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Anatomy and Physiology Page 1

I. Homeostasis 1. Homeostasis: the body's maintenance of a stable environment 2.

Receptors (may be a molecule or a cell) provide information about environment ->
control center (and set point) indicates correct value e.g. body temp @ 98.6
degrees --> effectors (such as mus cles or glands) elicit responses that alter
conditions in the internal environment 3. Most is monitored by negative feedback:
receptors measure deviations from set po int, effectors are activated, conditions
return toward set point, effectors gradually shut off 4. A few homeostatic
mechanisms function by positive feedback: changes by effectors elicit more changes
(e.g. blood clotting or labor contractions) II. Levels of Structural Organization
1.
Organelles: cell components that perform a specific function 2. Cells: basic unit
of structure and function a. Each contain a full set of genetic information but
only use a portion of it s cells to specialize 3. Tissues: groups of cells
organized into layers or masses that have specific func tions 4. Organs: structures
that perform a specialized function (comprised of tissues) 5. Organ systems: groups
of organs that function together closely 6. Organism: comprised of interacting
organ system III. Directional Terms 1. Superior: above, or closer to the head 2.
Inferior: blow, or closer to the feet 3. Anterior: toward the front 4. Posterior:
toward the back 5. Medial: toward the midline 6. Lateral: away from the midline
(closer to the sides) 7. Planes (sections) allow
a. Median (saggital): imaginary vertical line dividing the body into right and left
portions b. Coronal (frontal): imaginary vertical line dividing the body into
anterior and p osterior portions c. Transverse (horizontal): imaginary horizontal
line dividing the body into superi or and inferior portions 8. Body cavities a.
Dorsal cavity: cranial and spinal cavities i. Cranial cavity: brain ii. Spinal
(vertebral) cavity: spinal cord, vertebrae b. Ventral cavity: orbits, nasal, oral,
thoracic, mediastinum, pericardial, pleural , and abdominopelvic (peritoneal) i.
Orbits: eyes and associated skeletal muscles and nerves ii. Nasal cavity: divided
into right and left portions by nasal septum; air-filled s phenoid and frontal
sinuses iii. Oral cavity: teeth and tongue iv. Thoracic cavity: lungs v.
Mediastinum: heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus vi. Pericardial cavity: potential
space between the visceral pericardium and the par
ietal pericardium vii. Pleural cavities: Right and left; potential space between
the parietal and visce ral pleural membranes viii. Abdominopelvic cavity: extends
from diaphragm to floor of pelvis; includes stoma ch, liver, spleen, gallbladder,
small and large intestines, urinary bladder, and reproductive organ s ix.
Peritoneal cavity: potential space between parietal and visceral peritoneal memb
ranes 9. Membranes of body cavities a. Pleural membranes: serous membranes that
line the lungs (parietal: outside layer , lining the cavity; visceral: inside
layer, covering the lung) b. Pericardial membranes: serous membranes that line the
heart (parietal: outside l ayer, lining the mediastinum; visceral: inside layer,
covering the heart) c. Peritoneal membranes: serous membranes that line the
abdominopelvic cavity (pari etal: outside layer, lining the cavity; visceral:
inside layer, lining the organs) IV. Four major tissue types (and their functions)
1. Epithelial tissue a. Found throughout the body. Covers the body, lines organs,
inner lining of body c avities, and hollow organs b. Always has an apical (free)
surface exposed to an open space (inside or outside) . Thin, nonliving basement
membrane anchors epithelium to underlying connective tissue
c. Tightly packed; lac k blood vessels (supplied by underlying connective tissues w
ith abundant blood vessels) d. Functions include protection, secretion, absorption,
and excretion e. Simple squamous i. Single layer of thin, flattened cells ii.
Common at sites of diffusion and filtration (substances pass through easily) iii.
Alveoli, walls of capillaries, insides of blood and lymph vessels, covers membra
nes that line body cavities iv. Thin and delicate --> easily damaged f. Simple
cuboidal i. Single layer of cube-shaped cells ii. Lines follicles of thyroid gland,
covers ovaries, lines kidney tubules, ducts of glands (salivary glands, pancreas,
liver) iii. Functions in tubular secretion and tubular reabsorption iv. Secretes
glandular products g. Simple columnar i. Single layer of enlongated cells
ii. Ciliated or nonciliated
Anatomy and Physiology Page 2

ii. Ciliated or nonciliated iii. Elongated, thick --> good protective layer iv.
Nonciliated: portions of the GI tract v. Secretes digestive fluids, absorbs
nutrients vi. Microvilli in intestines for absorption vii. Goblet cells: flask-
shaped glandular cells in between epithelial cells that secr ete mucus onto free
surface h. Pseudostratified columnar i. Appear stratified, but are not ii. Commonly
ciliated iii. Goblet cells secrete mucus; cilia sweep it away iv. Lines the
respiratory system i. Stratified squamous i. Many layers of cells, very thick
ii. Makes up epidermis iii. As older cells are pushed outward, they accumulate
keratin (protein) which produ ces covering of dry, tough protective material that
prevents water and other substances from escaping and microorganisms from entering
iv. Also lines oral cavity, esophagus, vagina, and anal canal j. Stratified
cuboidal i. Multiple layers of cuboidal cells that form lining of a lumen ii. Lines
larger ducts of mammary glands, sweat glands, salivary glands, pancreas, d
eveloping ovaries, and seminiferous tubules k. Stratified columnar i. Several
layers of columnar cells; superficial cells are elongated while basal ce lls are
cuboidal ii. Lines part of the male urethra and ductus deferens and parts of the
pharynx l. Transitional i. Specialized to change in response to increased tension
ii. Lines urinary bladder iii. When the cells contract, there are multiple layers
of cuboidal cells; when the o rgan is distended, the
tissue stretches and there appears to be only a few layers of cells iv. Also
prevent the contents of the bladder from diffusing back into the internal e
nvironment m. Glandular i. Specialized cells to produce and secrete substances into
ducts or into body flui ds ii. Usually found within columnar or cuboidal
epithelium; one or more glandular cell s composes a gland iii. Exocrine gland:
secretes into a duct that opens onto an open surface (such as sk in or GI tract)
iv. Endocrine gland: secretes into tissue fluid or blood v. Merocrine glands:
release fluids by exocytosis vi. Apocrine glands: lose small portions of glandular
cell bodies during secretion vii. Holocrine glands: secrete entire cell along with
fluids n. Types of membranes i. Thin structures that are usually composed of
epithelium and underlying connectiv e tissue a. Mucous membranes: Line tubes that
open to outside of the body (oral and nasal ca vities and tubes of digestive,
respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems) type of epithelium var ies goblet
cells in between epithelial cells secrete mucous b.
Serous membranes: Line cavities that do not open to the outside; reduce friction ;
form inner linings of thorax and abdomen; simple squamous epithelium and loose
connective tissue; secr ete watery serous fluid c. Synovial membranes: Lines joints
(composed entirely of connective tissue) d. Cutaneous membrane: Skin. 2. Connective
tissue a. Most abundant type of tissue by weight b. Provides frameworks, fills
spaces, stores fat, produces blood cells, protects ag ainst infection, and helps
repair tissue damage c. Extracellular matrix: protein fibers and ground substance
d. Fixed cells: remain in their place; wandering cells: reside in different places
in the body e. Fibroblasts: star-shaped cells that produce fibers by secreting
proteins into th e extracellular matrix f. Macrophages: originate as white blood
cells; usually attached to fibers but can detach; function as scavenger cells g.
Mast cells: usually near blood vessels; secrete heparin, which prevents blood cl
otting; also release histamine h. Collagenous fibers: thick threads of collagen;
great tensile strength; component s of body parts that hold structures together,
like ligaments and tendons (tissue containing abundant coll agenous fibers is dense
between cells
connective tissue i.

tissue with sparse fibers is loose connective tissue)

Elastic fibers: composed of springlike protein elastin commonly in body parts tha t
stretch --> vocal cords, air passages of respiratory system (yellow fibers) j.
Reticular fibers: thin collagenous fibers e spleen k. Areolar i. Delicate, thin
membranes ii. Binds the skin to the underlying organs and fills spaces between
muscles l. Reticular i. Framework of certain internal organs, e.g. liver, spleen,
lymphatic organs m. Cartilage i. Provides support, frameworks, and attachments;
protects underlying tissues; form s structural models for bones ii. Abundant
extracellular matrix iii. Chondrocytes: cartilage cells iv. Lacunae: chambers that
house the chondrocytes v. Perichondrium: connective tissue covering that houses
cartilaginous structures ( contain blood vessels) delicate supporting networks in
e.g. th
vi. Hyaline cartilage
Anatomy and Physiology Page 3

vi. Hyaline cartilage 1) Most common type 2) Very fine collagenous fibers 3) Found
on ends of bones, soft part of the bones 4) Bones begin as hyaline cartilage during
embryonic development vii. Elastic cartilage 1) More flexible 2) Dense network of
elastic fibers 3) External ears and parts of larynx viii. Fibrocartilage 1) Very
tough 2) Shock absorber 3) Intervertebral discs 4)
Cushions bones in the knees and pelvic girdle n. Bone i. Most rigid connective
tissue (mineral salts) ii. Abundant collagenous fibers iii. Internally supports
body structures iv. Red marrow forms blood cells; stores and releases inorganic
chemicals like calci um and phosphorus v. Osteoblasts deposit bone matrix vi.
Haversian (central) canals contain blood vessels; lamellae (layers of bone) are
deposited concentrically around them each contains a blood vessel vii. Once
surrounded by matrix, osteoblasts --> osteocytes viii. Osteon/Haversian system:
osteocytes and layers of extracellular matrix, concentr ically clustered around
central canal ix. Canaliculi: cytoplasmic processes that extend outward and pass
through minute tu bes in extracellular matrix; gap junctions connect them to
membranes of surrounding cells allow materi als to move rapidly between blood
vessels and bone cells o. Blood i. Cells suspended in plasma
ii. RBC: transport gases; WBC: fight infection; platelets clot iii. Form in
hematopoietic tissues in red marrow p. Adipose i. Fat --> forms when adipocytes
store fat in their cytoplasm ii. Beneath skin, spaces between muscles, around
kidneys, behind eyeballs, abdominal membranes, surface of heart, some joints q.
Dense i. Regular: very strong; parts of tendons and ligaments (can withstand a lot
of pul ling); poor blood supply ii. Irregular: randomly organized; sustain tension
exerted from multiple directions; in the dermis 3. Muscle tissue a. Voluntary
(skeletal) i. Attach to bones; controlled by conscious effort ii. Thin and narrow;
alternating light and dark striations iii. Multinucleate cells b. Involuntary
(smooth)
i. Lack striations ii. Single nucleus iii. Lines walls of hollow internal organs
e.g. stomach, intestines, urinary bladder, uterus, and blood vessels iv. Moves food
through digestive tract, constricts blood vessels, empties urinary bl adder c.
Cardiac i. Found only in heart ii. Striated, branched, joined end to end, and
interconnected in complex networks gle nucleus iii. Intercalated disc:
intercellular junctions that are only in cardiac tissue iv. Bulk of heart; pumps
blood through the heart 4. Nerve tissue a. In brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves
b. Basic cells = neurons c. Transmit nerve impulses along cellular processes called
axons to other neurons o r to muscles or glands d. Neroglia: support and bind the
components of nervous tissue, carry on phagocytos is, and help supply growth sin
factors and nutrients to neurons by connecting them to blood vessels V. Cell
organelles 1. Nucleus: large, usually spherical, structure that contains DNA 2.
Chromosomes (chromatin): chromatin consists of loosely coiled fibers in nuclear
fluid fibers consist of DNA molecules wrapped around proteins called histones
(chromatin fibers organized, f orm chromosome) 3. Ribosomes: composed of protein
and RNA link amino acids to form proteins in cytoplasm and bound to rough
endoplasmic reticulum 4. Endoplasmic reticulum: participates in protein and lipid
molecule synthesis rough ER synthesizes protein; smooth ER synthesizes lipids,
absorbs fats from the digestive tract, and breaking down drugs 5. Golgi apparatus:
glycoproteins pass from layer to layer, being modified chemical ly (sugar molecules
added or removed); are secreted by exocytosis 6. Lysosomes: "garbage disposal" of
the cell enzymes dismantle debris. Contain more than 40 different enzymes these
enzymes only work in very acidic conditions, which prevents it from destro ying
other cellular contents 7. Inclusions (vacuoles): other chemicals contained in the
cytosol, are usually the re temporarily (e.g. stored nutrients and pigments) 8.
Mitochondria: "powerhouse" of the cell final step in ATP synthesis 9. Cell/plasma
membrane: extremely thin, somewhat elastic, flexible; many outpouchi ng and
infoldings that increase surface area controls entrance and exit of substances
(selectively permeable); al lows cells to receive and respond to incoming messages,
called signal transduction scattered
a. Composed of phospholipid bilayer
a. Composed of phospholipid bilayer b. Interior is fatty acid portions of
phospholipid molecules (selective permeabilit y) c. Many types of proteins i.
Integral protein: protein that spans the membrane ii. Peripheral protein: protein
that projects from the membrane's outer surface iii. Transmembrane protein: extends
from the outer surface at one end and dips into t he cytoplasm at the other end
(many function as receptors) d. Cellular adhesion molecules: enable cells to touch
or bind (help slow white bloo d cells to guide them to the site of injury, help
establish connections between nerve cells that underlie lea rning and memory) 10.
Cytoplasm: network of organelles suspended in liquid cytosol 11. Cytoskeleton:
supportive framework formed by network of protein rods and tubules VI.
Integumentary system 1. Functions: keeps out pathogens, keeps the body from losing
water, helps regulate temperature, synthesizes nutrients such as vitamin D 2.
Epidermal and Dermal structures a. Epidermis: outer layer, consists of stratified
squamous epithelium
i. Stratum corneum (outermost layer) ii. Stratum granulosum iii. Stratum spinosum
iv. Stratum basale (stratum germinativum, or basal cell layer melanocytes b.
Dermis: inner layer, thicker than epidermis, connective tissue with collagen and
elastic fibers, smooth muscle tissue, nervous tissue, and blood i. Sensory
receptors 1) Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles: stimulated by heavy pressure 2)
Tactile (Meissner's) corpuscles: senses light touch 3) Free nerve endings: respond
to temperature changes or to factors that can damage tissues (extend into the
epidermis) c. Basement membrane: connects epidermis to dermis d. Subcutaneous layer
or hypodermis: areolar and adipose tissue, contains blood ves sels that supply the
skin forms network (rete cutaneum) between dermis and subcutaneous layer 3.
Keratin: a waterproof, fibrous protein that accumulates in skin cells as they mo ve
further from the dermal blood supply (as a result of growth of the epidermis) as
epidermal cells become kerati nized, they become rougher and tightly packed,
forming the stratum corneum these dead cells are eventually shed. deepest layer)
contain
4. Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis): areolar and adipose tissue, supplies the skin
with nutrients from the blood 5. Sebaceous glands: usually associated with hair
follicles, secrete globules of fa tty material that burst the cells (holocrine
glands) release sebum scattered throughout the skin but not on the palm s and soles
6. Sudoriferous glands: wide-spread in the skin; ball-shaped coil in the dermis or
superficial subcutaneous layer a. Eccrine glands: abundant on the back, neck, and
forehead b. Apocrine glands: sweat from these gland develop a scent when
metabolized by bact eria become active at puberty, are activated when emotionally
upset, frightened, or in pain 7. Appendages a. Hair: present on all surfaces except
palms, soles, lips, nipples, and parts of e xternal reproductive organs dead
epithelial cells in a hair follicle. Dark hair has more brownish-black eume lanin;
blonde and red hair has more reddish-yellow pheomelanin b. Nails: nail plate, on
top of nail bed; whitish, thickened, half-moon lunula is m ost active growing
region VII. Skeletal system 1. Functions: provides structure, produce blood cells,
support and protect softer t issues, and provide points of attachment for muscles
2. Bone classification a. produce profuse sweat
Long bones: longitudinal axes, expanded ends (e.g. forearm bones; thigh bones) b.
Short bones: cubelike, short (e.g. wrist bones, ankle bones) c. Flat bones:
platelike, with broad surfaces (e.g. rib bones, some skull bones) d. Irregular
bones: variety of shapes, usually connected to several other bones (e. g.
backbones, facial bones) e. Sesamoid or round bones: usually small and nodular and
are embedded in tendons a djacent to joints (e.g. patella) 3. Osteocytes: bone
cells are arranged in bony chambers called lacunae, which form c oncentric circles
around central (Haversian) canals 4. Osteoblasts: bone-forming cells e, they are
called osteocytes 5. Osteoclasts: cells that break down calcified bone matrix as
osteoclasts resorb bone tissue and osteoblasts replace the bone 6. Spongy bone vs.
compact bone a. Spongy bone i. Composed of osteocytes and extracellular matrix, but
the cells do not congregate around central canals ii. Instead, cells lie within
trabeculae (bony projections) and absorb nutrients tha t diffuse into calaliculi
(microscopic canals that connect the bone tissue) b. Compact bone Bone remodeling:
occurs once they are surrounded by bony matrix in lacuna
i. Composed of osteocytes and extracellular matrix, cluster around central canal m
an osteon or Haversian system ii. Central canals contain blood vessels and nerve
fibers iii. Central canals are longitudinal through bone; perforating canals (aka
Volkmann's canals) connect them transversely, which contain larger blood vessels
and nerves 7. Axial vs. appendicular skeleton -total 206 bones a. Axial i. Skull 1)
8 cranial bones a) Frontal b) Parietal -2 c) Occipital d) Temporal -2 for

Anatomy and Physiology Page 4

d) Temporal -2 e) Sphenoid f) Ethmoid 2) 14 facial bones a) Maxilla -2 b) Palatine
-2 c) Zygomatic -2 d) Lacrimal -2 e) Nasal -2 f) Vomer g) Inferior nasal concha -2
h) Mandible ii. Middle ear bones (ossicles) 1) Malleus -2 2) Incus -2
3) Stapes -2 iii. Hyoid bone iv. Vertebral column 1) Cervical vertebra -7 2)
Thoracic vertebra -12 3) Lumbar vertebra -5 4) Sacrum 5) Coccyx v. Thoracic cage 1)
Ribs -24 (12 pairs) 2) Sternum b. Appendicular i. Pectoral girdle 1) Scapula -2 2)
Clavicle - 2
ii. Upper limbs 1) Humerus -2 2) Radius -2 3) Ulna -2 4) Carpal -16 5) Metacarpal
-10 6) Phalanx -28 iii. Pelvic girdle 1) Hip bone -2 iv. Lower limbs 1) Femur -2 2)
Tibia -2 3) Fibula -2 4) Patella -2 5) Tarsal -14
6) Metatarsal -10 7) Phalanx -28 8. Foramen magnum and its significance: where the
inferior part of the brainstem co nnects with the spinal cord VIII. Muscular system
1. Organization a. Muscle groups: several muscles that control a specific part of
the body b. Muscles c. Myofibrils: parallel, threadlike structures within a muscle
fiber d. Myofilaments i. Thin filaments that consist of two types of protein, actin
and myosin ii. Myosin: thick filaments iii. Actin: thin filaments iv. Alternating
filaments form striations of muscle tissue e. Sarcomeres: repeating pattern formed
by striations of myosin and actin (function al unit of muscle tissue) 2.
Sliding filament theory of muscle contraction a. When sarcomeres shorten
(contract), the thick and thin filaments do not change l ength, rather slide past
each other b. Thin filaments move toward the center of the sarcomere from both ends
c. As this happens, the H zones and I bands narrow; regions of overlap widen; Z lin
es move closer together, shortening the sarcomere d. Actin: thin filaments e.
Myosin: thick filaments f. Step-by-step i. Calcium ion concentration rises
(released from sarcoplasmic reticulum) ii. Binding sites on actin filaments open,
mysoin cross-bridges attach iii. Cross bridges pull on the actin filaments iv. ATP
binds to cross-bridge (not yet broken down) v. Myosin cross-bridges contain ATPase,
which breaks down ATP to ADP + phosphate 3. Muscle types a. Skeletal: under
voluntary control, has striations (sarcomeres) b.
Smooth: under involuntary control, not striated display rhythmicity (pattern of s
pontaneous repeated contractions) peristalsis (such as in digestive tract) Lack
troponin instead use a protein called calmodulin, which binds to calcium ions
released when fibers are stimulated, activating cont raction neurotransmitters
norepinephrine and acetylcholine stimulate and inhibit contractions

Anatomy and Physiology Page 5

BRAIN AREA FUNCTION Brainstem Medulla oblongata Two-way conduction pathway between
the spinal cord and higher brain centers; car diac, respiratory, and vasomotor
control center Pons Tw-way conduction pathway between areas of the brain and other
areas of the body ; influences respiration Midbrain Two-way conduction pathway;
relay for visual and auditory impulses Diencephalon Hypothalamus Regulation of body
temperature, water balance, sleep-cycle control, appetite, an d sexual arousal
Thalamus Sensory relay station from various body areas to cerebral cortex; emotions
and a lerting or arousal mechanisms Cerebellum Muscle coordination; maintenance of
equilibrium and posture; assists cerebrum Cerebrum Sensory perception, emotions,
willed movements, consciousness, and memory

norepinephrine and acetylcholine stimulate and inhibit contractions

c. Cardiac: composed of striated cells joined end to end by special junctions (inte
rcalated discs) whole structure acts unit (syncytium) 4. Classification by function
a. Flexors b. Extensors c. Abductors d. Adductors 5. Naming of muscles (by
location, origin, insertion, shape, action) 6. Names of all major contour muscles
of the body IX. Nervous system 1. Basic functions: receiving, interpreting, and
reacting to stimuli 2. Anatomy of a neuron a. Axon: arises from elevation called
axonal hillock, conduct nerve impulses away f rom the cell body b. Cell body:
contains nucleus w/nucleolus c. Dendrites: highly branched, provide receptive
surfaces for communicating nerve i mpulses toward the cell body
3. Conduction of nerve impulses 4. Sensory (afferent) vs. motor (efferent) nerves
a. Sensory (afferent): carry nerve impulses from the peripheral body parts into the
brain or spinal cord b. Motor (efferent): carry nerve impulses out of the brain or
spinal cord to effect ors (e.g. muscles or glands) 5. Central nervous system vs.
peripheral nervous system a. Central Nervous System (CNS): consists of brain and
spinal cord b. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): cranial and spinal nerves that
connect the CNS to the rest of the body 6. Somatic nervous system vs. autonomic
nervous system a. Somatic: oversees voluntary activities, such as skeletal muscle
contractions b. Autonomic: oversees involuntary activities, such as viscera (heart,
various glan ds) 7. Major parts of the brain and their functions a. Brain stem i.
Consists of medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain ii. White matter and gray matter
iii. The most inferior part of the brain (lies within foramen magnum in occipital
bon e) iv. Connects brain with the rest of the body v. Sensory fibers conduct
impulses up from spinal cord to the brain vi. Motor fibers conduct impulses down
from the brain to the spinal cord vii. Vital center in the medulla: cardiac,
respiratory, and vasomotor centers (contro l heartbeat, respirations, and blood
vessel diameter) b. Diencephalon i. Hypothalamus 1) Below the thalamus 2) Major
control over virtually all organs 3) Helps control the heartbeat, constriction and
dilation of blood vessels, and con tractions of the stomach and intestines 4)
Synthesize hormones that are secreted by the posterior pituitary gland (e.g. ADH )
5) Some neurons function as endocrine glands (axons secrete chemicals called releas
ing hormones into blood to pituitary) 6) Maintaining body temperature
7) Regulation of water balance, sleep cycles, and the control of appetite and many
emotions involved in pleasure, fear, anger, sexual arousal, and pain ii. Thalamus
1) Dumbbell-shaped 2) Composed chiefly of dendrites and cell bodies of neurons that
have axons extendi ng up toward the sensory areas of the cerebrum 3) Produces
sensations 4) Associates sensations with emotions 5) Arousal, or alerting mechanism
c. Cerebellum

Anatomy and Physiology Page 6

c. Cerebellum i. Interior made of white matter; outer layer made of gray matter ii.
Essential for smooth, coordinated movements iii. Maintains equilibrium iv. Sustains
normal postures v. May have many more functions than originally thought, perhaps
coordinating the w hole brain d. Cerebrum i. Largest and uppermost part ii. Ridges
called convulsions or gyri fissures iii. Right and left hemispheres, joined by
corpus callosum at their lower portions iv. Thin layer of gray metter made up of
dendrites and cell bodies: cerebral cortex v. Basal ganglia or cerebral nuclei: a
few islands of gray matter in the white matt er vi. Consciousness, thinking,
memory, sensations, emotions, and willed movements 8. Cranial nerves (On Old
Olympus' Towering Top, A Finn And German Viewed Some Hops Some Say Marry Money,
grooves called sulci, deepest sulci are called
But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter Most) a. Olfactory: transmits impulses
associated with the sense of smell b. Optic : transmits impulses associated with
sense of vision c. Ocularmotor: transmit impulses to muscles that raise the
eyelids, move the eyes, adjust the amount of light entering the eyes, and focus the
lenses d. Trochlear: transmit impulses to muscles that move the eyes e. Trigeminal:
transmit sensory impulses from the surface of the eyes, tear glands, scalp,
forehead, upper eyelids, upper teeth, upper gum, upper lip, lining of palate, skin
of the face, scalp, skin of the jaw, lower teeth, lower gum, and lower lip.
Transmit motor impulses to muscles of mastication and muscles in the floor of the
mouth f. Abducens: motor impulses to muscles that move the eyes g. Facial: sensory
impulses associated with taste receptors of anterior tongue, mot or fibers transmit
impulses to muscles of facial expressions, tear glands, and salivary glands h.
Vestibulocochlear: sensory fibers transmit impulses associated with equilibrium and
sense of hearing i. Glossopharyngeal: sensory fibers transmit impulses from
pharynx, tonsils, poster ior tongue, and carotid arteries motor fibers transmit
impulses to salivary glands and muscles of the pha rynx for swallowing j. Vagus:
motor fibers transmit impulses to muscles associated with speech and swal lowing;
transmit impulses to viscera of thorax and abdomen; sensory fibers transmit
impulses from pharynx, larynx, esophagus, and viscera of thorax and abdomen
k. Accessory: motor fibers transmit impulses to soft palate, pharynx, and larynx; m
uscles of the neck and back l. Hypoglossal: motor fibers transmit impulses to
muscles that move the tongue 9. Spinal cord a. Slender column of nervous tissue
that is continuous with the brain and extends d ownward through the vertebral canal
b. Tapers to a point and terminates near the intervertebral disc that separates the
first and second lumbar vertebrae c. 31 segments that each give rise to a pair of
spinal nerves d. Cervical enlargement in the neck area: supplies nerves to upper
limbs e. Lumbar enlargement in lower back area: supplies nerves to lower limbs f.
Inferior portion of the spinal cord tapers into conus medullaris, then the filum
terminale = cauda equina g. Two grooves -deep anterior median fissure; shallow
posterior median sulcus -divi de spinal cord into right and left halves h. White
matter surrounding butterfly-shaped core of gray matter i. Posterior horns and
anterior horns j. Ascending tracts transmit sensory impulses to the brain
k. Descending tracts transmit motor impulses to muscles and glands 10. Simple
spinal reflexes vs. reflexes modified by ascending/descending tracts a. Simple
spinal reflexes: b. Ascending/descending reflexes: 11. Dorsal horns vs. ventral
horns: sensory impulses enter the dorsal horns; motor i mpulses leave through the
ventral horns X. Endocrine system 1. Hormone: chemical messenger secreted by
endocrine glands that act on specific ta rget cells may be proteins, glycoproteins,
polypeptides, amino-acid derivatives, or lipids 2. Categories based on function a.
Tropic hormones: target other endocrine structures to increase their growth and
secretions b. Sex hormones: influence reproductive changes c. Anabolic hormones:
stimulate the process of building tissues 3. Pituitary gland a. Anterior pituitary
i. GH/STH (growth hormone/somatotropin): promotes tissue growth and development
ii. ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone): controls manufacture & secretion of
hormones from the adrenal cortex --> renin-angiotensin system iii. TSH (thyroid-
stimulating hormone): controls secretion of hormones from the thyro id; can
stimulate growth of the gland hypothalamus partially regulates secretion by
producing thyro tropin-releasing hormone (TRH) iv. FSH (follicle-stimulating
hormone): controls growth and development of follicles that house the egg cells in
the ovaries also stimulates follicular cells to secrete estrogens. Inter stitial
cell-stimulating hormone in males stimulates the production of sperm cells in the
testes v. LH (luteinizing hormone): triggers ovulation and development of copus
luteum in women; stimulates production of testosterone in men. vi. PRL (prolactin):
promotes milk production no established physiological role in ma les has been
established, although is may help normal sperm production secretion is controlled
by dopamine from the hypothalamus b. Posterior pituitary

Anatomy and Physiology Page 7

b. Posterior pituitary i. ADH (antidiuretic hormone): reduces volume of water that
the kidneys excrete ii. Oxytocin: contracts smooth muscles in the uterine wall
during later stages of ch ildbirth also contracts certain cells near milk-producing
glands and their ducts also has antidiuretic ac tion, but less so than ADH 4.
Thyroid gland a. Two large lateral lobes connected by broad isthmus b. Specialized
to remove iodine from the blood c. Three important hormones i. Thyroxine 1)
Increases rate of energy release from carbohydrates 2) Increases rate of protein
synthesis 3) Accelerates growth 4) Stimulates activity in the nervous system 5)
Controlled by TSH from the anterior pituitary ii. Triiodothyronine
1) Same as thyroxine but five times more potent 2) Controlled by TSH from the
anterior pituitary iii. Calcitonin 1) Lowers blood calcium and phosphate ion
concentrations by inhibiting action of os teoclasts and stimulating action of
osteoblasts 2) Increases excretion of calcium by the kidneys 3) Controlled by
elevated blood calcium ion concentration and digestive hormones 5. Parathyroid
glands a. On the posterior surface of the thyroid gland b. Usually 4 of them --a
superior and inferior on each lobe c. Small, yellowish brown structure covered by
thin capsule of connective tissue d. Many tightly packed secretory cells closely
associated w/capillary networks e. Parathyroid hormone i. Protein hormone ii.
Increases blood calcium ion concentration, decreases blood phosphate ion concent
ration
iii. Stimulates bone reabsorption by osteoclasts and inhibits the activity of
osteobl asts iv. Also indirectly stimulates absorption of calcium ions from food in
the intestine by influencing the metabolism of vitamin D v. Controlled by negative
feedback mechanism: as concentration of blood calcium ion s rises, PTH secretion is
suppressed, as concentration of blood caclium ions drops, PTH secre tion is
stimulated 6. Adrenal glands a. "Suprarenal glands" b. Cone-shaped glands that sit
atop kidneys, embedded in adipose encasing of kidney c. Vascular d. Cortex (outer)
i. Makes up bulk of adrenal glands ii. Zona glomerulosa (outermost) 1) Aldosterone
2) Regulates the concentration of mineral electrolytes 3) Causes kidneys to
conserve sodium ions and secrete potassium ions (indirectly re tains water by
osmosis) consists of outer cortex and inner medulla
iii. Zona fasciculata 1) Cortisol 2) Inhibits synthesis of protein in various
tissues, increases use of fatty acids, stimulates liver cells to synthesize
glucose, thus increasing blood concentrations of glucose iv. Zona reticularis
(innermost) 1) Sex hormones: adrenal androgens, some are converted into estrogens
by skin, live r, and adipose tissues 2) Supplement the supply of sex hormones from
gonads and stimulate early developmen t of reproductive organs e. Medulla (inner)
i. Epinephrine (aka adrenalin) ii. Norepinephrine (aka noradrenalin) 7. Pancreas a.
Attached to first section of small intestine (duodenum) by a duct b. Pancreatic
islets (islets of Langerhans) include three types of secretory cells i. Alpha
cells: secrete glucagon 1) synthesized from norepinephrine
Glucagon stimulates liver to break down glycogen to glucose 2) Stimulates
conversion of non carbohydrates into glucose (such as amino acids) 3) Stimulates
breakdown of fats 4) Low blood sugar stimulates secretion of glucagon ii. Beta
cells: secrete insulin 1) Effect of insulin is the exact opposite of that of
glucagon 2) Stimulates liver to form glycogen from glucose and inhibits conversion
of noncar bohydrates to form glucose 3) Decreases concentration of blood glucose 4)
Helps prevent excessive rise in blood glucose concentration iii. Delta cells:
secrete somatostatin 1) Helps regulate glucose metabolism by inhibiting secretion
of glucagon and insuli n 8. Thymus a. Large in young children, shrinks with age
(eventually replaced by fat and connec tive tissue) b. Secretes thymosins, which
affect production and differentiation of T lymphocytes 9.
Pineal gland

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9. Pineal gland a. Between cerebral hemispheres b. Pineal cells and supportive
neuroglia c. Secretes melatonin, which is synthesized from serotonin d. Regulates
circadian rhythm 10. Testes: produce testosterone 11. Ovaries: produce estrogens
and progesterone 12. Placenta: produces estrogens, progesterone, and a gonadotropin
13. Steroid hormones vs. protein hormones (mechanism of action) XI. Circulatory
system 1. Composition of whole blood a. Plasma (55%) i. Mostly water ii. Also amino
acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, hormones, electroly tes, and
cellular wastes b.
Formed elements (45%) i. Also called hematocrit (HCT) ii. Packed cell volume (PCV)
2. Formed elements and their functions a. Erythrocytes (RBC) i. Biconcave shape
allows it to transport oxygen in its hemoglobin molecules ii. Synthesized in the
red bone marrow b. Leukocytes (WBC) i. Transported by blood to sites of infection
ii. Neutrophils 1) Fine cytoplasmic granules 2) Variation of nucleus shape 3) First
to arrive at infection site 4) Phagocytize bacteria, fungi, and some viruses iii.
Eosinophils 1)
Coarse, uniformly sized granules 2) Bilobed nucleus 3) Moderate allergic reactions
and defend against parasitic worm infestation iv. Basophils 1) Fewer, more
irregularly shaped granules than eosinophils 2) Release histamine, which promotes
inflammation 3) Release heparin, which inhibits blood clotting (to increase blood
flow to damage d tissues) v. Monocytes 1) Leave the bloodstream and become
macrophages 2) Phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, and other debris in tissues vi.
Lymphocytes 1) T cells -Directly attack microorganisms, tumor cells, and
transplanted cells 2) B cells -Produce antibodies c. Platelets: stick to broken
surfaces to help repair damaged blood vessels 3. pH of blood: slightly alkaline,
very narrow range (7.35 to 7.45) 4.
Heart anatomy/physiology a. Names of chambers and valves i. Right atrium ii.
Tricuspid valve iii. Right ventricle iv. Pulmonary valve v. Left atrium vi. Mitral
valve (aka bicuspid valve) vii. Left ventricle viii. Aortic valve b. Pathway of
blood flow i. Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium through superior and
inferior venae c avae ii. Blood moves through tricuspid valve to right ventricle
iii. Blood is pumped from right ventricle through pulmonary valve into pulmonary
arte ry, to the lungs iv. Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium through the
pulmonary veins
v. Blood moves through mitral valve to the left ventricle vi. Blood is pumped from
left ventricle through aortic valve into the aorta c. Pathway of cardiac electrical
conduction d. Systole/diastole i. Systole = contraction ii. Diastole = relaxation
iii. Atria and ventricles do this alternatingly iv. Lubb (1st heart sound): occurs
during ventricular systole (atrial diastole), whe n AV valves are closing v. Dupp
(2nd heart sound): occurs during ventricular diastole (atrial systole), whe n the
pulmonary and aortic valves are closing e. EKG rhythm i. Recording of electrical
changes in the myocardium during a cardiac cycle ii. QRS complex 1) Q wave 2) R
wave
3) S wave iii. PQ interval 5. Systemic circulation vs. pulmonary circulation 6.
Vasoconstriction vs. vasodilation 7. Mechanisms that return venous blood to the
heart

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7. Mechanisms that return venous blood to the heart a. Skeletal muscle pump b.
Breathing movements c. Unidirectional valves 8. Names and locations of all major
arteries and veins XII. Respiratory system 1. Basic functions: to oxygenate body
tissues (oxygen is necessary for cellular res piration, metabolic wastes must exit
the body, maintain pH and homeostasis) 2. Basic structures a. Nose b. Nasal cavity
c. Pharynx (throat) d. Larynx: enlargement of the airway superior to the trachea d
cartilage e. Trachea (windpipe): lined with ciliated membrane w/many goblet cells
ped pieces of hyaline cartilage f. twenty C-sha framework of muscles an
Bronchi i. Alveoli are lined by single layer of squamous epithelium ii. Allows
diffusion of oxygen from air into blood iii. CO2 diffuses from blood into alveoli,
out of the body g. Lungs h. Diaphragm i. Rib cage and associated muscles 3. Control
of respiratory rate a. Groups of neurons in the brainstem comprise the respiratory
areas --> control br eathing b. Impulses traveling on cranial and spinal nerves to
breathing muscles cause inspi ration and expiration c. Respiratory areas also
adjust rate and depth of breathing to meet cellular requi rements for O2 and
removal of O2 d. Components are widely scattered throughout the pons and medulla
oblongata e. Medullary respiratory center i. Ventral respiratory group ii.
Dorsal respiratory group f. Pontine respiratory center: limits inspiration 4.
External respiration vs. internal respiration a. External respiration: exchange of
gases between the air and the lungs b. Internal respiration: exchange of gases
between the blood and the body cells 5. Inhalation vs. exhalation (active vs.
passive process) a. Inhalation (active process) i. Contraction of diaphragm
(increase volume of thorax, lowers air pressure) ii. Atmospheric pressure fills
lungs b. Exhalation (passive process -reflex) i. Muscles relax ii. Recoil and
surface tension (surfactant) act simultaneously iii. Intra-alveolar pressure
increases iv. Air is forced out 6. Pathways of O2and CO2throughout circulatory
system 7.
Oxygen is transported in hemoglobin of RBC 8. Carbon dioxide is transported by
bicarbonate ion (CO2 + H20) 9. Regulation of blood pH a. Respiratory Alkalosis b.
Respiratory Acidosis XIII. Digestive system 1. Basic functions a. Ingestion b.
Propulsion c. Mechanical digestion -breaking down the physical matter of the food
d. Chemical digestion -breaking down the macromolecules so they can be absorbed int
o the bloodstream e. Absorption i. Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth with
salivary amylase and completed i n the small intestines by enzymes resulting
monosaccharides are absorbed by active transport or facilita ted diffusion ii.
Protein digestion begins in the stomach as a result of pepsin s in small intestines
iii. completed by enzyme
Fat molecules are digested almost entirely by enzymes in intestinal mucosa and t he
pancreas f. Secretion g. Defecation 2. Basic structures (secretions and functions)
-alimentary canal is about 8 meters long a. Mucosa: surface epithelium, tiny
projections into lumen that increase surface ar ea b. Submucosa: loose connective
tissue, glands, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, an d nerves c. Muscular layer:
two coats of smooth muscle (circular and longitudinal) that enab le peristalsis d.
Serosa: outer covering of visceral peritoneum, secretes serous fluid to reduce f
riction e. Oral cavity i. Saliva glands secrete salivary amylase (begins breaking
down carbs) 1) Parotid glands: largest salivary glands, secrete clear, watery fluid
rich in sal ivary amylase (Stensen's duct) 2) Submandibular glands: in the floor of
the mouth on the inside surfaces of the lo wer jaw secrete a more viscous fluid
than parotid glands (Wharton's duct) 3) Sublingual glands: smallest on the floor of
the mouth inferior to the tongue secre
te thick and stringy mucous (Rivinus's ducts) f. Pharynx i. Nasopharynx: passageway
for air during breathing, connect with auditory tubes ii. Oropharynx: passageway
for food moving from the mouth and for air to and from th e nasal cavity

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ii. Oropharynx: passageway for food moving from the mouth and for air to and from
th e nasal cavity iii. Laryngopharynx: just inferior to the oropharynx g.
Esophagus: provides passage for the food from the pharynx into the stomach i.
Esophageal hiatus: passage of the esophagus through the diaphragm ii. Lower
esophageal sphincter: close the entrance to the stomach, prevent regurgita tion h.
Stomach (HCl) i. Cardia : small area near the esophageal sphincter ii. Fundus:
balloons superior to the cardia temporary storage area iii. Body iv. Pylorus v.
Pyloric sphincter connects to intestine vi. Pepsin: secreted by chief cells as
pepsinogen s of dietary protein vii. Pepsinogen: precursor to pepsin viii. Small
quantities of gastric lipase action is weak due to acidic pH of stomach begins
digestion of almost all type passageway to the esophagus
ix. Intrinsic factor: secreted by parietal cells i. Small intestine i. Most
nutrient absorption occurs here ii. Absorption of nutrient building blocks by villi
(including lacteals) iii. Peptidases: split peptides into them their constituent
amino acids iv. Sucrase: breaks down sucrose v. Maltase: breaks down maltose vi.
Lactase: breaks down lactose vii. Intestinal lipase: splits fats into fatty acids
and glycerol viii. Duodenum ix. Jejunum x. Ileum j. Large intestine i. Absorption
of water ii. Cecum
iii. Appendix iv. Ascending colon v. Transverse colon vi. Descending colon vii.
Sigmoid colon k. Rectum l. Anus 3. Accessory organs (secretions and functions) a.
Liver: Kupffer cells remove most bacteria from the blood by phagocytosis bile b.
Gallbladder: stores bile c. Pancreas i. Pancreatic amylase: splits molecules of
starch or glycogen into disaccharides ii. Pancreatic lipase: breaks triglyceride
molecules into fatty acids and monoglycer ides iii. Trypsin: breaks down protein
iv. secretes
Chymotrypsin: breaks down protein v. Carboxypeptidase: breaks down protein vi.
Secretin: secreted to neutralize acidic chyme 4. Lymphatics: absorption of fat via
lacteals, transport to bloodstream a. Lacteal: lymphatic capillary that absorbs
lipids b. Located in villi of small intestinal wall 5. Intestinal flora: bacteria
that inhibit the large intestine that break down some of the molecules that get
past the actions of digestive enzymes

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actions of digestive enzymes 6. LDL: low-density --> bad cholesterol 7. HDL: high-
density --> good cholesterol 8. Terms a. Bolus: chewed food as it's swallowed b.
Chyme: food after it's gone through first stages of mechanical digestion xture c.
Bile: substance produced by liver, stored in gallbladder --> emulsifies fat XIV.
Urinary system 1. Basic functions: removes metabolic wastes and chemicals (excretes
foreign substa nces such as drugs) 2. Structures and their functions a. Kidneys i.
Structure 1) Hilum is entrance on concave side of kidney, leads to renal sinus 2)
Renal pelvis 3) Calyces (major and minor) soupy mi
4) Renal medulla 5) Renal pyramids 6) Renal cortex 7) Renal capsule ii. Function 1)
Regulate volume, composition, and pH of body fluids 2) Remove metabolic wastes from
blood, excrete them to outside 3) Help control rate of RBC formation by secreting
erythropoietin 4) Regulate blood pressure by secreting renin 5) Regulate absorption
of calcium ions by activating vitamin D iii. Nephron structure 1) Kidney contains
about 1 million nephrons (functional units) 2) Each nephron consists of renal
corpuscle and renal tubule 3) Renal corpuscle consists of a filtering unit called a
glomerulus (cluster of blo od capillaries) and surrounding glomerular (Bowman's)
capsule 4)
Afferent arterioles lead to renal corpuscles, which then lead to efferent arteri
oles 5) Renal tubule leads away from glomerular capsule --> is highly coiled 6)
Coiled portion is proximal convoluted tubule 7) Following it is the nephron loop
(loop of Henle) 8) Dips toward renal pelvis to become descending limb; curves back
toward renal cor puscle to form ascending limb ascending limb returns to corpuscle,
where it becomes distal convo luted tubule 9) Descending limb of loop of Henle:
water only moves out by osmosis 10) Ascending limb of loop of Henle: salt only
moves out by active transport 11) Several distal convoluted tubules merge to form
collecting duct (collecting tubu le) 12) Juxtaglomerular cells: vascular smooth
muscles cells in the wall of the afferent arteriole near its attachment to the
glomerulus b. Ureters: carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder c.
Urinary bladder: stores urine until it is excreted d. Urethra: excretes urine from
urinary bladder 3. Transitional epithelium: stretch and change arrangement when the
bladder is dist ended with urine 4.
Male urethra vs. female urethra: female urethra is much shorter than male urethr a
females more susceptible to bladder infections 5. Pathway of blood through the
kidneys 6. Movement of substances across nephron a. Filtration i. Glomerular
filtration: glomerular capillaries filter plasma ii. Filtrate moves into renal
tubule iii. Produces 180 liters of fluid ever 24 hours iv. Filters water and small
dissolved molecules like ions (large molecules like prot eins do not fit through)
b. Secretion i. Tubular secretion: selectively excreting metabolic wastes and
excess substances such as water and glucose ii. Occurs in distal convoluted tubule
c. Reabsorption i. Tubular reabsorption: selectively reabsorbing the correct
amounts of substances (e.g. water, electrolytes, and glucose) ii.
Occurs in proximal convoluted tubule d. Active movement vs. passive movement
(diffusion) 7. Role of kidney in regulating blood pH a. Acidosis b. Alkalosis XV.
Reproductive system 1. Functions (hormones and sex cells) a. Reproductive system
produces sex cells b. Also produces hormones that are responsible for secondary sex
traits 2. Organs of reproductive tract a. Male (continual) i. Testes ii.
Epididymides iii. Ductus Deferentia iv. Seminal Vesicles v.
Prostate gland vi. Bulbourethral Glands vii. Semen

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vii. Semen viii. Scrotum ix. Penis b. Female (cyclic) i. Ovaries ii. Uterine tubes
iii. Uterus iv. Vagina v. Labia majora vi. Labia minora vii. Clitoris 3. Layers of
uterine wall (hormonal changes) a. Estrogen 4. Control of gamete production by
hormones a. FSH
b. ICSH c. LH d. Testosterone e. Estrogen f. Progesterone 5. Meiosis a. First
meiotic division i. Prophase I 1) Chromosomes appear, thicken 2) Crossing over
occurs ii. Metaphase I iii. Anaphase I iv. Telophase I v. Prophase I b. Second
meiotic division
6. Pathway of sperm development and emission 7. Ovum pathway during fertilization
and implantation 8. Role of corpus luteum 9. Pregnancy/development of the embryo a.
Placenta b. Formation of embryonic tissues c. Hormone levels during pregnancy
(tissues affected in child/mother) d. Milk production (prolactin) 10. Terms a.
Embryo: unborn baby in first 8 weeks of development b. Chromosome: threadlike
structure of protein and nucleic acids, carries genetic i nformation c. Zygote:
fertilized ovum d. Haploid: cell that has a single set of unpaired chromosomes
(product of meiosis) e. Diploid: cell that has two complete sets of paired
chromosomes (product of mitos is or fertilization of an egg)
Anatomy and Physiology Page 13