Lean Thinking and Lean

Manufacturing

ISEN 645
FA2016

Integrate Flow Monitor &

Define Design Instantiate
& Control Remediate
FA2016 Week Core Topic / Theme Technical focus

15week 1: 29/31AUG Introduction to Lean Core principles and definitions

2: 5/7SEP Value SE; IDEF0; Lean PS design principles
Schedule 3: 12/14SEP Value / Value Stream IDEF0; VSM; Value and the Value Stream
Week12 - Class23/24:
4: 19/21SEP Value Stream / KD - project VSM; KD presentation
Lean Engineering is the systematic
5: 26/28SEP*** VS / Flow 8-Step design process; IDEF3; JIT; Cells
identification and removal of waste in the
PS. Much of the waste is related to
6: 3/5OCT Flow Line balancing; Task engineering – centroid of the PS
variability in the PS.
7: 10/12OCT*** Flow Cell design and design activities
Factory physics focuses on the methods,
tools, and techniques that provide us with 8: 17/19OCT Control Demand leveling, MM sequencing, takt/pitch/pack;
practical knowledge about the corrupting
influence of variability and what we can 3EQN/4GRAPHS – core factory physics; Buffer engineering
9: 24/26OCT*** Control
do to counter it – namely through buffers. (time, capacity, inventory)
Production science; Lean supply Kingman’s equation;
We now move into variability reduction 10: 31OCT/2NOV
and elimination. 6σ methods, tools, and chain SC: LSC design, P&P, Integration with the PS
techniques to drive variability out of the 11: 7/9NOV*** SC principles and LSC design Beer game; SC P&P (pooling, bullwhip, multi-echelon)
PS. Variation is natural in physical
processes but is largely “man-made” in 12: 14/16NOV Perfection: Lean 6σ DMAIC VOC; SIPOC; C/E chaining; Gauge R&R; SMED; SPC
the PS. There are causes. The first step is
in distinguish between causes and effects. 13: 21NOV* (MON) Perfection: Gemba Kaizen Implementation planning applied
We then attack the root causes to
eliminate the variability. 14: 28/30NOV*** Culture / LPS design - Epilogue Leadership & culture

There’s no crying in the Gemba - 6σ is 15: 7DEC* (WED) Project briefings Schedule and timing TBD
performed at the point of production, get
your PPE ready… 16: Final 9DEC 0730-0930a

***KD scheduled review after class at 7p; team leads – quad-chart status briefing (3-5min)
  Lean system engineering is the systematic reduction of “waste” in the production system
 Factory Physics provides principles and practices to operate the system effectively despite the variability
 6σ is a systematic, continuous, and rigorous effort to reduce and/or eliminate variability
 ISEN 645, Lean Production System Design, is a fusion of all three

Project news
Project summary &
Approach
Technical objectives

We are in week 12 of 15. Issues being

The goal is to systematize and improve… Deliverables and
addressed and
schedule
In week 15 the teams will brief KD on their projects. progress

~20min per team (including Q&A)

Tentative schedule is MON(5DEC) 5:40-8p; WED(7DEC) 5:40-8p
Presentation slot sign up on Monday 21NOV in class
If in doubt – research, get help, “be resourceful”

***I’d like to see an outline of your final report before 23NOV***

“The production of goods or services is lean if it is accomplished

with minimal buffering costs.”
Project team (as of 16NOV) focus design areas

Team Project Focus Team Project Focus

Inventory planning and SOP for management of Liquid mix equipment and
1 9 Bottling line
management incoming and FGI processing
SOP for load, time, distance Route process WM&M;
2 Routing 10 Routing
balancing algorithm.*** route balancing plan; SOP
Inventory planning and Demand planning tool (Q,r)
3
management model – FGI policy
Layout; equipment Inventory planning and Tool to assist in the
4 Botting line 12
specification management inventory management
Load planning and
5 Routing 13 Bottling line Equipment; C/O
management;
Heijunka tool; demand load
6 Bottling line Layout and QC 14 Bottling line
leveling; EPEI
SOP characterizing the
7 Routing process of route planning 15 Bottling line Bottling equipment and C/O
and management

8 Routing ?
 The production of goods or services is
lean if it is accomplished with minimal
buffering costs.
-Wallace J. Hopp (Supply Chain Science)

Week 12
Prelude to Class24…
• DMAIC the value and perfection principle of Lean – fused into our design.
• D is for Define – this is the activity that the other four hang on; if we do not define the production system, the information to be managed, and
make careful distinctions of terms then the measurement, analysis, improvement, and control phases are at risk of the dreaded type III problem
(solving the wrong problem). This is our chance to capture the VOC thread throughout the PS definition. Ideally this phase would have been
accomplished during the PS design, but we can produce the IDEF0 of the PS at anytime.
• M – rigor and precision of the VOC translated into the Ys
• A – analyze the data (surrogates for the effects) and vector our resources to the “cause”
• I – make the improvements that eliminate root cause and alleviate the effects
• C – operate and monitor the health of the system as compared to our expectation from the PS as designed

• If we were on our engineering toes the DMAI phases would be dealt with during the LPS design [hence the phrase, Lean-6σ] and the C phase would
be put in place to monitor the PS during operation in the Gemba. The care and feeding of the PS (during its entire life-cycle) is the job of the ISEN.
Belts help, but the PS is under the care of the chief physician, namely the ISEN. The better schooled we are in SE – the better the LPS will operate
IAW its design.
Harmony through SE: LPS design and 6σ… SEeing the light!

• We obviously can perform 6σ in isolation of LPS design, but ISEN 645 is about LPS design and the 1st
and 5th principles are directed at a design that is VOC centric and variation resilient
• As ISENs we are charged with the definition, design, implementation, operation, monitoring,
remediation etc of the entire production system. It is critical to understand issues within the greater
context – the PS
• We are ISENs first and “belts” second – for LPS design we instrument the production system with the
VOC, to be measureable, to be controllable.
• Performed in isolation from the LPS design the D within the DMAIC is often “flowcharted” and
forgotten. But we should be careful to avoid this form of definition – we risk local optimization if we
do not locate this D within the larger context of the PS (aka the CONOPS of the PS)
• Critical work takes place during definition – the PS processes are engineered and enabled for
monitoring and control
• As ISENs we need to take stock in the SE part of our degree and build the blueprints for the PS using
bona fide SE methods; integrate the threads of 6σ into the artifacts that represent the LPS design.
• If you’ll note the major thread of 6σ is the VOC and its translation from Need to CTQ (requirements)
to Y (what we measure in the PS) to X (what we control to produce the Y effectively, efficiently,
repeatedly, reliably, consistently). Design and define; define at anytime – we can and should locate
what we are doing, the changes being made to the transformative processes, within the CONOPS of
the PS.
 LPS design is a fusion of SE and Lean P&P and instrumented for continuous variability reduction via 6σ P&P

The Lean PS is integrated…

6σ can be done mutually exclusive of lean, but it is difficult to image an LPS

design, under the formulation provided above, that can operate without 6σ.
Thus perfection, staying lean, continuously and aggressively driving variation
out of the system, is the final facet of the LPS design – integrated QC.
Using OEE as a PS visual
health monitor in the
Gemba

Bad data made electronic is very

colorful, but still misleading;

Audits are costly – but lean is self

auditing  audit by sight
 OEE
=
A·P·Q
OEE in summary
• OEE is more of a program of process capability accounting and less of
a number
• Indices are notoriously “beg the question…” quantities
• The process of arriving at the OEE is more important
• The 6-losses identified are lean waste indicators
• A silver lining is that OEE makes a good visual health monitor
• Lean means immediate visual status
• OEE can get at the health of what is not so transparent – namely
within the WS within the machine into the instruments
 ISEN 645 has been divided into several phases:
A. Lean principles and practices (waste reduction)
B. The physics of production and the corrupting influence of variability (buffer engineering)
C. Continuous variability reduction (6σ and DMAIC) – aka Lean “perfection”
D. Lean institutionalization (sustained change through directed action and leadership)

16NOV Lecture Plan Lean 6σ

1: 6σ overview, the DMAIC method (and its variants)
2: D is for Define (VOC, CTQ, Y, X – thread)
3: M is for Measure (Y and X either or both)
4: A is for Analyze (if we are not achieving the Y expected –
what’s the cause?)
5: I is for Improve (attack the cause, improve the PS) Waste identification, Variability identification,
6: C is for Control (monitor it, keep it healthy) – we do not reduction, and removal reduction, and removal
control processes that have not been engineered to be
controlled … engineer the process first (including sensorizing for
information acquisition so that it can be monitored)

History is not merely what happened: it is what happened in the context

of what might have happened. -Hugh Trevor-Roper
M1:
DMAIC – the (a) method behind 6σ; what we need to know as LPS
designers
NB!!!! – this is not a “Belt” certification lecture; we are interested in the
facets and rationale of 6σ for the purposes of designing a better LPS
Systematic and continuous
variability reduction for the
life of the PS

Lean 6σ – an overview
Point of origin…
• The roots of Six Sigma as a measurement standard can be traced back to
Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) who introduced the concept of the normal
curve.
• 1920’s Walter Shewhart showed that three sigma from the mean is the point
where a process requires correction.
• Many measurement standards (Cpk, Zero Defects, etc.) since.
• The term “Six Sigma” goes to a Motorola engineer named Bill Smith.
• “Six Sigma” is a federally registered trademark of Motorola.
• It has evolved into more of a method (perhaps a system) from its humble
beginnings as a measurement
The use of 6σ as a
metric is profound
• If my process is 3σ capable then any shift in the mean will
produce > 1350 ppm defects
• But if the process is 6σ capable then the process can support a
shift in the process mean of up to 1.5σ and still produce only
3.4 ppm defects
• Motorola determined that, in the long run, processes tend to
drift – that is the process mean drifts. To ensure that their
processes were still “capable” an adherence to 6σ processes
became the standard at Motorola.
• Now the production process had 6σ on either side of the
center of the process.
• It all looks good on paper and in graphs – but the reality is that
the engineers must build the processes that adhere to the
standard!
• At which point you have likely and astutely identified that 3.4
ppm defects is actually associated with 4.5σ from the mean –
yes, when we discuss 6σ we are making the tacit assumption
that it can handle the worst case of a shift in the process mean
of up to 1.5σ

• Just to drive this issue home a bit more a recent survey of

quality engineers found that ~50% did not identify with the
fact that 3.4 ppm defects referred to the shifted 6σ process
Of course, for Motorola (electronics) the units of ppm makes sense, but regardless – all PS can play the 6σ game
Quo Vadimus?
• 6σ is a vehicle to help us realize our Lean design both
during and after the transformation to Lean
• 6σ has moved from design standard to standard
method: DMAIC
• DMAIC as a method
• Define – identify the VOC transform it into the CTQs or Y’s
• Measure the Y’s make their measurement repeatable and
reproducible
• Analyze the system – what gives rise to the Y’s or prevents
us from achieving the customer’s level of Y? ANS: The X’s
aka the causes
• Improve the system Y’s put engineering and management
controls on the X’s
• Control the system, quantitatively, to ensure that we
sustain the gains
When and Where?

• When the going gets

quantitative
• When we can
measure it and the
veracity of the data
can be vetted
• When we have a
design in place or a
benchmark to grade
against – we are
always interested in
“compared to what”
From VOC to Y’s [aka CTQs]
• One reasonable way to quantify the VOC is to:
• Capture what is critical to the customer in a survey, interviews
• At this point we are translating Needs into Requirements
• Many tools can be used to assist in the classification and prioritization of these needs:
Kano, QFD, XY matrix – but what we are doing is classifying and aligning and prioritizing
• This has been done so many times that patterns exist and the resulting classifications end
up something we can catalog IAW what is Critical to Quality [CTQ]…
• The translation from VOC to CTQ is the journey from a statement that may be vague or
qualitative in nature to something we can measure in our production process

• During the analyze phase of DMAIC we move into the drivers [X’s] or causes for
the performance of the Y’s
• We then improve the X’s to impact the Y’s
 SIPOC
SIPOC’s value includes
identifying the production
causal chain

• One process’ outputs may be another’s inputs – the X’s and the Y’s can exchange roles; C/E chains
• Example: the VOC complains about delays in order receipt: Y = % on time delivery; X1 = order lead time;
X2=scrap rate; X3=%uptime. For the production manager the order lead time is Y and the production and
assembly cell cycle times might be the X’s. For the cell supervisors the cell CT is the Y and the workstation CT
is X1. At the workstation the CT is the Y and the control settings on the equipment is X1.
X’s, Y’s, Causes, Effects, Symptoms, Problems, Treatments, Cures… if we are going to be successful we need to make clear distinctions.
Making Distinctions is the backbone behind Systems Engineering and Knowledge Engineering
 Analysis of Variance for Gage R&R Are we victims of inadvertently
cooking the data?
• The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
can also be used to analyze Gage
Yijk  Parti  Operatorj  repetition(ij ) k
R&R studies.
• In ANOVA terminology, most Gage
R&R studies have an ANOVA type
data structure.
• A variance component analysis can
• Part has variance  p2
• Operator has variance  o2
easily be done in most software
packages.

• Repetition within Part Operator combination has variance  e2

• The individual variance components
provide estimates of error, operator
and “true” product variance.

• Analysis for the results at the right: From ANOVA:

• Part has the greatest variability
• Variability due to Operator and Repetition are  p2  530.889
negligible
• Invest in the Process
• The Measurement system here is not an issue in
 o2  19.525
 e2  12.446
the sense of Reproducibility and Repeatability
• Concentrate on the Process, put on Target with
Minimum Variation
Minitab
 Define and Measure have been dedicated to quantifying the VOC – what is referred to as the Y
 Analyze drives to root cause of the Y values – the root cause(s) are the X – there are many but only a few make a difference
 Improve puts us on a road to improve the Y by controlling the X
 Control – we put in place a set of prognostic tools to keep us from regressing in our endeavor to satisfy the VOC

Analyze and Improve

Define the problem, improvement activity, opportunity for improvement, the project
goals, and customer (internal and external) requirements.
Measure process performance.
Analyze the process to determine root causes of variation, poor performance (defects).
Improve process performance by addressing and eliminating the root causes.
Control the improved process and future process performance.
 Analyze:
5-Whys
enable C/E Ishikawa
analysis aka Fishbone

Stay Lean my friends

FMEA
Preventive

Identify failure Identify causes of Prioritize Determine and

modes and their the failure modes assess actions
FMEA is preventive work; Ishikawa is detective work effects and controls
SMED
SMED success

• Addresses both the A and the Q within OEE

• Rapid C/O
 www.freeleansite.com

Steps: Reduce internal work gradually – eliminate unecessary work

Classify
Reengineer to external
Streamline and standardize

external

external

external
Divide and conquer

internal
internal

internal
measure separate convert reduce/eliminate (repeat)
The Tools and Techniques

Define Measure Analyze Improve Control

Benchmarking Confidence Intervals Affinity Diagram DFSS [Design For 6σ] Control Charts
FMEA Measurement System Brainstorming DOE Control Plan
Analysis PF/CE/CNX/SOP:
IPO Diagram Cause & Effect Kanban Reaction Plan
Nominal Group Diagram PF – Process Flow
Kano’s Model Mistake Proofing Run Charts CE – Cause & Effect
Technique
e-test
Knowledge Based PF/CE/CNX/SOP Standard Operating CNX – Constant, Noise, Experimental
Pairwise Ranking
Management F-test Procedures SOP – Standard Operation Procedure
Standard Work
Physical Process
Project Charter Fault Tree Analysis
Flow Takt Time
SIPOC Model FMEA For the record there are as many variants of this
Process Capability Theory of Constraints
Quality Function Analysis Histogram
Total Productive type of chart as there are tools.
Deployment
Process Flow Historical Data Maintenance
Voice of Customer Diagram Analysis
Visual Management Many tools overlap and are used in many phases of
Task Appraisal / Task Process Observation Pareto Chart the DMAIC. The bucketing of the tools into the
Work Cell Design
Summary
Time Value Map Reality Tree phases is not critical and certainly not mutually
5S Workplace
Value Stream Mapping
Value Stream Regression Analysis Organization exclusive. Some listed are amalgams of others.
Mapping
Scatter Diagram
Waste Analysis
t-test What is critical is that we define a project that
Thematic Content makes a difference and one where we can measure
Analysis that difference reliably even if it is performed with
Tukey End Count Test chalk, a protractor, and an abacus.
5 Whys
 Before we continue - a word on other 6σ methods in use
in industry and potential sources of confusion

Thomas Liesener; Kaizen Factory

PDCA – Deming or Shewhart cycle
DMAIC - 6σ
A3 – Toyota
8D – automotive industry; PSP [Problem Solving Process] - Aerospace
DMAIC
C1 C2
identification criteria
Need for repeatable, reliable production and quality product
DMAIC method

the method
Lean production system [LPS] Define project definition
I1

A1
Without a Lean Transformation effort
the DMAIC method is a structured
Measure verified, vetted measurement data
continuous improvement program
A2

The use of 6σ engineers provides

directed actions
leadership and inertia for the effort
Analyze
analysis results
DMAIC at its core is quantitative and
A3
data driven, measureable issues leading
to measureable improvement

The IDEF0 mechanisms [6σ tools] here Improve Improved LPS

O1
are in reality applied widely across the
activities. The diagram here represents A4

a likely application scenario – but the

tools of 6σ are used where and when Control corrective actions

the engineers need them A5

VSM DOE TOC
Risk and return Regression Takt
6-sigma engineers VOC FMEA Poka-Yoke
SIPOC process models Cause Effect Diagram Kanban SOP
QFD ANOVA Cell design Run charts
6-sigma tools Pareto Gauge R&R 5-Whys 5 Ss Control charts
Measurement System Analysis
M1 M2
Six Sigma Summary

• VOC & CTQ

Measure • 5-Whys
Improve • SPC
• SIPOC • MSA • Ishikawa • Lean P&P • Process
• Charter • Gage R&R • FMEA • TOC Capability
• 5-Ss • SOPs

Define Analyze Control

 LE Black & Phillips

IQC
• As we know – Lean is a fusion of:
• Lean P&P applied to the Process
• Integrated PC
• Integrated IC, and
• Integrated QC
• Lean makes QC everyone’s job – it
must since we have a tenet that
demands zero-defects
• But IQC is data driven – this means
that the veracity of the data is also
everyone’s job – so the process and
procedures for acquiring this data are
also part of the integration
IQC Principles
• Design and operate the process to prevent defects
• Self-correction of production errors – one-piece flow
• Display QC characteristics prominently
• Conformance ahead of output rates
• Technicians can stop the process; better through Poka-Yokes
• Check 100% of critical part attributes
• Continuous quality improvement at the cell, workstation – Quality circles
• Eliminate incoming inspection
• Eliminate setup time to enable unit flow
• Lot size  1
• 5s in the work place
• Data veracity***
 If you are operating the PS as if the resources are scarce – you are running Lean

M1: Takeaways
• Our interest in 6σ is to improve our LPS designs – perfection is planned
for, the VOC is manifold and must be integrated throughout
• Lean P&P structure and facilitate our design
• Once in operation – striving towards the design we need a continuous
program of measurement, comparison, refinement
• The backbone of Lean 6σ is quantitative analysis; data driven improvement
• The program is better served with a cadre aboard
• Can management keep the Lean ship from dwarfing the profit goal?
• Design it, implement it, monitor it, fix it … perfect product at the takt

• We turn next to the tools and what data driven analysis means
M2:
Define
 Is the 6σ engineer a role, a formal position, or both?

Define Measure Analyze Improve Control

Definition means:
Support from corporate [buy in, backing, and participation]
Identification of candidates that make a difference Often a
Candidates need definition [aka process definition] Business
Quantifiable and Measureable [“data driven”] case is
Risk & Return estimated [ROI is often estimated] required
Selection [Critical to… Cost, Delivery, Quality]
Charter [document w/ signatures and authorization]
DMAIC
ROI is almost always a point of contention since it is a projection. Credible data helps – but the due diligence
Define phase exercise in obtaining that data can start to equivocate to “working the project before working the project”.
There must be a level of rational risk assumed on the part of the decision makers regarding the ROI.

Much of the literature describing the execution of the DMAIC method often [explicitly] assumes 6σ experts [Master, Black, Green] are leading the project…

The “Define” phase serves as a check against the issue of “solution-probleming”

 6σ projects are initiated by a need
Define Phase
• Define Phase
• Document and carefully define the need that is leading to the project
• Projects are identified and selected.
• Project selection is performed under the direction and with the participation of the
champion [from corporate; executive]
• Master black belts and black belts or green belts are also involved in selection.
• Phases of the Define Phase
• Often requires developing the “business case”.
More likely
• Project evaluation – often ROI driven performed in
• Pareto analysis parallel
• Project definition – including process definition
Selecting a Project
• Addresses a current or standing need identified by the organization
• Process with the obvious defects.
• Process with the capability issues.
• Has the potential to result in increased revenue, reduced cost or improved efficiency.
• Project should have identifiable process inputs and outputs.
• A good Six Sigma project should never have a pre-determined solution.
• Has collectable data.
• NB: be prepared to not only collect your own data, but to also put in place the apparatus to collect it.
• Business and accounting systems are not necessarily useful surrogates for production (information) systems, that is the data
that a production system requires for its effective and efficient operation, control, and management.
• This is why SE focuses (minimally) 3-distinct but integrated facets of the PS be characterized – process, function (behavior),
and information
• The information required to support the operation of the processes is not necessarily the same as the information required to
support the accounting or financial functions.

As a good first step we should see what our own data is telling us about the high drivers
Vilfredo Pareto to the rescue
37
 Define
Phase

• Pareto Analysis
• Part of the responsibility of the champion is to perform a
cost of poor quality (COPQ) analysis.
• This is based on the PAF categorization of costs.
• P-A-F stands for Prevention Appraisal Failure a method for
classifying quality costs 
• Performing a study of internal and external failure costs
will help to determine where the most benefit can be
found.
• Problem Definition
• Project definition consists of a problem statement, project
goals/objectives, primary metrics, secondary metrics, and
team member identification.
Project Charter
Define
In this phase, the leaders of the project create a Project
Charter, a high-level view of the process, and begin to
understand the needs of the customers.

• Define the problem by developing a Project Charter.

• Define process by developing maps of the process – SIPOC.
• Define your customer and their requirements – Voice of the
Customer: Customer Survey.

40
This is an accounting exercise
finding out what is important and its relation to how we produce
• VOC – largely handled through interviews and survey
• Kano is a tool to help prioritize the VOC through a lens that distinguishes
between performance, nice to have, and expected but not articulated
• Translation to CTQ [what is measurable; libraries exist]
• SIPOC – is a mapping between our core process, the core artifacts [inputs
and outputs], and the core players [suppliers and customers]

• Having an idea of what we will measure in our production process is part of

the issue – now we must identify how we will make that measurement
reliably and repeatedly to ensure that we are attacking an effect (Y’s)
whose behavior is due to causes (X’s) in the production system and not due
to how we gather the data on those Y’s
 http://asq.org/service/body-of-knowledge/tools-sipoc
“The suppliers, inputs, process,
outputs, customers (SIPOC) diagram
defines the scope of work for a team
and identifies at a high level the
SIPOC
potential gaps (deficiencies)
between what a process expects
from its suppliers and what
customers expect from the process.

A SIPOC diagram maps a process at a

high level and identifies potential
gaps between suppliers and inputs
specifications and between outputs
specifications and customers
expectations, thus defining the
scope for process improvement
activities.
Because it also identifies feedback
and feed-forward loops between
customers, suppliers, and the
process, it jump-starts the team to
begin thinking in terms of cause and
effect.”

Step 1. Name the process. (Use verbs/adjectives.)

Step 2. Indicate the start/stop, or the scope of the process. (What are the triggers that initiate and end the process?)
Step 3. Indicate the output(s) of the process. (Use nouns – what is it this process does?)
Step 4. Indicate the customer(s) of the process. (Whom does this process affect/benefit?)
Step 5. Indicate the supplier(s) of the process. (Which individuals/teams provide inputs into this process?)
Step 6. Indicate the input(s) of the process. (Use nouns – what is needed to execute this process and deliver the outputs?)
Step 7. ID the five to seven highest-level steps in the process as they exist today. (Verb/adj – how does this process operate?)
VOC: Voice of the
Customer
We want to make the VOC quantifiable and measureable
Define Phase
• Project Evaluation
• There are several methods for evaluating a project including risk and return
assessment.
• AoA
• Risk and Return Assessment
• Risk assessment evaluates a potential project across several dimensions to establish
an overall risk factor for the project which will be used to determine the
attractiveness of the project.
• Project return assessment evaluates a potential project on 3 dimensions - growth,
urgency, and impact.
• The risk and return scores are placed on a grid to determine the attractiveness of the
potential project.
M2: Takeaways
• DMAIC
• Define – means defining the project and securing support for performing
the project
• Charter gives the effort authorization “ticket to proceed”
• 6σ Experts [Black belt w GB support] lead and remain responsible for the
identification, selection, and success
• Key artifacts: Charter, Pareto, Business case, Risk/Return, SIPOC, Process
characterizations, Plan and schedule
• The intended improvement should be clear and measureable

• Measureable means…
M3:
Measure
Quo Vadimus?
• 6σ is a vehicle to help us realize our Lean design both during
and after the transformation to Lean
• 6σ has moved from design standard to standard method:
DMAIC
• DMAIC as a method
• Define – identify the VOC transform it into the Y’s
• Measure the Y’s make their measurement repeatable and
reproducible
• Analyze the system – what gives rise to the Y’s or prevents us from
achieving the customer’s level of Y? ANS: The X’s aka the causes
• Improve the system Y’s put engineering and management controls on
the X’s
• Control the system, quantitatively, to ensure that we sustain the gains
 From VOC to Y’s [aka CTQs]
• One reasonable way to quantify the VOC is to:
• Capture what is critical to the customer in a survey, interviews
• At this point we are translating Needs into Requirements
• Many tools can be used to assist in the classification and prioritization of these needs: Kano,
QFD, XY matrix – but what we are doing is classifying and aligning and prioritizing
• This has been done so many times that patterns exist and the resulting classifications end up
something we can catalog IAW what is Critical to Quality [CTQ]…
• The translation from VOC to CTQ is the journey from a statement that may be vague or
qualitative in nature to something we can measure in our production process

• During the analyze phase of DMAIC we move into the drivers [X’s] or causes for the
performance of the Y’s
• We then improve the X’s to impact the Y’s
Know the process
Know what’s critical to that process
What quantifiable measurement encapsulates that criticality
Can we make that measurement while minimizing other sources of error
We need to ensure that the apparatus used for measurement and the operator using the apparatus are not sources

DMAIC
Measure phase
Measure Phase
• Two Major Steps in the Measure Phase
• Selecting process outcomes
• Verifying measurements
• Measure Phase Tools
• Process Map
• XY Matrix
• Gage R&R
• Capability Assessment
 We’ve discussed this before
Process maps
• There many maps but few models
• Maps lack a standard
• Models are developed using a method – there’s enough error in what we
do and how we communicate there is not sense in adding to it.
• Methods make the work and the products of that work repeatable and
reliable.
• VSMs help
• If we want to measure we need to characterize the process in detail – we
need to know how the measurement values arise
• Bad processes produce bad values
• Bad processes can lead the operator into errors
What factors drive the quantifiable analog to the VOC? http://asq.org/service/body-of-knowledge/tools-xy-matrix

XY Matrix The XY matrix has several uses – it is sometimes used as a C/E

matrix, though the ‘C’ part of C/E is often a journey onto itself

• Correlating the VOC and the

improvement concepts
• The XY matrix is a tool that
allows a team or individual to
make informed decisions by
comparing two sets of
information and analyzing the
relationships between them.
• Allows you to consider long or
complex lists of characteristics
and visually see the patterns
between them
• Helps a team make decisions
based on data rather than
opinion
• Incorporates voice of customer
input in decision making

Step 1. Start with voice of customer input. This may come from surveys, focus groups, or other efforts to collect customer priorities. List the customer requirements at the top of a column – these are the Y
data for the XY matrix. In the example, a computer support group is trying to determine how to improve its services. Customers indicated that “fast and easy to get help” is their number one priority.
Step 2. List the priorities identified through voice of customer above each column. In this case, five is the highest priority; one is lowest. This prioritization can be used for weighting the results.
Step 3. List the possible inputs, or service improvements, in each row – these become the X data for the XY matrix.
Step 4. Assess the relationship between the customer priorities and each of the inputs or ideas for the X rows. In the example, the team chose to use a scale of one to 10 (10 being highest correlation)
Step 5. Correlation assessment: use the calculated values in the far right column to determine ranking.
Measure Phase
• Selecting Process Outcomes
• To define process outcomes, you first need to understand the process. This involves
process mapping. A process map is a flowchart with responsibility. The goal with a
process map is to identify non-value added activities.
• Two important measures that are monitored are defects per unit (DPU) and defects
per million opportunities (DPMO).
• The XY matrix is used to identify inputs (X’s) and outputs (Y’s) from a project you
have mapped and are desiring to pursue.
 Measure Phase
• Verifying Measurements
• It is necessary to use gauges, calipers and other tools when measuring critical
characteristics of processes.
• Measurement system analysis (MSA) is used to determine if measurements are
consistent.
• Product and process capability analysis is another approach for verifying
measurements. [NB: we will review this in the Analyze phase]
• Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility Analysis (Gage R&R) is the most commonly
used MSA.
Measure Phase
• Verifying Measurements (continued)
• Reasons for problems in measurement
• The measurement gauges are faulty.
• Operators are using gauges improperly.
• Training in measurement procedures is lacking.
• The gauge is calibrated incorrectly.
• Statistical experiments using analysis of variance (ANOVA) are useful in performing
Gage R&R.
• Two-way ANOVA is used to determine whether variation comes from the part being
measured, differences in operator measurements, or from the measurement
instrument.
 Gage R&R
Estimating measurement components
Gage capability and acceptability measures

http://www.stat.purdue.edu/~kuczek/
Tom Kuczek’s course in STAT has very good discussion of Gage R&R and ANOVA

The material in this section is based on a discussion in the Minitab manual plus notes from Kuczek’s
discussion of Gage R&R
Gage R&R
Process Variability is composed of variation from many sources: how much is due to the measurement system itself?

• Gage R&R study helps you investigate:

• If the variabilities associated with the system of measurement (human and
tools) are small compared with the process variability.
• How much variability in the measurement system is caused by differences
between operators.
• Whether your measurement system is capable of discriminating between
different parts.
• For example, several operators measure the diameter of screws to ensure
that they meet specifications. A gage R&R study (Stat > Quality Tools > Gage
Study) indicates whether the inspectors are consistent in their measurements
of the same part (repeatability) and whether the variation between
inspectors is consistent (reproducibility).
Possible Sources of Process Variation
Observed Process Variation

Actual Process Variation Measurement Variation

Long-term Short-term Variation Variation due Variation due

Process Variation Process Variation w/i sample to gage to operators

Repeatability Calibration Stability Linearity

 http://www.minitab.com/uploadedFiles/Documents/sample-materials/TrainingSampleMeasurementSystemsMTB16EN.pdf

From Minitab…
How Might Measurement Error Appear?
15
LSL USL

Actual process variation -

Frequency
10

No measurement error
5

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Process

15
LSL USL

10

Observed process variation -

Frequency
With measurement error 5

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Observ ed
Measurement System Terminology
• Discrimination - Smallest detectable increment between two measured values
• Accuracy related terms
• True value - Theoretically correct value
• Bias - Difference between the average value of all measurements of a sample and the true
value for that sample
• Precision related terms
• Repeatability - Variability inherent in the measurement system under constant conditions
• Reproducibility - Variability among measurements made under different conditions (e.g.
different operators, measuring devices, etc.)
• Stability - distribution of measurements that remains constant and predictable over time for both the mean and standard
deviation
• Linearity - A measure of any change in accuracy or precision over the range of instrument capability
 Terms and Definitions
•Repeatability refers to the measurement
variation obtained when one person
repeatedly measures the same item
with the same gage.
•Reproducibility refers to the variation due
to different operators using the same
gage measuring the same item.
http://www.stat.purdue.edu/~kuczek/

Estimated Common Cause

Our estimate of Common Cause Variation, which is the variance of the
actual product measurement, is actually the sum of three
components:
• The true product variation.
• Variation due to different operators (reproducibility).
• Variance of measurement equipment error (repeatability).
Gage R&R:
Designed Data Collection
In order to estimate these components of variation, we do a standard
Gage R&R study. All such studies follow the following format:
• We select a fixed number of parts.
• We select a fixed number of operators.
• Each operator measures each of the parts a fixed number of times.

Isolate and get rid of the equipment and operator as sources of error, if possible
Layout of Typical Gage R&R Study
Analysis of Gage R&R Study Data
Ranges are [were] used as a quick way to estimate variability

There are two typical

Statistical tools for the
analysis of the data from
Gage R&R studies:
• The first, and most widely
taught technique, is the
analysis of average Ranges.
• Ranges are obtained from
successive replications to
estimate error variance.
• Ranges from averages
between different operators
for the same part are used
to estimate operator
variation.
Analysis of Variance for Gage R&R
• The Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) can also be used Yijk  Parti  Operatorj  repetition(ij ) k
to analyze Gage R&R
studies.
• In ANOVA terminology,
most Gage R&R studies • Part has variance  p2
have an ANOVA type data
structure. • Operator has variance  o2
• A variance component
analysis can easily be done • Repetition within Part Operator combination has variance  e2
in most software packages.
• The individual variance
components provide
estimates of error,
operator and “true”
product variance.
  p2  530.889
Conclusions from Gage R&R From ANOVA:  o2  19.525
 e2  12.446
• Part has the greatest variability
• Variability due to Operator and Repetition are negligible
• Invest in the Process
• The Measurement system here is not an issue in the sense of
Reproducibility and Repeatability
• Concentrate on the Process, put on Target with Minimum Variation
 http://www.minitab.com/uploadedFiles/Documents/sample-materials/TrainingSampleMeasurementSystemsMTB16EN.pdf

Example using Minitab

http://blog.minitab.com/blog/adventures-in-statistics/how-to-correctly-interpret-p-values
Recall the input of the tolerance value when we
were inputting the data into Minitab – this table
tells us what proportion of the tolerance is
attributable to variation from each model factor
Gage Capability
https://www.spcforexcel.com/knowledge/measurement-systems-analysis/three-methods-analyze-gage-rr-studies

Gage Acceptability (usually specified by contract as a

numerical value) Example: * from Measurement Systems Analysis, 4th Edition, 2010, AIAG

% R&R Decision Comments

Recommended, especially
Generally considered
useful when trying to sort or
to be an acceptable
Under 10 classify parts or when
measurements
tightened process control is
system.
required.

Decision should be based

upon for example,
importance of the application
May be acceptable for
10 to 30 measurement, cost of
some applications.
measurement device, cost of
rework or repair. Should be
approved the customer.

Every effort should be made

Considered to be
Over 30 to improve the measurement
unacceptable
system.
Tukey, John (1959). "A quick, compact, two-sample test to Duckworth's Specifications". Technometrics. 1 (1): 31–48.

ASQ “Pocket-Stats” has a number of quick

calculations to assist during measurement
• Tukey-Duckworth Test (aka Tukey End-point Test)
• 1959 John Tukey responds to a challenge from W.E. Duckworth to identify a quick, easy to memorize method for detection
of 2-sample differences
• Recall, “Statistical tools allow us to identify significant effects or signals without being confused by random variation or
noise”
• “95% confidence” means <5% probability that random variation looks like a significant effect, when the true effect is zero

http://asq.org/conferences/six-sigma/2010/pdf/proceedings/c6.pdf
 M3: Takeaways
• Measurement ensures that we quantify the process or critical aspects of the
process – developing a detailed description of the process is critical
• The process of measurement itself is open to various sources of error
• The “gage” used to perform the measurement, the operator performing the
measurement – all sources of variability that can bias the results and lead us
to think there is significance when in fact there is none
• Therefore we must account for their contribution to the overall variability
term and identify how significant their contribution is
• Gage R&R
M4:
Analyze
 Before we continue - a word on other 6σ methods in use
in industry and potential sources of confusion

Thomas Liesener; Kaizen Factory

PDCA – Deming or Shewhart cycle
DMAIC - 6σ
A3 – Toyota
8D – automotive industry; PSP [Problem Solving Process] - Aerospace
 Define and Measure have been dedicated to quantifying the VOC – what is referred to as the Y
 Analyze drives to root cause of the Y values – the root cause(s) are the X – there are many but only a few make a difference
 Improve puts us on a road to improve the Y by controlling the X
 Control – we put in place a set of prognostic tools to keep us from regressing in our endeavor to satisfy the VOC

Analyze, then Improve

Define the problem, improvement activity, opportunity for improvement, the project goals, and
customer (internal and external) requirements.
Measure process performance.
Analyze the process to determine root causes of variation, poor performance (defects).
Improve process performance by addressing and eliminating the root causes.
Control the improved process and future process performance.
Working from the effects towards causes of failure – historical analysis

Analyze

C/E analysis
 5-Whys moving away from
symptoms and towards cause
Why did the fuel control fail test? The cpin diagnostic failed

12th and 14th instruction sets could not be

Why did The cpin diagnostic fail?
run

Why couldn’t the instruction sets be run? The mix chamber could not be pressurized

Why couldn’t the mix chamber be

The seal was compromised
pressurized

Why was the seal was compromised? The O-ring was bad…
The Toyota Way; Liker
The widely used Ishikawa “Fishbone” diagram
This is a recording device not a method

The method required to discriminate causes from

effects cuts to the core of why this is so poorly
done; 5-whys is about as good as anything. SME
support is critical when going through this process.

Ontology modeling can help; systems engineering

is critical.

These are typically developed and used

in a diagnostic – after the failure -
application
In production processes, common problems
occur commonly…
• Timing
• Logic
• Information availability
• Technique / procedure
• Resource availability
• Resource capability
•…

Is there are a way to get ahead? Anticipate problems and design them out of the system?
Working from the system towards modes of failure - anticipatory

Analyze

Failure Modes Effect Analysis

(FMEA)
FMEA is universally employed as a tool for root
cause identification
• Highlights:
• Understand the use of Failure Modes Effect Analysis (FMEA)
• Steps to developing FMEAs
• Types of FMEAs
• Link the FMEA to other Process tools

• Allows us to identify areas of our process that most impact our customers
• Helps us identify how our process is most likely to fail
• Points to process failures that are most difficult to detect
History of FMEA
• First used in the 1960’s in the Aerospace industry
during the Apollo missions
• In 1974, the Navy developed MIL-STD-1629 regarding
the use of FMEA
• In the late 1970’s, the automotive industry was driven
by liability costs to use FMEA to reduce risks related to
poor quality

This book is worth your time to read – it is focused more on the

engineers and ground support operations not on the astronauts
as most other Apollo books
Application Examples
• Manufacturing: A manager is responsible for moving a manufacturing operation
to a new facility. He/she wants to be sure the move goes as smoothly as possible
and that there are no surprises.
• Design: A design engineer wants to think of all the possible ways a product being
designed could fail so that robustness can be built into the product.
• Software: A software engineer wants to think of possible problems a software
product could fail when scaled up to large databases. This is a core issue for the
Internet.
 Symptom – an actual failing of the system –
witnessed, evidence exists
What Is A Failure Mode? Concern – a perceived failing of the system –
has not yet occurred but its potential has been
identified by the design engineer
• A Failure Mode is:
• The way in which the component, subassembly, product, input, or process
could fail to perform its intended function
• Failure modes may be the result of upstream operations or may cause
downstream operations to fail
• Things that could go wrong
 FMEA
• Methodology that facilitates process improvement
• Identifies and eliminates concerns early in the development of a process or design
• A structured approach to:
• Identifying the ways in which a product or process can fail
• Estimating risk associated with specific causes
• Prioritizing the actions that should be taken to reduce risk
• Evaluating design validation plan (design FMEA) or current control plan (process FMEA)
• Improve internal and external customer satisfaction
• Focuses on prevention
• FMEA may be a customer requirement (contractual)
• FMEA may be required by an applicable Quality Management System Standard
(possibly ISO)
 One way to enhance a FMEA development is
to use the 8-process design principles as a
When to Conduct an FMEA checklist and to anticipate issues that might
arise during the execution of the CONOPS.
Here again it is the CONOPS that helps drive
the FMEA definition.
• Early in the process improvement investigation
• When new systems, products, and processes are being designed
• When existing designs or processes are being changed
• When carry-over designs are used in new applications
• After system, product, or process functions are defined, but before
specific hardware is selected or released to manufacturing
The FMEA Form

Identify failure modes Identify causes of the Prioritize Determine and

and their effects failure modes assess actions
and controls
Types of FMEAs
• Design
• Analyzes product design before release to
production, with a focus on product function
• Analyzes systems and subsystems in early concept
and design stages
• Process
• Used to analyze manufacturing and assembly
processes after they are implemented
FMEA Procedure
1. For each process input (start with high value inputs), determine the ways in which the input
can go wrong (failure mode)
2. For each failure mode, determine effects –
Select a severity level for each effect (1-10)

3. Identify potential causes of each failure mode

Select an occurrence level for each cause (1-10)

4. List current controls for each cause

Select a detection level for each cause (1-10)

5. Calculate the Risk Priority Number (RPN)

6. Develop recommended actions, assign responsible persons, and take actions
Give priority to high RPNs
MUST look at severities rated a 10
7. Assign the predicted severity, occurrence, and detection levels and compare RPNs
FMEA Inputs and Outputs

Inputs Outputs
C&E Matrix List of actions to
Process Map prevent causes or
Process History detect failure
Procedures FMEA modes
Knowledge
Experience History of actions
taken
Severity, Occurrence, and Detection
• Severity
• Importance of the effect on customer requirements
• Occurrence
• Frequency with which a given cause occurs and
creates failure modes (obtain from past data if possible)
• Detection
• The ability of the current control scheme to detect
(then prevent) a given cause (may be difficult to estimate early in process
operations).
 “The Risk Priority Number, or RPN, is a
Rating Scale numeric assessment of risk assigned to a
process, or steps in a process, as part of
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA), in
• Severity which a team assigns each failure mode
numeric values that quantify likelihood of
• 1 = Not Severe, 10 = Very Severe occurrence, likelihood of detection, and
severity of impact.”
• Occurrence
• 1 = Not Likely, 10 = Very Likely
• Detection
• 1 = Easy to Detect, 10 = Not easy to Detect

 RPN is the product of the severity, occurrence,

and detection scores.

Severity X Occurrence X Detection = RPN

Manufacturing process FMEA
ATM machine
FMEA [partial]
Rudder System
Part of the battle is simply
having concise terms with
which to refer to “things” or
behaviors of or related to the
PS.

Most FMEA examples come

form the “physical” product
design world. But process
designs necessitate their own
FMEAs.
 A final word on C/E investigation…
• Making distinctions is endemic to C/E analysis
• Therefore naming “things” (systems, phenomena, etc.) is critical – once the system is in operation the
technicians will often coin phrases for portions of the PS that were not identified as such by the designer.
In other words the system as operated may be referred to differently than the system as designed.
• When someone refers to the “bottling line” what are they referring to? What is the scope? To what level
of detail? All resources included or only the mechanical elements? Information?
• Further, characterizing those things is what is chiefly required
• SE methods and techniques can shed light on this effort
• We often must coin a phrase for the portion of the “system” that we are dealing with – but we want that
phrase to reflect rigor and precision
• SE is the field that deals with making distinctions between elements, components, behaviors, phenomena
within the SoS
• SE is more than just making distinctions – but it earns its keep by assisting the engineer in characterizing
what was previously ambiguous – in order that it can be communicated, discussed, and remediation
identified
 Example: “Fuel System”
Another reason for
leveraging SE in the Separate
definition of the PS is to
establish the role of each
element in the system.
Combine Transport
For the example here the
system is a fuel system – Support
but the labeling makes
clear the role of the Sense
elements.

The same should be done Present

for the PS.

IDEF0 is a good first start. Accept

ICOMs can then be
Transform
further categorized.
Contain
 M4: Takeaways
• An FMEA:
• Identifies the ways in which a product or process can fail
• Estimates the risk associated with specific causes
• Prioritizes the actions that should be taken to reduce risk
• FMEA is a team tool
• There are two different types of FMEAs:
• Design
• Process
• Inputs to the FMEA include several other Process tools such as C&E Matrix and Process
Map.
M5:
Improve
Where all of this is headed
Improvement
SMED is an example of combined analysis and improvement. Generally the improvements
will be spearheaded by task engineering. SMED is a great example of task engineering
applied to the change-over process that pays dividends for the entire PS. SMED is now
more of a euphemism for “change-over”

Improve is dedicated to problem elimination first then mitigating its effects second.

Cure first, then if not possible, treatment.

SMED
SMED success

• Addresses both the A and the Q within OEE

• Rapid C/O
 Steps: Reduce internal work gradually –
eliminate unnecessary work
Classify
Reengineer to external
Streamline and standardize

external

external

external
internal
internal

internal
measure separate convert reduce/eliminate (repeat)
Set-up Time

Last First
Good Good
Piece Piece

Total elapsed
Time
Set-up Time
There are two types of setup time:

Internal Set-up:
Those activities that must be performed while the
machine is shut down. (Work content done in
addition to Machine Time.)
Example: Removing dies and tooling

External Set-up:
Those activities that are performed while the
machine is operating.
Example: Preparing tooling for the next set-up
Set-up Reduction Process

1. Observe and document the current set-up.

2. Separate Internal and External elements.

3. Improve each element.

4. Observe and document the new set-up process.

5. Standardize the new set-up procedure.

 Observe and Document the Current Set Up
A. Select a specific set-up for improvement

B. Identify a set-up “kaizen” team.

C. Observe the set-up process:

 Video Record the set-up process

 Complete the Set-up Operations Analysis chart (before Kaizen).

D. Prepare a Pareto chart for each time category.

 This is a time and motion study!!!

Analyze the Time Observation & Video

 Review Time Observation and Video with the team

 Identify opportunities
 Internal vs. External
 Value Added Vs Non-Value Added
 Normal vs. Abnormal
 Seven Types of Waste
 Automatic, Manual, Walking, and Waiting times
 Solicit ideas for countermeasures and improvements
 Observe and Document the Current Set Up
Set-up Operations Analysis Chart Mach # 3456 Before Kaizen Analysis
Minutes From To Area / Department Date 3/7/99

146 Part # Model A Model B Machining Cell

Operation Time Changeover Categories Goal of Improvement Plan

Internal to
Step No. Changeover Element Element Elapsed Internal External Waste Improvement Plan Eliminate External Reduce
Pick-up tools from tool crib
1 19 19 19 x Mount hand tools on machine x
(search)
Air wrench at machine .
Remove Fixture (Fixture Eliminate bolts - install
2 15 34 15 x
Change) quick release. Design SMED
cart to load fixture.

3 Look for Tools (Search) 5 39 5 x Mount hand tools on machine x

Remove Fixture (Fixture

4 7 46 7 See step 2. x
Change)

Clean & prepare subplate

5 10 56 10 Steel plugs for subplate. x
(Fixture Change)

Prepare nex fixture (Fixture Standardize procedures to

6 20 1'16 20 x x x
Change) externalize this step.
Air wrench at machine .
Put on new fixture (Fixture Eliminate bolts - install
7 22 1'38 22 x
Change) quick release. Design SMED
cart to load fixture.
Remove preset tools (Tools Establish common tooling for
8 4 1'42 4 x x
Change) all models.

Standardize procedures to
9 Preset tooling (Tool Change) 6 1'48 6 x
externalize this step.

Load new tooling (Tool Establish common tooling for

10 11 1'59 11 x x
Change) all models.

11 Run 1st Piece (1st Piece) 15 2'14 15

Standardize procedures to
12 Qualify 1st Piece (Gage) 12 2'26 12 x
externalize this step.

2'26 2'26 2'11 15

Totals
 Observe and Document the Current Set-up
Searching
- Looking for tools, jigs, fixtures, etc. Therbligs make an excellent
checklist when classifying
Fixture Change the activities
- Replacing one fixture with another

Tool Change
- Replacing existing tooling

Programming
- Making adjustments or changes to a CNC program in order to accommodate the new set-up

Walk time
- The time an operator must walk to retrieve a fixture, tools etc.

1st Piece
- The time required to produce a good unit after the initial set-up

Gage
- The time required to qualify the 1st piece
Pareto Analysis on each Time Category

Set-up Pareto Analysis

80

70
60
time in min 50

40
30

20
10

Fixture Chg Search Tool Chg 1st Piece check Calibrate Gauge
Separate the Elements

Internal:
Those activities that must be performed while the machine is shut down.
Example: Removing dies and tooling

External:
Those activities that are performed while the machine is operating.
Example: Acquire fixture/tools for next set-up

Both types of actions must be separated. Once the machine is stopped, the
technician should never depart to perform any part of the external set up.
 Clearly the change-over time depends on the model of the
coffee maker, but suppose the coffee once brewed operates in
Make Coffee… a warmer plate mode that disengages the brew mode…

• Internal (while machine is • External (while machine is in

stopped) use)
• Service carafe • Obtain water
• (NB: although with a second carafe • Obtain coffee
this too can be eliminated)
• Pour water for next batch
• Replace filter
• Load new coffee into filter
• Stock add-ins (sugar, cream,
Kahlua, Bailey’s, Patron Cafe)

The real point is that with a little thinking and some decent equipment decisions - most of the change-over can be
made external, where external means in parallel with the operation of the target process or equipment
Separate the Elements
Set-up Operations Analysis Chart Mach # 3456 Before Kaizen Analysis
Minutes From To Area / Department Date 3 /7/9 9
14 6 Part # Model A Model B Ma chining Cell

Operation Time Changeover Categories Goal of Improvement Plan

Internal to
Step No. Changeover Element Element Elapsed Internal External Waste Improvement Plan Eliminate External Reduce

Pick-up t ools from t ool crib

1
(s ea rch)
19 19 19 x Mount ha nd t ools on ma chine

Air wrench a t ma chine . Elimina t e bolt s -

x
Remove Fixt ure (Fixt ure
2
Cha nge)
15 34 15 ins t a ll quick relea s e. Des ign S MED ca rt
t o loa d fixt ure.
x
3 Look for Tools (S ea rch) 5 39 5 x Mount ha nd t ools on ma chine
x
Remove Fixt ure (Fixt ure
4
Cha nge)
7 46 7 S ee s t ep 2.
x
Clea n & prepa re s ubpla t e
5
(Fixt ure Cha nge)
10 56 10 S t eel plugs for s ubpla t e.
x
Prepa re nex fixt ure (Fixt ure
6
Cha nge)
20 1'16 20 x S t a nda rdize procedures t o ext erna lize
t his s t ep.
Air wrench a t ma chine . Elimina t e bolt s -
x x
Put on new fixt ure (Fixt ure
7
Cha nge)
22 1'3 8 22 ins t a ll quick relea s e. Des ign S MED ca rt
t o loa d fixt ure.
x
Remove pres et t ools (Tools
8
Cha nge)
4 1'4 2 4 Es t a blis h common t ooling for a ll models .
x x
9 Pres et t ooling (Tool Cha nge) 6 1'4 8 6
S t a nda rdize procedures t o ext erna lize
t his s t ep. x
10 Loa d new t ooling (Tool Cha nge) 11 1'5 9 11 Es t a blis h common t ooling for a ll models .
x x
11 Run 1s t Piece (1s t Piece) 15 2'14 15

12 Qua lify 1s t Piece (Ga ge) 12 2'26 12

S t a nda rdize procedures t o ext erna lize
t his s t ep. x

2'26 2'26 2'11 15

Totals

Internal or External?
Develop Improvement Plan
5S +1 “safety” (6S) discipline is the key to quick changeover!

Every minute spent looking for tools, fixtures,

drawings, dies, jigs or other materials adds to the
set-up time.

A strong 5S foundation, with a ‘point-of-use’ (POU)

methodology, will ensure that all required materials are in place
when needed, are clean, and in working condition.
Develop Improvement Plan
Remember the ‘Wastes’ ?
(refer to the 7W’s)

 Defects Punch Press

 Over-Production (inventory)

 Transportation

 Waiting Tool Cart

 Inspection (mass)

 Motion
Storage area
 Processing, itself for Dies
Tool Room
 + “Unused Creativity”
 Develop Improvement Plan

Specifically:

A. Convert as much of the internal set up to the external set up.

B. Eliminate or reduce the internal and external set up.

C. Eliminate the adjustment process.

Ultimate Goal: Eliminate Set-up!

 Steps: Reduce internal work gradually –
eliminate unecessary work
Classify
Reengineer to external
Streamline and standardize

external

external

external
internal
internal

internal
measure separate convert reduce/eliminate (repeat)
Employ Improvement Initiatives
Once as much of the internal set-up has
been converted to external set-up and
waste has been eliminated:

– standardize the external set-up

actions

– utilize quick fasteners

– use supplementary tools – at the

‘point of use’ (POU)
Employ Improvement Initiatives

Developing the Improvement Plan:

• What must be done while the machine is

shut down?

 What can be done while the machine is

running?

 Challenge every element in the set-up

 Establish a sound 5s foundation.

Improvement Checklist – an example
 Station tools, jigs, dies, etc. near the machine. (POU)

 Assure that all jigs, gauges, dies, tools, etc. function before
the set-up begins.

 Perform as many External elements as possible prior to the

set-up.

 Two people working together may reduce net set-up time

 Use functional clamps: One turn/ One motion

 Use visual control to eliminate adjustments.

 Application Best Practices
1) Make minor modification to the
existing fixtures.

2) Implement Point-of-Use (POU) techniques.

3) Identify additional tooling to remove attachment

from internal to external.

4) Adopt standardized tooling.

5) Document time savings.

Other ideas
1. Quick Changeover begins and ends with the 5S’s.

2. Change the Internal set-up into External, then improve the remaining Internal
set-up time.

3. Bolts are our Enemies.

4. If you have to use your hands make sure your feet stay put.

5. Don’t rely on Special Fine-tuning skills.

6. Standards are standard: they are NOT flexible.

7. Standardize all SMED Operations

Ideas

The die heights of a punch press or molding machine can be

standardized by using the liner (spacer) so that stroke adjustment will
be unnecessary.
Source: Toyota Production System - Yasuhiro Minden
Ideas

Examples of Quick Fasteners

Usually a bolt is the most popular

fastening tool. But because a bolt
fastens at the final turning of the
nut can loosen at the first turn, a
convenient fastening tool that
would allow only a single turning
of the nut should be devised.

Source: Toyota Production System

- Yasuhiro Minden
Ideas
Ideas
Ideas
For example:
 A slide clamp reduced the time required to load and unload parts to fixture.
 2 hold-down clamps eliminated the need to use fasteners.
 Set slide allows quick (temporary) alignment of 2 parts.
 Document the New Set-up

A. List each element on the Set-up Operations Standard Chart (after Kaizen)

B. Video tape the new set-up procedure.

C. Record the set-up time for each element

D. Note areas for future improvement.

Standardize the New Procedure
Set-up Operations Standard Mach # After Kaizen
Minutes From To Area / Department Date

Part #

Operation Time Changeover Categories

Step No. Changeover Element Element Elapsed Internal External Waste Comments / Future Improvement Plans
Standardize the New Procedure

The Set-up Operations Standard chart will become the

basis for the new set-up procedure.

Prepare the appropriate detail and work instructions that

will be included on the Set-up Operations Standard
chart.

Assure that all appropriate personnel are trained in the

new procedure.
500-ton Press
SMED example
from Shingo

Top down picture of the Press and the Die

insertion setup activities and the support
resources required to perform them
Improvements
summary
 http://www.thefabricator.com/article/stamping/reducing-die-changeover-time-without-capital-expenditures

Zunker 2003
300-ton Press

Upon review of the video, the team identified several problems:

• Too many wrenches, no socket wrench on open-back inclinable presses
• No preplanning
• Too many turns to tighten bolts
• Too much time spent on go-fetch-find
• Operator has to get off fork truck to load and unload die
• No prestaging of die or material
• Carts filled with odd-sized T bolts at each press
• Lack of labeling on die storage racks
• Clamping strap used instead of one-piece clamp
• Congested layout
• No standardized wheeled baskets
M5: Takeaways
• Develop a Detailed business process map.
• Analyze the process map to identify variation sources.
• Determine the x’s (the potential causes).
• Prioritize and collect data on x’s. Quantify the relationship [Y = f(x)].
• Identify the vital x’s from the potential x’s. Validate the vital x’s.
• Develop Feasible solutions to improve y.
• Determine operating limits of X’s.
• Analyze cost-benefits aspects of the feasible solutions.
• Pilot study to determine the influence of solution on the other measures and on Y.
• Evaluate financial gains.
• Finalize the modified process flow.
• Develop roll out plan and Implement solution.
M6:
Control
With the improvement made the X’s are [at least for now] under control

The written instruction embodying the improvement is termed the Standard Operating Procedure [SOP]

SPC is our health monitoring system to ensure that the X’s don’t get out of line

Monitoring can be automated to make our process error-proof – Poka-Yoke

DMAIC
Control phase
 SQC ≈ SPC
Backgrounder
• 1920s – Bell Labs [formalized SQC] –
Walter Shewhart [also of Western
Electric]
• Post WW-II Japan educates the shop
floor in the 7 tools of quality
• Deming, Juran, Feigenbaum lead
• TQC is in the hands of the producer
• SQC based on inferential statistics [small
sample sets used to draw conclusions on
“parent population”]:
• Acceptance sampling
• Defect rate observed after the fact
• AQL – acceptable quality level
• Lean in tension w AQL concept
• Control charts
• Tracks accuracy and variance of a process
• Assignable cause v inherent [natural] cause
SPC- Control Charts
“the concept”
• Multiple samples of size n [5 in this
example] are taken at 25 uniform
points in time with respect to some
measureable characteristic of the
product or process
• 𝑋 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
• UCL and LCL are 3σ away from the
grand average
• Points that fall outside the control
limits prompt a search for an
assignable cause; likewise
“unusual” runs must be
investigated – known as the
sensitizing rules
• 𝑋 ~ N(∙) by the CLT regardless of
what population governs the r.v. X

Natural Variation – completely random is expected; but what if we have systematic variation? Assignable and can be investigated and remediated
Western Electric Rules [1956]:
1. One point plots outside the three-sigma limits;
2. Eight consecutive points plot on one side of the
center line;
3. Two out of three consecutive points plot beyond
two-sigma warning limits on the same side of
the center line; or
4. Four out of five consecutive points plot beyond
one-sigma warning limits on the same side of
the center line.
If chart shows lack of control, investigate for special cause
Western Electric
These rules are based on Bernoulli and
Kodak
Binomial distributions
Control Chart Sensitizing Rules
what constitutes an issue for investigation?
Additional Sensitizing Rules [Kodak]:
5. One or more points very near a control limit.
6. Six points in a row steadily increasing or decreasing.
7. Eight points in a row on both sides of the center line,
but none in-between the one-sigma warning limits on
both sides of the center line.
8. Fourteen points in a row alternating above and below
the center line.
9. Fifteen points in a row anywhere between the one-
sigma warning limits (including either side of the center
line).
10. Any unusual or non-random pattern to the plotted
points.
SPC means data driven
• We are taking samples of the process performance
• Charting the samples
• Comparing the sample performance to what we expect the process is
capable of
• Making decisions on the result – in control?
• Assignable cause?
• Process performance is drifting?

• But it starts with the data, lots of data

 Principles of Operations Management; [Heizer/Render] 7th edition – primary source for the following SPC discussion

Samples
To measure the process, we take samples and analyze the
sample statistics following these steps
Samples of the product,
say five steering arms Each of these blue
boxes represents one
are removed from the sample of five
machining line to check steering arms
how they vary from each
other in weight # #

Frequency
# # #

# # # #

# # # # # # #

# # # # # # # # # #

Weight
 Principles of Operations Management; [Heizer/Render] 7th edition – primary source for the following SPC discussion

Samples
To measure the process, we take samples and
analyze the sample statistics following these steps
The solid line
represents the
After enough distribution
samples are
taken from a
stable process,

Frequency
they form a
pattern called a
distribution

Weight
Principles of Operations Management; [Heizer/Render] 7th edition – primary source for the following SPC discussion

Samples
To measure the process, we take samples and
analyze the sample statistics following these steps

There are many types of distributions, including the

normal (bell-shaped) distribution, but distributions
do differ in terms of central tendency (mean),
standard deviation or variance, and shape
Frequency

Central tendency Variation Shape

Weight Weight Weight

Principles of Operations Management; [Heizer/Render] 7th edition – primary source for the following SPC discussion

Samples
To measure the process, we take samples and
analyze the sample statistics following these steps

If only natural
causes of
variation are
Prediction

Frequency
present, the
output of a
process forms a
distribution that is
stable over time Weight
and is predictable
Principles of Operations Management; [Heizer/Render] 7th edition – primary source for the following SPC discussion

Samples
To measure the process, we take samples and
analyze the sample statistics following these steps

?
?? ??
If assignable causes ?
? ?
?
are present, the ?
?
? ?
?
??
?? ?
process output is

Frequency
not stable over time Prediction
and is not
predicable

Weight
Control Charts
Constructed from historical data, the
purpose of control charts is to help
distinguish between natural variations and
variations due to assignable causes
 Principles of Operations Management; [Heizer/Render] 7th edition – primary source for the following SPC discussion

Process Control
(a) In statistical control
and capable of
producing within
Frequency control limits

Lower control limit Upper control limit

(b) In statistical control
but not capable of
producing within control
limits

(c) Out of control

Size
(weight, length, speed, etc.)
Types of Data
Variables Attributes
• Characteristics that o Defect-related
can take any real value characteristics
• May be in whole or in o Classify products as either
fractional numbers good or bad or count defects
• Continuous random o Categorical or discrete
variables random variables
SPC makes a strong appeal to the… Using convolution, we can
easily see that as we add more

Central Limit Theorem [CLT] iid rv’s of any type – the

composite distribution
appears more and more like
the Normal distribution
Regardless of the distribution of the
population, the distribution of sample means
drawn from the population will tend to follow
a normal curve
1. The mean of the sampling
distribution (x) will be the same x=m
as the population mean m
Even the discrete case takes on
2. The standard deviation of the the [discrete] “bell shape”
sampling distribution (x) will equal 
the population standard deviation x = n
() divided by the square root of the
sample size, n
The CLT is related to the distribution of the rv when the rv is the
sample mean of a distribution … it is the basis for our reliance on
the Normal distribution in SPC
Population and Sampling Distributions
Three population Distribution of
distributions sample means
Mean of sample means = x
Beta
Standard
deviation of 
Normal the sample = x = n
means

Uniform

| | | | | | |

-3x -2x -1x x +1x +2x +3x

95.45% fall within ± 2x
99.73% of all x
fall within ± 3x
Control Charts for
Variables
• For variables that have
continuous dimensions
• Weight, speed, length,
strength, etc.
• x-charts are to control
the central tendency of the process
• R-charts are to control the dispersion of the
process
• These two charts must be used together
Setting Chart Limits
For x-Charts when we know 
Upper control limit (UCL) = x + zx
Lower control limit (LCL) = x - zx
where x = mean of the sample means or a target
value set for the process
z = number of normal standard deviations
x = standard deviation of the sample means
= / n
 = population standard deviation
n = sample size
Setting Control Limits
Hour 1 Hour Mean Hour Mean
Sample Weight of 1 16.1 7 15.2
Number Oat Flakes 2 16.8 8 16.4
1 17 3 15.5 9 16.3
2 13 4 16.5 10 14.8
3 16 5 16.5 11 14.2
4 18 6 16.4 12 17.3
n=9 5 17
6 16 For 99.73% control limits, z = 3
7 15
8 17 UCLx = x + zx = 16 + 3(1/3) = 17 ozs
9 16
Mean 16.1 LCLx = x - zx = 16 - 3(1/3) = 15 ozs
= 1
Setting Control Limits
Control Chart
for sample of 9 Variation due
Out of to assignable
boxes control causes

17 = UCL

Variation due to
16 = Mean natural causes

15 = LCL

Variation due
| | | | | | | | | | | |
to assignable
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Out of causes
Sample number control
Setting Chart Limits
For x-Charts when we don’t know 

Upper control limit (UCL) = x + A2R

Lower control limit (LCL) = x - A2R

where R = average range of the samples

A2 = control chart factor found in Tables [QC text]
x = mean of the sample means
For information on how these constants were derived, see: https://controls.engin.umich.edu/wiki/index.php/Control_Chart_Constants

Control Chart Factors

Sample Size Mean Factor Upper Range Lower Range
n A2 D4 D3
2 1.880 3.268 0
3 1.023 2.574 0
4 .729 2.282 0
5 .577 2.115 0
6 .483 2.004 0
7 .419 1.924 0.076
8 .373 1.864 0.136
9 .337 1.816 0.184
10 .308 1.777 0.223
12 .266 1.716 0.284
Setting Control Limits
Process average x = 12 ounces
Average range R = .25
Sample size n = 5

UCLx = x + A2R UCL = 12.144

= 12 + (.577)(.25)
= 12 + .144 Mean = 12
= 12.144 ounces

LCLx = x - A2R LCL = 11.857

= 12 - .144
= 11.857 ounces
R – Chart

• Type of variables control chart

• Shows sample ranges over time
• Difference between smallest and
largest values in sample
• Monitors process variability
• Independent from process mean
Setting Chart Limits
For R-Charts

Upper control limit (UCLR) = D4R

Lower control limit (LCLR) = D3R

where
R = average range of the samples
D3 and D4 = control chart factors from Table
Setting Control Limits
Average range R = 5.3 pounds
Sample size n = 5
From Table D4 = 2.115, D3 = 0

UCLR = D4R UCL = 11.2

= (2.115)(5.3)
= 11.2 pounds Mean = 5.3

LCLR = D3R LCL = 0

= (0)(5.3)
= 0 pounds
 Another effective
Control Chart
Application

Given that the entire concept of Lean is

predicated upon the adherence to Takt – it
only makes sense that we monitor its
behavior over time.
 Mean and Range Charts

These (Sampling mean is

sampling shifting upward but
distributions range is consistent)
result in the
charts below

UCL
(x-chart detects
x-chart shift in central
tendency)
LCL
UCL
(R-chart does not
R-chart detect change in
mean)
LCL
 Mean and Range Charts

These
sampling (Sampling mean is
distributions constant but
result in the dispersion is
charts below increasing)

UCL
(x-chart does not
x-chart detect the increase in
dispersion)
LCL
UCL
(R-chart detects
R-chart increase in
dispersion)
LCL
Steps In Creating Control Charts
1. Take samples from the population and compute the
appropriate sample statistic
2. Use the sample statistic to calculate control limits and
draw the control chart
3. Plot sample results on the control chart and determine the
state of the process (in or out of control)
4. Investigate possible assignable causes and take any
indicated actions
5. Continue sampling from the process and reset the control
limits when necessary
Manual and Automated Control Charts Minitab SPC tools
Control Charts also exist for Attributes
• For variables that are categorical
• Good/bad, yes/no, acceptable/unacceptable
• Measurement is typically counting defectives
• Charts may measure
• Percent defective (p-chart)
• Number of defects (c-chart)
 NIST: “A process capability index uses both the process variability and the
process specifications to determine whether the process is "capable“.

Process Capability We are often required to compare the output of a stable process with the
process specifications and make a statement about how well the process
meets specification.”

 The natural variation of a process should be small enough to

produce products that meet the standards required
 A process in statistical control does not necessarily meet the
design specifications
 Process capability is a measure of the relationship between
the natural variation of the process and the design
specifications [USL, target value, LSL]
 Note how well the pictures illustrate what is happening; what about charting the histograms?
More indexes…

Process Capability Ratio

when the production process is centered on the target value

Upper Specification - Lower Specification

Cp =
6

• A capable process must have a Cp of at least 1.0

• Does not look at how well the process is centered in the
specification range
• Often a target value of Cp = 1.33 is used to allow for off-
center processes
• Six Sigma quality requires a Cp = 2.0
Process Capability Ratio Example
Insurance claims process
Process mean x = 210.0 minutes
Process standard deviation  = .516 minutes
Design specification = 210 ± 3 minutes

Upper Specification - Lower Specification

Cp =
6

213 - 207
=
6(.516)
= 1.938 Process is centered on the
design spec and is
capable
 Cp is for centered
processes…
• To use Cp the production process must
be centered on the design target
value
• In the examples at the right all of the
cases reflect a Cp = 1 but clearly cases
B and C are producing bad product,
use of Cp as a measure of process
capability is misleading in these cases
• We need a way to deal with processes
that are not centered
• Cpk provides a capability index for
when the production process has
shifted away from the design target
Again, charting the histogram would
be valuable here – rather than
pinning our decision on an index.
Lean is visual – let’s see the data!
Process Capability Index
Upper Lower
Cpk = minimum of Specification
, -x x - Specification
Limit Limit
3 3

A capable process must have a Cpk of at least 1.0

A capable process is not necessarily in the center of the specification,
but it falls within the specification limit at both extremes
Process Capability Index Example
New Cutting Machine
New process mean x = .250 inches
Process standard deviation  = .0005 inches
Upper Specification Limit = .251 inches
Lower Specification Limit = .249 inches

(.251) - .250 .250 - (.249)

Cpk = minimum of ,
(3).0005 (3).0005
(worst case) ,
Both calculations result in
New machine is
.001
Cpk = = 0.67 NOT capable
.0015
Automated Inspection
• Modern technologies allow
virtually 100% inspection at
minimal costs
• Not suitable for all situations
Note – the more technology we employ the
more we make the maintenance of that
technology a part of our activities – PM,
calibration, etc.
 Control Limits are used to determine if the
A Lean Progression leveraging process is in a state of statistical control (i.e., is
producing consistent output).
SPC and Process Capability
Specification Limits are used to determine if the
product will function in the intended fashion.
Lower Upper
specification specification
limit limit
Acceptance sampling is (a) Acceptance sampling
“old school” – we (Some bad units
accept no defects in accepted)
Lean

(b) Statistical process Lean

control (Keep the progression
process in control)

(c) Cpk >1 (Design

a process that
is in control)

Process mean, m
In the cell or at the workstation – we train
the technicians to keep the cell Lean

7-Tools of
Lean QC – a
brief synopsis
LE [Black & Phillips Ch.14]
7-Tools of Lean QC
LE [Black & Phillips Ch.14]
 What about Quality that is designed in
from the start?

• Another approach is to simply design the

product and the process to operate under a
robust set of conditions
• Robust means to make some of the Taguchi’s first major contribution: The Taguchi loss function:

controllable operating parameters part of the
noise that our product and process must
effectively deal with
• This approach was pioneered by Genichi
Taguchi [Engineer and Statistician] in the
1950s
A graphical depiction of loss describing a phenomenon
affecting the value of products produced by a company.
Quality does not suddenly plummet when the spec limit
is not met; instead 'loss' in value progressively increases
as variation increases from the nominal target.
Helped fuel the continuous improvement movement
known as Lean Manufacturing.
What do you mean designed in?
http://support.minitab.com/en-us/minitab/17/topic-library/modeling-statistics/doe/taguchi-designs/taguchi-designs/

• A well-known example of Taguchi designs is from the Ina Tile Company of Japan in the 1950s.
• The company was manufacturing too many tiles outside specified dimensions.
• A quality team discovered that the temperature in the kiln used to bake the tiles varied, causing
nonuniform tile dimension. They could not eliminate the temperature variation because building a
new kiln was too costly. Thus, temperature was taken to be a noise factor.
• Using Taguchi designed experiments, the team found that by increasing the clay's lime content, a
control factor, the tiles became more resistant, or robust, to the temperature variation in the kiln,
letting them manufacture more uniform tiles.

• Taguchi designs use orthogonal arrays, which estimate the effects of factors on the response
mean and variation.
• An orthogonal array means the design is balanced so that factor levels are weighted equally.
Because of this, each factor can be assessed independently of all the other factors, so the effect of
one factor does not affect the estimation of a different factor.
Defining the Taguchi Approach –
• The Point Then Is To Produce Processes Or Products that are ROBUST AGAINST NOISE
• Don’t spend the money to eliminate all noise, build designs (product and process) that can perform as desired – low variability – in
the presence of noise

• ROBUSTNESS = HIGH QUALITY

• Noise Factors Cause Functional Variation

• They Fall Into Three “Classes”

1. Outer Noise – Environmental Conditions
2. Inner Noise – Lifetime Deterioration
3. Between Product Noise – Piece To Piece Variation
Selecting Parameters for Study and Control
• Select The Quality Characteristic & Define The Measurement Technique
• Ennumerate, Consider, And Select the Independent Variables And
20 - 100 Variables

Interactions
• Brainstorming
• Shainin’s technique where they are determined by looking at the products Components
Search
Multi-vari
Charts
Paired
Comparisons

• FMEA – failure mode and effects analysis

• Taguchi methods use a cookbook approach!! Building Experiments for
selected factors on the C&E Diagram
Variables Search 5 - 20 Variables

• Selection is from a discrete set of ‘Orthogonal Arrays’

• Note: an orthogonal array (OA) is a special fractional factorial design that allows study
of main factors and 2-way interactions
4 or Less
Full Factorials
Variables
Package
Crystallization Over Weight Raw Material
Type of Reaction
Balance
Time
Temperature Maint. Of
Balance Shortage of Sol A Sol. A Conc.
Weight Pour Speed B vs. C Validation
Accuracy of
Balance Method of
Size Sol. B Temp.
Weight Weighing
Concentration Discharge Stir RPM
Method pH
Time
‘Mother Crystal’ Operator
Fine Grained
Scatter Plots Optimization
RPM of Chemical Yield
Container
Dryer
Quality Temperature
Spillage
Steam Steam
Quantity Charge Speed Press. Flow
Wet Powder
Type Road
Cover

Moisture
Catalyzer Transportation
Content
Robust Design and Taguchi Methods

Example: The INA Tile Company

- Tiles made in Kiln

- Variability in size too high
- Variation due to baking process

- Accept/Reject is expensive
 The classic way of handling this is to categorize
Ina Tile Example.. Temperature as a factor in the design thereby
requiring a redesign of the entire Kiln system

Cause: Different temperature profile in different regions

Inside
tiles
Outside
tiles

Outside
tiles

TARGET

LSL USL
Inside
tiles

SPC approach: Eliminate cause  redesign Kiln

Ina Tile Example...

Cause: Different temperature profile in different regions

SPC approach: Eliminate cause  reduce Temp variation

How ? Redesign Kiln  Expensive

 Ina Tile example: Taguchi Method
Change the product (more robust during processing) rather than the process
Response: Tile dimension Taguchi – there is a better way – make
the product more robust in the face of
Control Parameters (tile design): “noise”; temperature in this case is part
of the noise and not a control factor
Amount of Limestone
Fineness of additive Huge difference between SPC under
Amount of Agalmatolite classic DMAIC and Taguchi

Type of Agalmatolite If Boots beverages takes too long to

Raw material Charging Quantity clean between batches (leading to
Amount of Waste Return increased change-over times) maybe the
formulation can be changed?
Amount of Feldspar

Noise parameter was the temperature gradient.

Taguchi: Experiment with different values of Control Parameters

 A method of designing a process
Ina Tile example: Taguchi Method... or product aimed at reducing the
variability (deviations from
target performance) by lowering
(Experiment with different values of Control Parameters) sensitivity to noise.

Higher Limestone content to desensitize design to noise

Inside
tiles

Outside
tiles
after
before

TARGET

LSL USL
 The key with Taguchi is that he placed
Taguchi DOE leverages ANOVA more of the burden on the product and
process design and moved what would
(i) Determine which input variables have the most influence on the output; have traditionally been controllable factors
to the noise [natural variability] term.
(ii) Determine what value of xi’s will lead us closest to our desired value of y;

(iii) Determine where to set the most influential xi’s so as to reduce the variability of y;

(iv) Determine where to set the most influential xi’s such that the effects of the uncontrollable variables (zi’s) are minimized.

Controllable input
parameters
x 1 x 2 … xn

Tool used: Output, y

Input
ANalysis Of VAriance - ANOVA: Process

z1 z2 … zm

Uncontrollable
factors (noise)
• Standard Operation Procedures
• The mechanism engineers use to provide a
The Voice of the Process:
blueprint and direction to the technicians on
the floor to keep the process viable
once we have insight – we
• These are living documents that reflect the need to make it manifest
best insights from engineering into the best
operation of the process and permanent - SOP
• An SOP must be configuration managed
Where?
• SOPs should be in-place for:
• Workstation 5s responsibilities including by-product
management
• Production control – Kanban or CONWIP
• Work stoppage due to quality issues
• Shift change responsibilities and carryover work
• Equipment startup and operation
• Equipment set up and change over
• Product assembly
• Inventory tracking
• Material ordering
• Material receiving
• Maintenance procedures
• Material processing (e.g., mixing, batching)
• Quality control and quality data responsibilities
• Any business or process step that needs to be controlled
Standard Operating procedures characteristics:
-Where the task is carried out
-The Author
-The Authorizing agent of the SOP
-Use of picture or illustrations as much as possible
-Use simple and easy to understand language
-The SOP must also contain any safety information.
The basic content:
- Name of the process
- Area where the process is carried out
- List of Personal Protective equipment (PPE)
- Introduction to the process [intention]
- The procedure [step by step] w diagrams
- Roles and responsibilities
- FMEA
- Related documents
Another critical facet of Control is that of mistake-proofing
Poka-Yoke Concepts
 Zero Defect Quality ( ZDQ)
 Understanding Process Errors
 Four Elements of ZDQ
 Seven Steps To Poka-Yoke Attainment
 Poka-Yoke Methods
1. Poor procedures or standards.
2. Machines.
3. Non-conforming material.
4. Worn tooling.
5. Human Mistakes.
Except for human mistakes these
conditions can be predicted and
corrective action can be implemented to
eliminate the cause of defects
Human error

Common Errors occur Commonly

 Forgetfulness
 Misunderstanding
 Wrong identification
 Lack of experience
 Willful (ignoring rules or procedure)
 Inadvertent or sloppiness
 Lack of process punctuality and timeliness
 Lack of standardization
 Surprise (unexpected machine operation, etc.)
 Intentional (sabotage) and its nearest neighbor – “malicious compliance”
Prevention; Zero Defect Quality (ZDQ)
ZDQ functions by combining four elementary components:
1. Point of Origin Inspection
2. 100 % Audit Checks
3. Immediate Feedback
4. Poka-Yoke
Leading us to…
What is Poke-yoke? A method that uses sensor or other devices for catching errors that
may pass by operators or assemblers.
Poka-yoke impacts two key elements of ZDQ:
Identifying the defect immediately ( Point of Origin Inspection)
Quick Feedback for Corrective Action

Poka-yoke systems consist of three primary methods:

 Checklists
1. Contact
 Dowel and locating pins
 Error & alarm detectors 2. Counting

 Limit or touch switches 3. Motion-Sequence

 Detectors, readers, meters, counters Each method can be used in a control system or a
warning system.
Each method uses a different process prevention
approach for dealing with irregularities.
 http://www.landp.com.au/special/presentation_demos/mproof_smpl_1.ppt

Contact Method
A contact method functions by detecting whether a sensing
device makes contact with a part or object within the process.

Cylinder present Missing cylinder;piston fully

extended alarm sounds

An example of a physical contact

method is limit switches that are
pressed when cylinders are driven into
a piston. The switches are connected
to pistons that hold the part in place.
In this example, a cylinder is missing
and the part is not released to the next Cannot proceed
to next step.
process.
Contact Method using limit
switches identifies missing
cylinder.
 Physical Contact Devices

Toggle Switches

Limit Switches

http://www.landp.com.au/special/presentation_demos/mproof_smpl_1.ppt
 Energy Contact Devices
Photoelectric switches can
Light
be used with objects that
are translucent or
transparent depending upon
the need.
Transmission method: two units,
Transmitter Receiver one to transmit light, the other
to receive.
Reflecting method:PE sensor
responds to light reflected from
object to detect presence.
Object

If object breaks the transmission, the machine is signaled to shut down.

http://www.landp.com.au/special/presentation_demos/mproof_smpl_1.ppt
 Contact Device

An example of a
contact device using a
limit switch. In this
case the switch makes
contact with a metal
barb sensing it’s
presence. If no
contact is made the
process will shut
down.

http://www.landp.com.au/special/presentation_demos/mproof_smpl_1.ppt
 Counting Method
Used when a fixed number of operations are required within a process, or
when a product has a fixed number of parts that are attached to it.
A sensor counts the number of times a part is used or a process is completed
and releases the part only when the right count is reached.

In the example to the right a limit switch is

used to detect and count when the required
amount of holes are drilled. The buzzer
sounds alerting the operator that the
appropriate amount of steps have been taken
in the process.

http://www.landp.com.au/special/presentation_demos/mproof_smpl_1.ppt
 Motion-Sequence Method
The third poka-yoke method uses sensors to determine if a motion or a step
in a process has occurred. If the step has not occurred or has occurred out of
sequence, the sensor signals a timer or other device to stop the machine and
signal the operator.

This method uses sensors and photo-electric

devices connected to a timer. If movement does
not occur when required, the switch signals to
stop the process or warn the operator.

http://www.landp.com.au/special/presentation_demos/mproof_smpl_1.ppt
Types of Sensing Devices
1. Physical contact devices
2. Energy sensing devices
3. Warning Sensors

http://www.landp.com.au/special/presentation_demos/mproof_smpl_1.ppt
Physical Contact Sensors
These devices work by physically
touching something. This can be a
machine part or an actual piece being
manufactured.
In most cases these devices send an
electronic signal when they are
touched. Depending on the process,
this signal can shut down the operation
or give an operator a warning signal.

http://www.landp.com.au/special/presentation_demos/mproof_smpl_1.ppt
Touch Switch
Used to physically detect the presence or absence of an
object or item-prevents missing parts.
Used to physically detect the height of a part or
dimension.

http://www.landp.com.au/special/presentation_demos/mproof_smpl_1.ppt
Energy Sensors
These devices work by
using energy to detect
whether or not an defect
has occurred.

Fiber optic

Vibration
Photoelectric
http://www.landp.com.au/special/presentation_demos/mproof_smpl_1.ppt
Warning Sensors
Color Code
Warning sensors signal the
operator that there is a
problem. These sensors use
colors, alarms, lights to get
the workers attention

These sensors may be used in

conjunction with a contact or
energy sensor to get the
operators attention.

Lights connected
Lights to Micro switches
& timers
http://www.landp.com.au/special/presentation_demos/mproof_smpl_1.ppt
M6: Takeaways
• Quality is everyone’s task
• Read Deming, Juran
• SPC applies rigor and precision to continued success
• Processes have weaknesses – we must strengthen those points in the
process and work to eliminate or [at least] control the uncertainty
• Error-proofing is the way to zero defects
• We can also get smart in design and make the design robust in the
face of “noise” [Taguchi]
• SOPs put our engineering knowledge on the front line – it is the VOC
translated through the DMAIC onto the shop floor
Next time…

• Quiz 12 (DMAIC)
• HW10 OEE, Gauge R&R

• Release the kraken, and get ye to the Gemba!

• www.lean.org
• www.idef.com Assigned Sources leveraged
• Factory Physics [Hopp and Spearman] 3rd edition 2008
• Factory Physics for Managers [Pound, Bell, Spearman] 2014
• Lean Engineering [Black and Phillips] 2013
• Manufacturing Systems Modeling and Analysis [Curry and Feldman] 2nd edition 2011
• Lean Manufacturing [Lonnie Wilson] 2nd edition 2015
• Lean Thinking [Womack and Jones] 2003 edition
• Learning to See [Rother and Shook] v1.2 1999
• The Lean Toolbox [Bicheno and Holweg] 5th edition 2016
• Improving Production with Lean Thinking [Santos/Wysk/Torres] 2006
• Methods, Standards, and Work Design [Niebel] 12th edition 2007
• Applied Probability and Stochastic Processes [Feldman and Valdez-Flores] 2nd edition 2010
• Operations Research Models and Methods [Paul A. Jensen, Jonathan F. Bard] 2002 edition
• Principles of Operations Management [Heizer/Render] 7th edition
• Gemba Kaizen [Imai] 2nd Edition 2012