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Electric power quality

Electric power quality , or simply power quality , inv olv es v oltage, frequency , and wav eform. Good
power quality can be defined as a steady supply v oltage that stay s within the prescribed range, steady a.c.
frequency close to the rated v alue, and smooth v oltage curv e wav eform (resembles a sine wav e). In
general, it is useful to consider power quality as the com patibility between what com es out of an
electric outlet and the load that is plugged into it. [1 ] The term is used to describe electric power
that driv es an electrical load and the load's ability to function properly . Without the proper power, an
electrical dev ice (or load) may malfunction, fail prematurely or not operate at all. There are many way s in
which electric power can be of poor quality and many more causes of such poor quality power.

The electric power industry comprises electricity generation (AC power), electric power transmission and
ultimately electric power distribution to an electricity meter located at the premises of the end user of the
electric power. The electricity then mov es through the wiring sy stem of the end user until it reaches the
load. The complexity of the sy stem to mov e electric energy from the point of production to the point of
consumption combined with v ariations in weather, generation, demand and other factors prov ide many
opportunities for the quality of supply to be compromised.

While "power quality " is a conv enient term for many , it is the quality of the v oltage—rather than power or
electric current—that is actually described by the term. Power is simply the flow of energy and the
current demanded by a load is largely uncontrollable.

Contents
Introduction
Power Quality Deviations
Voltage
Frequency
Waveform
Power conditioning
Smart grids and power quality
Power quality compression algorithm
Power quality challenges
Raw data compression
Aggregated data compression
See also
References
Literature

Introduction
The quality of electrical power may be described as a set of v alues of parameters, such as:
Continuity of service (Whether the electrical power is subject to
voltage drops or overages below or above a threshold level
thereby causing blackouts or brownouts[2])
Variation in voltage magnitude (see below)
Transient voltages and currents
Harmonic content in the waveforms for AC power
It is often useful to think of power quality as a compatibility
problem: is the equipment connected to the grid compatible
with the ev ents on the grid, and is the power deliv ered by the
grid, including the ev ents, compatible with the equipment that is
connected? Compatibility problems alway s hav e at least two
solutions: in this case, either clean up the power, or make the
equipment tougher.

The tolerance of data-processing equipment to v oltage


v ariations is often characterized by the CBEMA curv e, which
giv e the duration and magnitude of v oltage v ariations that can
be tolerated. [3 ]

CBEMA Curve

Ideally , AC v oltage is supplied by a utility as sinusoidal hav ing


an amplitude and frequency giv en by national standards (in the
case of mains) or sy stem specifications (in the case of a power
feed not directly attached to the mains) with an impedance of
zero ohms at all frequencies.

Power Quality Deviations


No real-life power source is ideal and generally can dev iate in at
least the following way s:

Voltage
Variations in the peak or RMS voltage are both important to
different types of equipment.
When the RMS voltage exceeds the nominal voltage by 10 to
80% for 0.5 cycle to 1 minute, the event is called a "swell".
A "dip" (in British English) or a "sag" (in American English the
two terms are equivalent) is the opposite situation: the RMS
voltage is below the nominal voltage by 10 to 90% for 0.5 cycle
to 1 minute.
Random or repetitive variations in the RMS voltage between 90
and 110% of nominal can produce a phenomenon known as
"flicker" in lighting equipment. Flicker is rapid visible changes of Frequency stability of some large
light level. Definition of the characteristics of voltage fluctuations
electrical grids
that produce objectionable light flicker has been the subject of
ongoing research.
Abrupt, very brief increases in voltage, called "spikes",
"impulses", or "surges", generally caused by large inductive loads being turned off, or more severely by
lightning.
"Undervoltage" occurs when the nominal voltage drops below 90% for more than 1 minute.[4] The term
"brownout" is an apt description for voltage drops somewhere between full power (bright lights) and a
blackout (no power – no light). It comes from the noticeable to significant dimming of regular incandescent
lights, during system faults or overloading etc., when insufficient power is available to achieve full brightness
in (usually) domestic lighting. This term is in common usage has no formal definition but is commonly used
to describe a reduction in system voltage by the utility or system operator to decrease demand or to
increase system operating margins.
"Overvoltage" occurs when the nominal voltage rises above 110% for more than 1 minute.[5]

Frequency
Variations in the frequency.
Nonzero low-frequency impedance (when a load draws more power, the voltage drops).
Nonzero high-frequency impedance (when a load demands a large amount of current, then stops demanding
it suddenly, there will be a dip or spike in the voltage due to the inductances in the power supply line).
Variations in the wave shape – usually described as harmonics at lower frequencies (usually less than
3 kHz) and described as Common Mode Distortion or Interharmonics at higher frequencies.

Waveform
The oscillation of voltage and current ideally follows the form of a sine or cosine function, however it can alter
due to imperfections in the generators or loads.
Typically, generators cause voltage distortions and loads cause current distortions. These distortions occur
as oscillations more rapid than the nominal frequency, and are referred to as harmonics.
The relative contribution of harmonics to the distortion of the ideal waveform is called total harmonic distortion
(THD).
Low harmonic content in a waveform is ideal because harmonics can cause vibrations, buzzing, equipment
distortions, and losses and overheating in transformers.
Each of these power quality problems has a different cause. Some problems are a result of the shared
infrastructure. For example, a fault on the network may cause a dip that will affect some customers; the
higher the lev el of the fault, the greater the number affected. A problem on one customer’s site may cause
a transient that affects all other customers on the same subsy stem. Problems, such as harmonics, arise
within the customer’s own installation and may propagate onto the network and affect other customers.
Harmonic problems can be dealt with by a combination of good design practice and well prov en
reduction equipment.

Power conditioning
Power conditioning is modify ing the power to improv e its quality .
An uninterruptible power supply can be used to switch off of mains power if there is a transient
(temporary ) condition on the line. Howev er, cheaper UPS units create poor-quality power themselv es,
akin to imposing a higher-frequency and lower-amplitude square wav e atop the sine wav e. High-quality
UPS units utilize a double conv ersion topology which breaks down incoming AC power into DC, charges
the batteries, then remanufactures an AC sine wav e. This remanufactured sine wav e is of higher quality
than the original AC power feed. [6 ]

A Dy namic Voltage Regulator (DVR) and static sy nchronous series compensator or (SSSC) are utilized
for series v oltage sag compensation.

A surge protector or simple capacitor or v aristor can protect against most ov erv oltage conditions, while
a lightning arrester protects against sev ere spikes.

Electronic filters can remov e harmonics.

Smart grids and power quality


Modern sy stems use sensors called phasor measurement units (PMU) distributed throughout their
network to monitor power quality and in some cases respond automatically to them. Using such smart
grids features of rapid sensing and automated self healing of anomalies in the network promises to bring
higher quality power and less downtime while simultaneously supporting power from intermittent power
sources and distributed generation, which would if unchecked degrade power quality .

Power quality compression algorithm


A power quality com pression algorithm is an algorithm used in the analy sis of power quality . To
prov ide high quality electric power serv ice, it is essential to monitor the quality of the electric signals also
termed as power quality (PQ) at different locations along an electrical power network. Electrical utilities
carefully monitor wav eforms and currents at v arious network locations constantly , to understand what
lead up to any unforeseen ev ents such as a power outage and blackouts. This is particularly critical at sites
where the env ironment and public safety are at risk (institutions such as hospitals, sewage treatment
plants, mines, etc.).

Power quality challenges


Engineers hav e at their disposal many meters, [7 ] that are able to read and display electrical power
wav eforms and calculating parameters of the wav eforms. These parameters may include, for example,
current and v oltage RMS, phase relationship between wav eforms of a multi-phase signal, power factor,
frequency , THD, activ e power (kW), reactiv e power (kVAr), apparent power (kVA) and activ e energy
(kWh), reactiv e energy (kVArh) and apparent energy (kVAh) and many more. In order to sufficiently
monitor unforeseen ev ents, Ribeiro et al. [8 ] explains that it is not enough to display these parameters,
but to also capture v oltage wav eform data at all times. This is impracticable due to the large amount of
data inv olv ed, causing what is known the “bottle effect”. For instance, at a sampling rate of 32 samples per
cy cle, 1,920 samples are collected per second. For three-phase meters that measure both v oltage and
current wav eforms, the data is 6-8 times as much. More practical solutions dev eloped in recent y ears
store data only when an ev ent occurs (for example, when high lev els of power sy stem harmonics are
detected) or alternativ ely to store the RMS v alue of the electrical signals. [9 ] This data, howev er, is not
alway s sufficient to determine the exact nature of problems.
Raw data compression
Nisenblat et al. [1 0 ] proposes the idea of power quality compression algorithm (similar to lossy
compression methods) that enables meters to continuously store the wav eform of one or more power
signals, regardless whether or not an ev ent of interest was identified. This algorithm referred to as PQZip
empowers a processor with a memory that is sufficient to store the wav eform, under normal power
conditions, ov er a long period of time, of at least a month, two months or ev en a y ear. The compression is
performed in real time, as the signals are acquired; it calculates a compression decision before all the
compressed data is receiv ed. For instance should one parameter remain constant, and v arious others
fluctuate, the compression decision retains only what is relev ant from the constant data, and retains all
the fluctuation data. It then decomposes the wav eform of the power signal of numerous components,
ov er v arious periods of the wav eform. It concludes the process by compressing the v alues of at least
some of these components ov er different periods, separately . This real time compression algorithm,
performed independent of the sampling, prev ents data gaps and has a ty pical 1000:1 compression ratio.

Aggregated data compression


A ty pical function of a power analy zer is generation of data archiv e aggregated ov er giv en interv al. Most
ty pically 10 minute or 1 minute interv al is used as specified by the IEC/IEEE PQ standards. A significant
archiv e sizes are created during an operation of such instrument. As Kraus et al. [1 1 ] hav e demonstrated
the compression ratio on such archiv es using Lempel–Ziv –Markov chain algorithm, bzip or other similar
lossless compression algorithms can be significant. By using prediction and modeling on the stored time
series in the actual power quality archiv e the efficiency of post processing compression is usually further
improv ed. This combination of simplistic techniques implies sav ings in both data storage and data
acquisition processes.

See also
Dynamic voltage restoration

References
1. Von Meier, Alexandra (2006). Electric power systems: a conceptual introduction. John Wiley & Sons. p. 1.
2. Energy Storage Association
3. pge.com – A utility pamphlet illustrating the CBEMA curve (http://www.pge.com/includes/docs/pdfs/mybusin
ess/customerservice/energystatus/powerquality/voltage_tolerance.pdf)
4. Madhusudan, Shertukde, Hemchandra (2014). Distributed photovoltaic grid transformers (https://www.worldc
at.org/oclc/897338163). p. 91. ISBN 1482247194. OCLC 897338163 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8973381
63).
5. Madhusudan, Shertukde, Hemchandra (2014). Distributed photovoltaic grid transformers (https://www.worldc
at.org/oclc/897338163). p. 91. ISBN 1482247194. OCLC 897338163 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8973381
63).
6. datacenterfix.com - A Power Quality discussion on UPS design (http://www.datacenterfix.com/forum/viewtopi
c.php?f=4&t=68)
7. Galli et al.: Exploring the power of wavelet analysis?: Oct 1996, IEEE, IEEE Computer Applications in
Power, vol. 9, issue 4, pp. 37-41 [1] (http://www.ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=539845)
8. Ribeiro et al.: An enhanced data compression method for applications in power quality analysis? Nov. 29-
Dec. 2, 2001, IEEE, The 27th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, 2001. IECON
'01, vol. 1, pp. 676-681.[2] (http://www.ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=976594)
9. Ribeiro et al.: An improved method for signal processing and compression in power quality evaluation? Apr.
2004, IEEE, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 19, issue 2, pp. 464-471.[3] (http://ieeexplore.ieee.or
g/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=1270480)
10. US 7415370 (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US7415370), Nisenblat, Pol;
Amir M. Broshi & Ofir Efrati, "Power Quality Monitoring", published April 18, 2004, issued September 21,
2006
11. Kraus, Jan; Tobiska, Tomas; Bubla, Viktor; "Lossless encodings and compression algorithms applied on
power quality datasets," Electricity Distribution - Part 1, 2009. CIRED 2009. 20th International Conference
and Exhibition on , vol., no., pp.1-4, 8–11 June 2009 URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?
tp=&arnumber=5255775&isnumber=5255237

Literature
Dugan, Roger C.; Mark McGranaghan; Surya Santoso; H. Wayne Beaty (2003). Electrical Power Systems
Quality. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ISBN 0-07-138622-X.
Meier, Alexandra von (2006). Electric Power Systems: A Conceptual Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ISBN 978-0471178590.
Heydt, G.T. (1991). Electric Power Quality. Stars in a Circle Publications. Library Of Congress 621.3191.
Bollen, Math H.J. (2000). Understanding Power Quality Problems: Voltage Sags and Interruptions. New
York: IEEE Press. ISBN 0-7803-4713-7. templatestyles stripmarker in |publisher=at position 23 (help)
Sankaran, C. (2002). Power Quality. CRC Press LLC. ISBN 0-8493-1040-7.
Baggini, A. (2008). Handbook of Power Quality. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-06561-7.
Kusko, Alex; Marc Thompson (2007). Power Quality in Electrical Systems. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-
147075-9.
Chattopadhyay, Surajit; Mitra, Madhuchhanda; Sengupta, Samarjit (2011). Electric Power Quality. Springer
Science+Business. ISBN 978-94-007-0634-7.
IEEE Standard 519 Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power
Systems section 10.5 Flick er

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