Color profile: Disabled

Composite Default screen

Chapter 4

Pre-adaptations for
Domestication

Some species readily adapt to life in captivity; others do not. It is the purpose of
this chapter to discuss those factors which predispose certain species to not only
become candidates for domestication, but to survive and reproduce in captivity.

Captive Niches to be Filled

Many cultural and pragmatic factors have determined which animal species have
become domesticated and when and where their domestication has occurred
(Isaac, 1970; Reed, 1980). With the possible exception of the dog (see later
discussion in this chapter), the first requirement for the successful domestication of
animals is that man, the domesticator, has a recognized need or desire that can
only be satisfied by controlling, protecting and breeding a certain population of
animals (Downs, 1960). It is generally accepted that no important animal domesti-
cations associated primarily with food production have been made in tropical
regions, where food supplies are generally available through hunting, fishing and
gathering (Brisbin, 1974). The chicken (G. domesticus) and turkey (M. gallopavo) were
originally domesticated for religious reasons, and the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
primarily as a beast of burden (Zeuner, 1963). It is likely that the house cat (Felis
silvestris catus) and the ferret (Mustela furo) were domesticated to protect stored
grains and other food materials from rodents (Zeuner, 1963). Other species were
domesticated as sources of food, clothing, labor, transportation, adornments or
sacrificial offerings. In contrast, the domestic value of many wild species has been
largely ignored or, if recognized, social and technological barriers have often
prevented their domestication. The quagga (Equus quagga), a small, horse-like
animal from Central and South Africa, was treated as vermin by the Boer
and English farmers and was hunted to extinction despite its docile nature,

©CAB International 2002. Animal Domestication and Behavior

(E.O. Price) 21

31
Z:\Customer\CABI\A4348 - Price\A4348 - Price.vp
Tuesday, October 29, 2002 12:06:07 PM
Color profile: Disabled
Composite Default screen

22 Chapter 4

‘tameability’, sturdiness and resistance to the endemic diseases that affected

imported horses of European descent (Ridgeway, 1905). The plains Indians of
North America had a recognized need for domesticated animals as a food source.
However, their nomadic lifestyle and their inability to gather enough food to
support such large animals as the bison or the pronghorn antelope in captivity
precluded the domestication of these species (Downs, 1960).

Developmental Plasticity
The degree to which a wild population of animals is pre-adapted for domestica-
tion largely depends on the degree of developmental plasticity of the species and
the extent to which the captive environment allows for the development
and expression of species-typical behavioral patterns compatible with husbandry
techniques. The degree of pre-adaptation is relative to the specific conditions
under which a group of animals is maintained. Just as there is geographical
variation in the environments of free-living animal populations, variation exists
among captive environments (Hediger, 1964; Box, 1973). Hence, the degree
of pre-adaptation of a species for domestication is dependent on the capacity of
species members to adapt through developmental and evolutionary processes to a
variety of environmental and husbandry conditions (Balon, 1995).
The pre-adaptation of a species for domestication should, in theory, vary
inversely with the number and extent of differences between the natural and
captive environments. In addition, populations with the fewest pre-adaptations to
captivity will experience the greatest number of changes in selective pressures in
terms of: (i) the number of traits affected; (ii) the direction of selection; and (iii) the
intensity or severity of selection.

Few Species Domesticated

Man has domesticated relatively few animal species, either by choice or because of
failure to provide a captive environment that meets the minimal requirements for
successful reproduction. He has exploited a few species that are relatively conve-
nient and economical to breed and to maintain in captivity (e.g. many ungulates
and gallinaceous birds). Hemmer (1988) discusses the pre-adaptations of several
European deer species for farming/domestication. He and Rammelsberg (1986a,
cited in Hemmer, 1988) rated roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), fallow deer (Dama
dama), sika deer (Cervus nippon), red deer (Cervus elaphus) and elk (Alces alces) on several
pre-adaptation criteria, including ‘level of social activity’, ‘frequency of aggressive
behavior’, ‘social intolerance’, ‘influence of the captive environment’, ‘influence of
the seasons’ and ‘behavioral intensity’. Fallow deer emerged as having the best
pre-adaptations for farming/domestication while roe deer and elk were rated the
poorest. The most serious drawback of fallow deer is their tendency to panic when
startled.

32
Z:\Customer\CABI\A4348 - Price\A4348 - Price.vp
Tuesday, October 29, 2002 12:06:08 PM
Color profile: Disabled
Composite Default screen

Pre-adaptations for Domestication 23

Pre-adaptations for Vertebrate Domestication

Table 4.1 lists a number of behavioral traits that are considered favorable and
unfavorable for the domestication of vertebrates. In general, pre-adaptations for
vertebrate domestication include gregariousness, nonaggressive nature, promis-
cuous sexual behaviors, readily breed in captivity, precocious young, readily

Table 4.1. Behavioral characteristics considered favorable and unfavorable for

the domestication of vertebrate animals. (Modified from Hale, 1969.)

Favorable characteristics Unfavorable characteristics

Social structure of populations

Social organization – dominance hierarchy Social organization – territoriality
Large gregarious social groups Family groups important
Males affiliated with social group Males typically live in separate
groups
Intra- and interspecies aggressive behavior
Nonaggressive Naturally aggressive
Sexual behavior
Promiscuous matings Form pair bonds prior to mating
Males dominate females Females dominate males/males
Male initiated appease females
Sexual signals provided by movements Female initiated
or posture Sexual signals provided by color
markings or morphology
Parental behavior
Precocial young Altricial young
Young easily separated from parents Prolonged period of parental care
Response to humans
Tameable/readily habituated Difficult to tame
Short flight distance from man Long flight distance from man
Nonaggressive toward humans Aggressive toward humans
Readily controlled Difficult to control
May solicit attention Independent/avoids attention
Temperament
Limited sensitivity to changes in Highly sensitive to changes in
environment environment
Locomotor activity and habitat choice
Limited agility Highly agile/difficult to contain or
Small home range restrain
Wide environmental tolerance Requires large home range
Nonshelter seeking Narrow environmental tolerance
Shelter seeking
Feeding behavior
Generalist feeder or omnivorous Specialized dietary preferences/
requirements

33
Z:\Customer\CABI\A4348 - Price\A4348 - Price.vp
Tuesday, October 29, 2002 12:06:08 PM
Color profile: Disabled
Composite Default screen

24 Chapter 4

tamed, ease in handling, limited sensitivity to environmental change, limited

agility, wide environmental tolerance and generalized feeding behaviors. Ease of
handling and favorable reproductive success in captivity have encouraged the
recent successful captive propagation of several wild rodent species (Mello, 1981,
1986; Delany and Monro, 1985; Murphy, 1985; Kyle, 1987; Smythe, 1987; Ohno
et al., 1992; D’Andrea et al., 1996). Most of these traits allow for the efficient
exploitation of animals by man under a variety of prevailing economic and eco-
logical conditions (Tennessen and Hudson, 1981). With the advent of modern-day
husbandry practices such as improved diets and assistance in reproduction, many
formerly important pre-adaptations (e.g. social and sexual behaviors of the male)
have become less critical (Siegel, 1975). Artificial insemination, cryopreservation
of semen and embryos, embryo recovery and transfer, in vitro production of
embryos, and micromanipulation techniques (including sperm injection, cloning,
artificial incubation, assisted hatching and artificial rearing of young) are being
used to improve the reproductive performance of animals in captivity (Cseh
and Solti, 2000). Consequently, an increasing number of species ranging from
primates to bacteria (Davis, 1987) can be rapidly and economically propagated in
captivity. Tennessen and Hudson (1981) have maintained that if domestication of
a species is warranted economically and ecologically, success will depend largely
on the suitability and flexibility of the management system employed.
A few species have become domesticated in spite of lacking important
pre-adaptations, the domestic cat, F. silvestris catus, being our best example. First,
the domestic cat is basically territorial and most individuals are not well adapted
to living in large social groups (Leyhausen, 1988). More importantly, domestic
cats can be relatively aloof in the company of people. Cameron-Beaumont et al.
(2002) compared 16 species and subspecies of small cats (Felids) kept in zoos for
affiliative behavior toward people (i.e. tameness) and found that the ocelot lineage
had the highest proportion of individuals showing affiliative behavior. Interest-
ingly, this is the group most distantly related to the domestic cat. This result
suggests that the domestication of Felis silvestris lybica alone among felids is likely to
have been the result of a specific set of human cultural events and requirements in
the Egyptian New Kingdom (e.g. rodent control), rather than the consequence
of a unique tendency for tameness in this subspecies. Considering these facts, it is
not surprising that the breeding of domestic cats has not been subjected to the
same degree of control as most domesticated species, nor has their freedom of
movement been as restricted. In this sense, domestic cats are pre-adapted for a
rather unique commensal relationship with humans.

Pre-adaptations of the Wolf for Domestication

Theories on the evolution of the dog are particularly interesting and deserve
special consideration. It is unlikely that the wolf-like ancestors of the dog were
captured, tamed and selectively bred from the very start of their domestication.
Wolves are very difficult to contain, do not make good pets even when tamed and

34
Z:\Customer\CABI\A4348 - Price\A4348 - Price.vp
Tuesday, October 29, 2002 12:06:09 PM
Color profile: Disabled
Composite Default screen

Pre-adaptations for Domestication 25

would have had little utilitarian value to people living in Mesolithic times. Morey
(1994) and Coppinger and Coppinger (2001) argue that the domestication of the
wolf probably did not proceed as a well-organized plan. The wolf-like ancestors
of the domestic dog probably first associated with man during the Mesolithic
period as scavengers around permanent human settlements, eating discarded food
and human excrement as it became available. The naturally tamer individuals
were more reproductively successful in this niche and tended to mate with other
individuals willing to risk close proximity to humans. In time, populations of these
‘village wolves’, which through natural selection for tameness had become well
adapted to living in such a symbiotic relationship with humans, arose in various
parts of the globe. Some of these progenitors of the domestic dog were nurtured
and received special attention because of their unusual coloration, companion-
ship, hunting ability, protection, etc., without any attempts by man to achieve
long-term domestication (Manwell and Baker, 1984). In more recent times,
systematic artificial selection for specific phenotypic characters was applied,
resulting in unique populations of relatively tame and morphologically distinct
dogs. There was no one point when ‘village wolves’ suddenly became ‘village
dogs’; the process was very gradual.
The observations of Coppinger and Coppinger (2001) of populations
of ‘village dogs’ living commensally with present-day hunter–gatherer peoples
conjure images of what the dog’s ancestors might have experienced in Mesolithic
times. Relative to the myriad of dog types found in modern-day society, dogs on
the tiny island of Pemba, off the East African Coast, were remarkably uniform in
appearance suggesting rather intense selection for some optimum phenotype.
They were very uniform in size, about 14 kg, and slender in body type. They
had short, smooth coats of variegated colors, some with large spots, some with
markings on their heads, ears, legs or tails. Their ears were pendent or erect but
bent over slightly at the tips (tulip ears). Interestingly, each house on the island
had its own refuse dump and a latrine. Dogs tended to adopt certain houses and
essentially waited for food they could scavenge. They could be approached by
humans but rarely allowed direct contact. There were no dog packs; groups were
seldom larger than three individuals, who were probably related to one another.
The people of Pemba were basically hunter–gatherers, living off the sea (coral
reefs), perhaps not that unlike the supposed villagers in late Mesolithic times when
the domestication of the dog’s wolf-like ancestor began. The inhabitants of Pemba
did not consciously tame the village dogs or invite them into their homes since
they were generally considered unclean. Nevertheless, they tolerated the presence
of the dogs and inadvertently provided an appropriate niche for their coexistence.
From this scenario, it is easy to extrapolate how such populations of tame animals
were eventually exploited by humans and how artificial selection may have been
deliberately or unconsciously applied to establish unique populations. Artificial
selection and subsequent hybridization of animals from these various populations
in more modern times could have easily resulted in many of the recognized dog
breeds today. If this theory is correct, it was the decision of humans to adopt a
life-style that led to the development of relatively permanent settlements in late

35
Z:\Customer\CABI\A4348 - Price\A4409 - Price - Vouchers.vp
Tuesday, November 05, 2002 11:37:59 AM
Color profile: Disabled
Composite Default screen

26 Chapter 4

Mesolithic times that paved the way for the domestication of the dog. The
morphological and behavioral pre-adaptations of the wolf-like ancestors of dogs to
feed and reproduce in the company of man and their capacity for socialization to
man predisposed them to be adopted by man and vice versa (Messent and Serpell,
1981; Coppinger and Coppinger, 2001). Thus, it seems most plausible that the
wolf-like ancestors of the dog initially domesticated themselves and that humans
became their domesticators only later in the process.
While the process described above is the most likely explanation for the
domestication of the wolf, it is not a likely scenario for the establishment of most
of our domestic animal stocks. Most domesticated species were probably first
captured or lured into confinement and soon bred for their utilitarian value,
temperament and desirable morphological traits (e.g. pelage coloration). The
advent of stable agrarian societies and the ability to provide food for captive
herbivores set the stage for these important domestications.

Reproductive Failure
Some species are pre-adapted to survive in captivity but consistently fail to
reproduce (Medina et al., 1996; Hassin et al., 1997; Sato et al., 2000). Almost all
fish reared in captivity exhibit some form of reproductive dysfunction (Zohar and
Mylonas, 2001). The most commonly observed reproductive dysfunctions in
cultured fish are the unpredictability of final oocyte maturation in females and
the diminished volume and quality of sperm in males (Mylonas and Zohar,
2001). This infertility is largely due to failure to simulate the natural conditions
of spawning; consequently, the pituitary fails to release the maturational
gonadotropin, luteinizing hormone. Manipulations of various environmental
parameters, such as temperature, photoperiod, salinity, tank volume and
depth, substrate vegetation, etc., can often facilitate spawning but in some spe-
cies hormonal treatment is the only reliable means of controlling reproduction
(Zohar and Mylonas, 2001). A case in point is the white grouper (Epinephelus
aeneus), a fish native to the Mediterranean. In captivity, groupers demonstrate
a fast growth rate, hardiness, disease resistance and have high market value.
Although the oocytes of adult females reach the final stages of vitellogenesis
in captivity, final oocyte maturation, ovulation and spawning in captivity
do not occur spontaneously (Hassin et al., 1997). Injections or implants of
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) induce ovulation but not natural
spawning. However, successful fertilization of eggs can be attained artificially.
A second problem related to captive white grouper propagation is that all
young fish are females. Adult females eventually spontaneously invert to males
when they get older, but because most fish used/caught are younger females there
is often a lack of males for establishing grouper broodstocks. Females can be
induced to show sex inversion by injections of 17-α-methyltestosterone, but males
produced in this fashion will often revert back to females following hormone
removal.

36
Z:\Customer\CABI\A4348 - Price\A4348 - Price.vp
Tuesday, October 29, 2002 12:06:09 PM
Color profile: Disabled
Composite Default screen

Pre-adaptations for Domestication 27

The neotropical anostomid fish Leporinus elongatus matures but does not spawn
in captivity. Sato et al. (2000) have shown how spawning in this fish can be induced
with carp pituitary extract. This same treatment can be used to induce northern
pike (Esox lucius) to spawn in captivity (Szabó, 2001). Van Eenennaam et al. (2001)
reported the first successful artificial spawning of captive green sturgeon (Acipenser
medirostris) by injections of gonadotropin-releasing hormone analog (GnRHa) and
domperidone. Medina et al. (1996) demonstrated that female Penaeus kerathurus
shrimp can be successfully reared in captivity but fail to reproduce because they
do not produce mature oocytes. In contrast, Primavera (1985) reported that some
14 species of marine penaeid shrimp that successfully mature and spawn in
captivity have been identified. Browdy et al. (1986) have added Penaeus semisulcatus
to that list.

Control of Sex
Ability to control sex may constitute an important pre-adaptation for the captive
propagation of species in which one sex is valued more highly than another.
Technology recently developed with domestic ungulates to identify and separate
X and Y chromosome-bearing sperm allows animal breeders to selectively
produce female or male offspring (Hohenboken, 1999; Seidel and Johnson, 1999).
In recent years there has been rapid progress in the development and application
of sex control technologies in finfish aquaculture (Donaldson, 1996). Schutz and
Harrell (1999) noted that 47 different species of fish have been sex-reversed by
the dietary administration or direct injection of exogenous hormones such as
17-α-methyltestosterone, which reverses the sex of genetic females to phenotypic
males. Sex reversal can be useful in the domestication process by increasing the
ratio of females to males in broodstock populations (Schutz and Harrell, 1999). In
many species, one sex grows faster, matures later or has a higher market value
than the other sex. In tilapia, males are preferred. In flatfish and salmonids,
females are preferred for culture. Sex control is also important for reproductive
containment (Donaldson, 1996; Schutz and Harrell, 1999). The culture of
monosex or sterile populations can reduce or eliminate reproductive interaction
between escaped farmed fish and wild conspecifics and prevent cultured fish
from forming self-sustaining feral populations. Sex control can also be used to
reproductively contain genetically modified (e.g. transgenic) animals.

Pre-adaptations of Invertebrate Species for

Domestication
The domestication of invertebrates has not received the attention given to
vertebrates. Most invertebrates breed exceptionally well in captivity (Balmford
et al., 1996) suggesting that their basic needs can be readily met by the captive
environments typically provided. One can debate whether the western honeybee

37
Z:\Customer\CABI\A4348 - Price\A4348 - Price.vp
Tuesday, October 29, 2002 12:06:09 PM
Color profile: Disabled
Composite Default screen

28 Chapter 4

(Apis mellifera) is a true captive domesticate or lives as a symbiont with man. It

is tolerant of human management, it is adaptable to a broad range of climatic
conditions and it provides honey (Delaplane and Mayer, 2000). Its ability to

Table 4.2. Behavioral characteristics considered favorable and unfavorable for

the domestication of invertebrate animals. (From Gon and Price, 1984.)

Favorable characteristics Unfavorable characteristics

Social structure of populations

Gregarious Large territories
Small territories Groups monosexual
Males affiliated with female groups
Intra- and interspecies aggressive behavior
Nonaggressive in intra- and Aggressive in intra- and interspecies
interspecies interactions interactions
Altruistic
Sexual behavior
Male initiated Requires long, correct behavioral
Sex signals via movement or posture sequence, with no guarantee of
Pheromonally induced mating success
Promiscuous Requires death of one or both mates
Pair bonding
Parental behavior
Egg guarding No parental care
Precocial young Altricial young
Nonplanktonic young Alloparental cannibalism
Young easily separated from adults
Nest building, shelter building
Reaction toward humans
Readily habituated Wary
Little disturbed Easily disturbed
Nonantagonistic Antagonistic, toxic or dangerous
Feeding behavior
Generalist feeder Requires specific, difficult items
Feeds on common, if specific, items Cannibalistic
Noncannibalistic Requires live food
Accepts artificial diet Maximal feeding with no endogenous
Endogenous feeding satiation satiation mechanism
Locomotor activity and habitat choice
Nonmigratory Migratory (obligate)
Sessile or small home range Nonhoming, free ranging
Limited agility Extreme agility
Wide environmental tolerance Specific environmental requirements
Nonshelter seeking Shelter required
Ecological versatility Ecological specialization

38
Z:\Customer\CABI\A4348 - Price\A4348 - Price.vp
Tuesday, October 29, 2002 12:06:09 PM
Color profile: Disabled
Composite Default screen

Pre-adaptations for Domestication 29

pollinate plant crops has been critical for modern-day agriculture. About 130
agricultural plants in the USA are pollinated by bees (McGregor, 1976), at an
annual value to US agriculture of many billions of dollars (Robinson et al., 1989).
Many invertebrates are propagated in captivity for release in nature to
achieve biological control of important insect pests. Other species are studied in
the laboratory to better understand biological mechanisms which can be exploited
in control measures. The fruit fly (Drosophila) has been used for decades to scientifi-
cally study genetic mechanisms important in population dynamics. Gon and Price
(1984) offer a list of behaviors (Table 4.2) that predispose invertebrates to
domestication and captive propagation.

Conclusions
The choice of certain species for domestication is ultimately based on some
perceived benefit to man. Among those species selected for captive propagation,
some will readily survive and reproduce, others will survive but not reproduce,
while still others will not survive in captivity under existing management practices.
Certain traits confer fitness on captive animals and predispose them to domestica-
tion. These pre-adaptations may be shaped in nature (prior to being brought
into captivity) or may simply reflect the developmental plasticity of the species.
In either case, species successfully domesticated will likely possess many pre-
adaptations for living in captivity. A case can be made for the wolf-like ancestors
of the dog choosing humans in a kind of self-domestication, but it is doubtful that
other species were likewise attracted to human settlements and domesticated in a
similar manner.

39
Z:\Customer\CABI\A4348 - Price\A4348 - Price.vp
Tuesday, October 29, 2002 12:06:09 PM