in straight lines parallel to the pipe walls.
As the valve opens further, and the velocity of the water increases, laminar flow would persist until
the velocity reaches a value at which the stream of the dye begins to waver. The point at which the
stream of dye begins to waver is called the transition zone.
27
Further increase in the velocity of the water makes the fluctuations more intense, resulting in the
dye mixing more or less completely with water in the tube. This type of flow is called turbulent flow.
In turbulent flow, the paths of individual particles of fluid are intertwining and crossing one another
in a disorderly manner, leading to a thorough mixing of the fluid.
CRITERION OF FLOW
Reynolds was able to generalise his conclusions from his dye stream experiment by the introduction
of an expression governing the conditions under which laminar and turbulent flows are expected to
exist. This expression is known as the Reynolds number and is denoted by Re. This is defined by
ud ud
Re  
 
In which u is the mean velocity, d is the diameter of the pipe,  is the dynamic (absolute) viscosity,
and  is the kinematic viscosity.
This expression would help to predict the change in flow type. If the value is less than about 2000
then flow is laminar, if greater than 4000 then turbulent and in between these in the transition zone.
Reynolds number is a unitless number and as such it is a non-dimensional quantity.
In practice, laminar flow rarely occurs in piped water systems. Laminar flow occurs in situations with
fluids of greater viscosity.
INTERPRETATION OF THE REYNOLDS NUMBER
28
The Reynolds number has a physical meaning which helps to understand some of the reasons for the
changes from laminar to turbulent flow.
𝜌𝑢𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠

𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
This can be interpreted that when the inertia forces dominate over the viscous forces (when the
fluid is flowing faster and Re is larger) then the flow is turbulent. When the viscous forces are
dominant (slow flow, low Re) they are sufficient enough to keep all the fluid particles in line, then
the flow is laminar.
Example
Water of kinematic viscosity 1.15 x 10-6 m2/s flows in a cylindrical pipe of 30 mm diameter. Calculate
the largest discharge for which laminar flow can be expected.
ANALYSIS OF PIPE FLOW
The flow of real fluid in pipes is often accompanied by some loss of energy. Because fluids are
viscous, they experience some friction which results in the loss of energy. This energy which is lost
has to be taken into account. In the case of flow in a horizontal uniform pipeline, the effect of
friction is evidenced by the fall of pressure (or head).
HEAD LOSSES IN LAMINAR FLOW
Consider a cylinder of fluid, length L, radius r, flowing steadily in the centre of a pipe. The pressure at
the upstream end is P and at the downstream is P-∆P.
At equilibrium, the shear forces on the cylinder equal the pressure forces.
Pressure forces = Pressure force at 1 – Pressure force at 2
= PA –(P - ∆P)A = ∆PA = ∆Pπr2
Shear force = shear stress x area of the wall
= τ x 2πrL
Equating the two expressions, results in the following expression
P r
 
L 2
29
By Newton’s law of viscosity, the shear stress is related to the velocity by the following equation:
 du 
    
 dr 
Substituting into the equation
P r du
  
L 2 dr
du P r
  
dr L 2
P r
Or du    dr
L 2
Integrating
P 1 P r 2
R
L 2 0
u  rdr    C
L 4
At r = 0 (the centre of the pipe), u = umax, at r = R (the pipe wall) u = 0.
P R 2
 C 
L 4
The expression for velocity at a point r from the pipe centre when the flow is laminar is given by:
P 1
ur  
L 4

R2  r 2 
This is a parabolic profile (of the form y  ax 2  b ) and the velocity profile would look like this:
The maximum velocity occurs at the centreline where r = 0, or
P R 2
u max  
L 4
30
Discharge is given by
Q  uA
Where u is the average velocity
u max P R 2 P D 2
u    
2 L 8 L 32
PD 4
 Q
128L
The expression for discharge is called the Hagen-Poiseuille equation for laminar flow in a pipe. It
expresses the discharge Q in terms of the pressure gradient ( P ), diameter of the pipe and the
L
viscosity of the fluid.
Writing pressure loss in terms of head loss hf gives:
32 Lu
hf 
gD 2
This shows that pressure loss is directly proportional to the velocity when flow is laminar.
Example
A fluid of viscosity 0.8 Ns/m2 and specific gravity 1.2 is flowing through a circular pipe of diameter
100 mm. The maximum shear stress at the pipe wall is 210 N/m2. Find
(i) The pressure gradient

(ii) The average velocity
(iii) Reynolds number of flow
Example
An oil of dynamic viscosity 0.15 Pa.s and relative density 0.9 flows through a 3 cm vertical pipe. Two
pressure gauges are fixed 20 m apart. The gauge A fixed at the top records 200 kPa and the gauge B
fixed at the bottom records 500 kPa. Find the direction of flow and the rate of flow.
HEAD LOSSES IN TURBULENT FLOW
The loss of head due to friction in pipe flow is expressed by Darcy-Weisbach formula as follows:
L u2
hf   
D 2g
31
Where  is a dimensionless coefficient called the friction factor. It is dependent on the relative
roughness of the pipe surface, and also on the Reynolds number of the flow.
The Darcy-Weisbach formula can also be expressed in terms of coefficient of friction, f as follows:
L u2
hf  4 f 
D 2g
Comparing the two headloss formulae, it is seen that   4 f . These formulae hold good for all
types of flow provided a proper value of f or  is chosen.
Friction factor,  for laminar flow is given by:
64

Re
This expression is obtained by equating the Hagen-Poiseuille equation to the Darcy-Weisbach

equation.
EXPRESSIONS FOR THE DARCY FRICTION FACTOR, 
Two types of pipe friction for turbulent flow can be distinguished. These are the smooth pipe and
rough pipe friction.
SMOOTH PIPE
Pipes of aluminium, brass, copper, lead, alkathene, glass, and asbestos cement may generally be
classified as smooth.
Blasius found that for smooth pipes, viscosity effects predominates so that the friction factor is
dependent solely on the Reynolds number (    Re ).
ks Laminar layer
For smooth pipes, Blasius suggests, for Reynolds numbers between 3000 and 100 000:
0.316

Re 0.25
ROUGH PIPES
Pipes of concrete, cast iron and steel are generally classified as rough. Blasius found that for these
pipes, both the viscosity and roughness effects influence the flow and the friction factor was
dependent on the Reynolds number and a parameter of relative roughness.
32
ks
ks
Nikuradse used sand grains to roughen pipe surfaces. He defined a relative roughness , where
D
ks is the sand-grain size and D the diameter of the pipe.
In the smooth or rough wall limits, Prandtl and Von Karman gave, respectively:
1 Re 
 Smooth-wall turbulence :  2 log
 2.51
1 3.7 D
 Rough-wall turbulence:  2 log
 ks
Unfortunately, in practice, many pipes of interest lie in the region where both roughness and
Reynolds number are important, so the friction factor is not constant for any particular pipe.
Colebrook and White combined smooth-wall and rough-wall turbulence laws into a single formula,
the Colebrook-White equation.
1  k 2.51 
 2 log  s  
  3.7 D Re  
This is the principal formula for the friction factor. The main difficulty is that it is implicit (i.e. 
appears on both sides of the equation) and an iterative solution is usually required.
EQUIVALENT SAND ROUGHNESS
For commercial pipes the pattern of surface roughness may be very different to that in the artificially
roughened surfaces of Nikuradse. Typical values of ks are given in the table below.
MATERIAL Ks (mm)
Riveted steel 0.9 – 9.0
Concrete 0.3 – 3.0
Wood stave 0.18 – 0.9
Cast iron 0.26
Galvanised iron 0.15
Asphalted cast iron 0.12
Commercial steel or 0.046
wrought iron
Glass 0 (smooth)
33
MOODY CHART
Graphical solutions of the Colebrook-White formula are available. The most well known is the
ks
Moody Chart (Plot of  versus Re for various values of ). The curves are the solutions of the
D
Colebrook-White equation.
At the left of the chart, Reynolds numbers less than 2000, the straight line shows the relationship
64
 for laminar flow. For 2000 < Re < 4000, no curves are drawn because this is the critical zone
Re
between laminar and turbulent flow and it is not possible to predict the type of flow. Beyond Re =
ks
4000, the family of curves for different values of is plotted.
D
EXERCISE
Check your ability to read the Moody diagram correctly by verifying the following values for friction
factors for the given values of Reynolds number and relative roughness.
Re ks 
D
6.7 x 103 0.0067
1.6 x 104 0.0005
1.6 x 106 0.0005
2.5 x 105 0.0014
34
35
MINOR LOSSES IN PIPES
Apart from the loss of head due to friction, there are other, minor losses in pipe flow which arise
from changes of section, junctions, bends and valves. The frictional loss in long pipelines is usually
far in excess of the minor losses and in these circumstances the latter are often neglected. With
short pipelines, however, the minor losses assume a greater relative importance and some
appropriate allowance should be made.
The general expression for energy head loss due to minor losses is:
V2
hL  K
2g
Typical values of K are given in the tables below:
Commercial pipe fittings Entry/Exit Losses
CONFIGURATION K
Bell – mouthed entry 0
Abrupt entry 0.5
Protruding entry 1.0
Bell mouthed entry 0.2
Exit to atmosphere 1.0
FITTING K
Globe valve 10
Gate valve – wide open 0.2
Gate valve – ½ open 5.6
Pump foot valve 1.5
90o elbow 0.9
45o elbow 0.4
Side outlet of T-junction 1.8
36
LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO SUDDEN ENLARGEMENT
u1 u2
D1 D2
u1  u 2 2
he 
2g
LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO SUDDEN CONTRACTION
D1 u1 u2
D2
u 22
hc  0.5
2g
DESIGN OF SIMPLE PIPE SYSTEMS
When the pipe friction is the only loss, the variables in a pipeline flow are:
Q, L, D, hf, ks and ν
Out of these ks, ν and L are known or can be determined. Thus one has the following three types of
problems:
TYPE GIVEN REQUIRED

I Q, L, D, ν, ks hf
II hf, L, D, ν, ks Q
III Q, hf, L, ν, ks D
In each of these types of problems the head loss hf is found by the Darcy-Weisbach formula.
L u2
hf   
D 2g
The friction factor  is given by the Colebrook formula or by the Moody diagram.
37
TYPE I PROBLEM: To find hf
This is a straight forward problem. Here Re and ks/D are known.
Example
The outflow from a pipeline is 30 L/s. The pipe diameter is 150 mm, length 500 m and roughness
estimated at 0.06 mm. Find the head loss along the pipe.
Take kinematic viscosity, ν = 1 x 10-6 m2/s
TYPE II PROBLEM: To find Q
Here ks/D is known and Re is not known. The procedure involves the following:
(i) Assume 
L u2
(ii) Calculate u from the head loss equation i.e. h f   
D 2g
ud
(iii) Calculate the Re using the u found in (ii) using Re 

(iv) Using the Re and relative roughness, ks/D determine the new friction factor, 
(v) If the new  differs from the assumed  , repeat the procedure using the new 
(vi) The calculation converges when the current  equals the previous 
Example
A pipeline 10 km long, 300 mm diameter and with roughness 0.03 mm, conveys water from a
reservoir to a water treatment plant. The head loss in the pipeline is found to be 150 m. Assuming
that the reservoir remains full, and neglecting minor losses, estimate the quantity of flow. Take ν = 1
x 10-6 m2/s.
TYPE III PROBLEM: To find D
This requires a trial and error solution. The procedure involves the following steps:
(i) Assume λ
8LQ 2
Find D from D  C1  . Where C1 
1/ 5
(ii)
h f g 2
C2  4Q 
(iii) Find Re from Re  and relative roughness from ks/D. Where C 2   
D   
(iv) By Moody chart find λ for Re and ks/D of step (iii)
(v) Use new λ of step (iv) and repeat the procedure till satisfactory value of λ is obtained.
(vi) Use the next larger standard pipe size.
38
Example
A flow of 0.4 m3/s is to be conveyed from a headworks to a treatment plant. The head loss in the
pipeline is estimated at 50 m. The length of the pipeline is 5 km. Estimate the required diameter,
assuming that ks = 0.03 mm and ν = 1 x 10-6 m2/s.
EMPIRICAL FORMULAE
As opposed to logarithmic formulae, empirical formulae are purely exponential derived from
experiments and observations. Simplicity is their chief merit. For pipes conveying water they
normally take the form:
u  aD x S fy
Where Sf is the friction gradient hf/L, and the coefficient a and the exponents x and y are empirical.
For smooth pipes, the Blasius formula is applicable up to Re = 1 x 105 and may be expressed in
exponential form as follows:
1 u 2 0.316 u 2
Sf     
D 2 g Re 0.25 2 gD
For pipes in the transition zone, the Hazen-Williams formula is used to calculate the velocity of flow,
i.e.
u  0.354CH D 0.63 S 0f .54
The indices are constant for all classes of pipe, and variation in roughness is allowed for by
adjustment to the coefficient CH.
For pipes in the rough turbulent zone, the Manning formula is applicable:
0.397 2 / 3 1 / 2
u D Sf
n
Where n is a roughness coefficient.
Example
A cast iron pipe is to convey 0.152 m3/s of water. If Sf = 1/400, determine the size of the pipe which
is required according to the formulae of
(i) Colebrook-White (ks = 0.3 mm)

(ii) Hazen-Williams (CH = 135)
(iii) Manning (n = 0.01)
Assume ν = 1.14 mm2/s.
39
PIPES IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL
PIPES IN SERIES
When pipes of different diameters are connected end to end to form a pipeline, they are said to be
in series. The total loss of energy (or head) is the sum of the losses in each pipe plus minor (or local)
losses at connections.
Consider a pipeline consisting of three pipes of different diameters, laid in series.
A
1 HL
Let D1, D2, D3 = diameters of pipes 1, 2 and 3 respectively
L1, L2, L3 = lengths of pipes 1, 2 and 3 respectively
u1, u2, u3 = velocities of flow through pipes 1, 2 and 3
λ1, λ2, λ3 = friction factors of pipes 1, 2 and 3
Apply continuity,
The rate of flow of water through each pipe is the same, implying that
Q  A1u1  A2 u 2  A3u3
Also, the difference in liquid surface = sum of the various head losses in the pipe.
Thus, H A  HB  HL
u3
Where, H L  hi  h f 1  he  h f 2  hc  h f 3 
2g
40
u12
hi  0.5  headloss at entrance
2g
L1 u12
hf1  1   headloss due to friction in pipe 1
D1 2 g
u1  u 2 2
he   headloss due to enlargement
2g
L2 u 22
hf 2  2   headloss due to friction in pipe 2
D2 2 g
u32
hc  0.5  headloss at contraction
2g
L3 u 32
h f 3  3   headloss due to friction in pipe 3
D3 2 g
Substituting in the equation of headlosses
L u 2 u  u 2 
2
u2 L u2 u2 L u2 u2
H L  0.5 1  1 1  1  1  2 2  2  0.5 3  3 3  3  3
2g D1 2 g 2g D2 2 g 2g D3 2 g 2 g
If minor losses are neglected and that 1  2  3 , then
  L1u12
L2 u 22 L3u32 
HL     
2 g  D1 D2 D3 
In terms of discharge, Q
16Q 2   L1 L L 
HL  2 
 25  35 
2 g  D1 D2 D3 
5
Example
Three pipes of diameters 300 mm, 200 mm and 400 mm and lengths 450 m, 255 m and 315 m
respectively are connected in series. The difference in water surface levels in two tanks is 18 m.
Determine the rate of flow of water if coefficients of friction are 0.0075, 0.0078 and 0.0072
respectively considering:
(i) Minor losses

(ii) Neglecting minor losses
41
PIPES IN PARALLEL
The pipes are said to be in parallel when a main pipeline divides into two or more parallel pipes
which again join together downstream and continues as a main line.
Consider a pipeline system arranged in parallel
1 Q1
2 Q2
M N
Q Q
3 Q3
Here, the headloss between the two junctions (M and N) is same for all pipes and the rate of
discharge in the main line is equal to the sum of the discharges in each of the parallel pipes.
Thus, simultaneous solution of the continuity and headloss equations enables the distribution of the
total flow rate Q between the individual pipes to be determined.
Therefore, Q  Q1  Q2  Q3
Headloss, h f 1  h f 2  h f 3
L1 u12 L u2 L u2
Or 1    2 2  2  3 3  3
D1 2 g D2 2 g D3 2 g
When 1  2  3 , then
L1 u12 L2 u 22 L3 u 32
    
D1 2 g D2 2 g D3 2 g
Example
A pipe 6 cm in diameter, 1000 m long and with λ = 0.018 is connected in parallel between two points
M and N with another pipe 8 cm diameter, 800 m long and having λ = 0.02. A total discharge of 20
L/s enters the parallel pipes through division at M to rejoin at N. Estimate the division of discharge in
the two pipes.
Q1
6cm, 1000m
Q Q
M 42 N
8cm, 800m
Q2
APPLICATION OF PARALLEL PIPES IN WATERWORKS
Parallel pipes are a device commonly adopted in waterworks practice when an existing main is found
to be inadequate to convey the required flow. Duplication over a part or all of the length of the
existing main is generally more economical than replacing it with a larger main.
Example
A pipeline of 0.6 m diameter is 1.5 km long. To increase the discharge, another line of the same
diameter is introduced parallel to the first in the second half of its length. Find the increase in
discharge if the friction factor is 0.04 and head at inlet is 30 m.
L = 1.5 km
30 m
A Qp B Q1 C
Q2 D
43

Fluid Flow

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Fluid Flow

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EC311 FLUID MECHANICS LECTURE NOTES

PRINCIPLES OF FLUID FLOW

Fluids may be classified as follows:

(i) Steady or unsteady flow

For Reynolds number (Re) < 2000 -----------------flow in pipes is laminar

For Reynolds number (Re) > 4000 ------------------flow in pipes is turbulent

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF FLUID DYNAMICS

(i) Conservation of mass (continuity equation)

(ii) Conservation of energy (Bernoulli’s equation)

FLUID FLOW RATE AND THE CONTINUITY EQUATION

Volume flow rate

Weight flow rate

The weight flow rate W is related to Q by

Mass flow rate

For any control volume the principle of conservation of mass says:

This is the equation of continuity for steady flow.

APPLICATION OF THE CONTINUITY EQUATION

i.e. 1 A1u1   2 A2u2

i.e. Discharge at section 1 = Discharge at section 2

For circular pipes

When the flow is incompressible (e.g. water)

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Energy of a liquid in motion

A liquid in motion possesses the following types of energy:

(i) Potential energy

Potential energy = mgz

Potential energy per unit weight = z

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐵

The force generated by the pressure at AB is given by:

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑃𝐴

RESTRICTION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Bernoulli’s equation has some restrictions in its application. These are:

(i) Flow is steady

Total head at 1 = total head at 2

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION

Thus, piezometer levels when fluid is flowing would be:

LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION

EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

(i) Pitot-tube/pitot-static tube

Using the theory of stagnation, then

Where u1 = ideal or theoretical velocity. Actual velocity, u actual  Cv u1 . Cv = coefficient of velocity.

By using the continuity equation we can eliminate the velocity u2,

Substituting this into and rearranging the Bernoulli equation we get

This can also be expressed in terms of the manometer readings

Thus the discharge can be expressed in terms of the manometer reading:

FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE

So the discharge through the orifice is given by

Qactual  Aactualu actual  Cc Cv Aorificeuideal  Cd Aorificeuideal  Cd Ao 2 gh

Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge, and Cd = CcCv

TIME FOR EMPTYING A TANK

Let A =area of the tank

a = area of the orifice

H1 = initial height of the liquid

H2 = final height of the liquid

t =time in seconds for the liquid to fall from height H1 to H2

Volume of liquid leaving the tank in time, dt,  Adh

Theoretical velocity through the orifice u  2 gh

Volume of liquid flowing through the orifice = Cd a 2 gh  dt

THE MOMENTUM EQUATION

The simplest definition of momentum is:

Momentum = mass x velocity = mu

Force = rate of change of momentum

Consider a two dimensional system in the figure below.