Abstract - The IEEE C37.013, [1] standard defines the • They allow IEC CB manufacturers to get into the
overvoltage withstand requirements for circuit breakers market segment, allowing an alternative option
(CBs) intended for use in generator applications. The from IEEE CB for generator applications.
constraints of these requirements may lead to larger sized • IEC CBs offer a technical challenge to the
CBs to be used. In Oil & Gas offshore applications, IEC technology presented by existing IEEE generator
62271-100, [2], certified CBs are often preferred due to CBs.
their more compact size. However, detailed validation of
IEC CBs for generator applications has not been as well The purpose of this paper is not to show how IEEE
defined compared to IEEE CBs. Hence, validation of IEC certified generator breakers can be replaced by IEC ones.
CBs for overvoltage protection in generator applications is Instead, the paper aims to address the concerns of
required, usually by performing computer transient overvoltage protection in IEC CBs and validation steps
simulation and analyses. needed to apply the IEC CBs in generator protection
Very often a simplified model of the generator is believed applications. The following chapters will be discussed:
to be sufficient to provide reliable results. However, as this
paper will demonstrate, correct modeling of the generator • Basics of Transient Recovery Voltage and factors
has a significant impact on the overvoltage results, that determine it
especially with salient pole machines. The main purpose • Comparison of IEEE C37.013 / IEC62271-100
of this paper is to discuss the aspect of Transient standards and scope of application
Recovery Voltage (TRV) analysis that have to be • Analysis of generator modeling for TRV
conducted when an IEC breaker is intended for use in simulations
generator applications. Main guidelines to understand and • Analysis of required data/software/simulation in
perform such overvoltage analysis are also provided. The order to verify applicability of the IEC CB and
influence of generator saliency on the TRV peak and recommend protection solutions
slope is demonstrated. • Simulations of 2 typical applications where IEC
breaker applicability has been proven, by means of
Index Terms —Transient Recovery Voltage, switching additional overvoltage protection
over voltage, EMTP-ATP, transient simulation
• Conclusions
I. INTRODUCTION
II. BASICS OF TRV. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
Previous paper [4], demonstrated how an IEC breaker
A. Origins of TRV
can be verified for capability of interrupting current with
high DC component for generator applications. Such
Let us consider the simple circuit presented in Fig. 1:
analysis is mandatory; however it is not sufficient in order R
to validate the CB application. In fact, after current
interruption there is high overvoltage that takes place Lp
between CB contacts. This voltage, called Transient
Recovery Voltage (TRV) is characterized in IEC and IEEE
Cp CB
standards by its steepness and peak value. In order that Vm.cos(wt)
the current is successfully interrupted, the breaker shall
withstand the TRV. Comparison of the two standards
reveals a much higher overvoltage withstand capability in
terms of peak and steepness in IEEE CBs specially Fig. 1 Simplified equivalent circuit for TRV
designed for generator applications, as compared to IEC
CBs. However, IEC CBs are often more preferred than Initially the CB is closed. At current zero, the CB opens
IEEE CBs for generator applications due to the following and the result is a transient voltage oscillation as shown in
advantages: Fig. 2. This transient voltage oscillation has an initial
maximum amplitude Vmax, before it stabilizes to the
• IEC standard applications CBs are smaller in size value of the source voltage, Vm.cos(wt).
than IEEE C37.013 generator applications circuit
breakers. In an off-shore oil rig, space/weight is
critical, and of major priority.
• IEC CBs are much less expensive.
2.0 3.0
Vmax 2.5
1.5
TRV
2.0 Vmax with
1.0 Isolated neutral
1.5
0.5
Vm 1.0
Vmax with
Supply Voltage Earthed neutral
0.5
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0 -1.0
0 4 8 12 16 *10 -3 20 0 4 8 12 16 *10 -3 20
(f ile f irst_test.pl4; x-v ar t) v :SRC_1 v :TRV_1 - (f ile f irst_test.pl4; x-v ar t) v :SRC_1 v :CB_EA -CB_E_A v :CB_IA -CB_I_A
Fig. 2 TRV waveform vs. steady state Fig. 4 First pole to clear factor
The parameters of the transient voltage are: This factor is close to but lower than 1.5 and is
1. Frequency, 1 expressed as the following [5]:
F=
2.π . Lp.Cp 3.( X 0 + 3.RN )
kpp = (2)
2. Amplitude Damping, D = exp(− t X 1 + 2.( X 0 + 3.RN )
)
2.R.Cp
In case of RN->∞ kpp->1.5, if RN=0 and X1=X0, (Lm=0),
The crest value of voltage is a function of the above then kpp=1. In practice X0>X1 (X0=3.X1) and kpp is typically
parameters and moment of current interruption. It can not around 1.3.
exceed 2 times the value of Vm. The peak of the TRV across the breaker can be
An amplitude factor is defined as: expressed as:
Vmax Vmax = d .Vm
k af = , k af ≤ 2 (1) d = k af k pp (3)
Vm
d − peak factor phase to earth
Note that voltages (Vmax and Vm) are measured
between phase and earth. Given typical values of kaf and kpp, one can estimate
Typical values for kaf lie in the range 1.4-1.7, depending that TRV peak (or the peak factor d) across a breaker
on the moment of current interruption, i.e. the power would lie in the range of 1.4-1.7 to 2-2.55 pu of steady
factor of the system during the fault. This is also state phase to earth voltage amplitude.
confirmed in IEC 62271-100, where kaf varies with the test The IEEE C37.013 defines the peak factor with respect
duty. to the rated maximum system voltage of the CB. The
system voltage is the phase to phase rms voltage.
B. First pole to clear factor Therefore the above value of d shall be multiplied by
2 / 3 in order to be compliant with that definition. For
Let us now consider a three phase system as per Fig.
rated short-circuit current ANSI C37.04-1999 gives values
3:
R CB as k af = 1.54 and k pp = 1.5 for systems below 100kV,
Vm.cos(wt) Lp
R Cp
which leads to the peak factor of d = 1.89 , defined in
Vm.cos(wt-2/3.π) Lp
Lm
ANSI standards.
Lm Cp
The rate of rise of recovery voltage (RRRV) in the
RN
R above case can be conservatively assumed as:
Lm
Vm.cos(wt-4/3.π)
Lp RRRV = d .Ur.π .F
(4)
Cp
F − oscillating frequency
Fig. 3 Three phase system for TRV analysis Ur − rated system voltage
In this system, there are no mutual impedances Note that the oscillating frequencies of the transient
(Lm=0). If the system has solidly earthed neutral (RN=0 voltage also differ with earthing conditions. This will be
Ohm), during a three phase to earth fault the amplitude explained in chapter IV. C.
factor is equivalent to a single phase system. However if
the system is earthed through an impedance, or the fault III. IEEE AND IEC STANDARDS COMPARISON
is isolated from earth, the obtained overvoltage on the CB
terminals would have a higher value. This is particularly This section summarises the main differences between
true during the first pole to clear. The waveforms in Fig. 4 the IEC 62271-100 standard for normal CBs and IEEE
illustrate the earth fault voltage of these two cases. The C37.013 standard for CBs designed for generator
ratio of the peak values of these waveforms is defined as applications in determining the TRV parameters of a CB.
the first pole to clear factor (kpp), which is linked to the
earthing of the system and the ratio between the system’s A. IEC TRV rating and parameters
positive and zero sequence impedances.
The IEC HV circuit breakers (U<100 kV) are specified
in accordance to IEC62271-100 standard and can
withstand the TRV according to Table 1 for Cable-
systems and Table 2 for Line-systems.
In IEC, the TRV is approximated to a damped single TABLE III
frequency oscillation. This waveform is adequately IEEE DEFINED TRV FOR GENERATOR FED FAULT
represented by an envelope consisting of two line Generator Inherent TRV – E2 RRRV
segments defined by means of two parameters: uc and t3. Rating kV/μs
For example, for an 11 kV network and for Cable- MVA
systems, the standard values for TRV is given in TABLE I: 100 or less 1.84 V 1.6
101-400 1.84 V 1.8
TABLE I 401-800 1.84 V 2.0
TRV PARAMETERS FOR CABLE SYSTEMS AT 15KV 801 or more 1.84 V 2.2
Rated Type of test TRV peak value RRRV a
voltage uc, k uc/t3 For our example of an 11 kV network, the rated
Ur, kV kV/μs maximum voltage to consider is 15kV. The result for TRV
15 Terminal fault 25.7 0.39
peak as per IEEE C37.013 standard is 27.6 kV, a value
Out-of-phase 38.3 0.29
higher than the 25.7kV indicated in the IEC standard. We
will see in the following sections that in some particular
The mandatory short circuit breaking tests are defined conditions the calculated TRV peak value could be above
in the same standard by Table 24 and 25 where the TRV the IEEE C37.013 level.
limits are given according to the % of rated short circuit
breaking current of the CB. For the same 11kV network For generator rating below 100MW (which is the norm in
example, the TRV parameters are given in TABLE II : generator applications), RRRV of 1.6kV/µs is indicated for
the breaker to withstand. The value is conservative, more
TABLE II than 4 times its equivalent for standard applications
TRV PARAMETERS BY FAULT CURRENT C37.011 breakers, to cover the worst case, but in
Rated Test duty TRV peak value RRRV a practice, the actual RRRV can often be much lower. In
voltage uc, k uc/t3
Ur, kV kV/μs
fact, as it will be shown in section VI. , the issue in O&G
15 T100 25.7 0.39 applications often can be the TRV peak value, rather than
T60 27.6 0.95 its steepness.
T30 29.4 1.96
T10 31.2 2.08 IV. ESTIMATION OF GENERATOR TRV
There is no indication in the IEC62271-100 that The ANSI (IEEE) certified generator circuit breakers have
specifies exclusive generator application CBs. There are passed multiple tests in order to guarantee their
also no mandatory tests requirements indicated for typical applicability in generator applications. For that reason no
cases in generator application (i.e. out of phase specific study is generally required. If IEC certified
switching). breakers are intended for use then it is necessary to
carefully determine the appropriate way to consider the
B. IEEE/ ANSI TRV rating and parameters generators in the system. This means that the equivalent
model of the generator shall be represented in sufficient
The IEC 62271-100 equivalent standard IEEE/ANSI detail to capture the major factors that influence the TRV.
C37.011 "Application guide for Transient Recovery A ‘simple generator model’ approach will not be sufficient.
Voltage for AC High Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a The following factors will need to be included in modeling
Symmetrical Current Basis" [3], has been revised in order the equivalent generator for TRV analysis.
to introduce the two parameters description of the TRV as
used in IEC Switchgear Standards. This description has A. Surge reactance
already been introduced in the revisions of Standards
C37.04 and C37.06. Estimation of generator surge reactance has been
The IEEE C37-013 standard is the dedicated standard subject of numerous works, [6] and others. A great
for AC HV generator circuit breakers. It also describes majority of these works consider that the equivalent
how a CB intended for common generator protection use reactance of the generator is a function of its
has to be tested. These tests should guarantee that the Xd " reactance only. This is a valid assumption for big
IEEE CB is ready to use without additional analysis. For generators, generally turbo-generators, (typical examples
circuit breakers certified C37.013, there is confidence that are given in [7]). Turbo-generators are round rotor
the CB is completely suitable for the application. machines by construction and since its direct axis
impedance equals its quadrature axis one, the equivalent
In Table 6 of IEEE C37.013-1997, the TRV peak and rate- impedance is always Xd”.
of-rise are given. Their values are obtained by considering For salient poles generators however, the quadrature
an amplitude factor and first-pole-to-clear factor of 1.5. axis reactance is not equivalent to its direct axis reactance
TABLE III below indicates the TRV characteristics and hence shall be considered. The equivalent reactance
based on generator rating in IEEE C37.013 standard of a generator after interruption of the current in the first
(where V is the rated maximum voltage of the equipment phase depends on the position of the rotor in relation to
in kV): the stator. It depends itself on the phase-shift between
voltage and current. If they are in line, the direct axis
impedance shall be considered, Xd " ; if they are in
quadrature, then it is the quadrature reactance Xq" that
will become the equivalent impedance of the generator.
Three phase fault on generator terminals or close to it Note that in case of round rotor machine the above
imposes nearly 90° phase-shift; therefore at the moment expressions remain valid except that for the damped
of current interruption, the equivalent reactance of the second harmonic is equals to zero.
machine will be its quadrature subtransient reactance. The evolution of these voltages for 11kV-40MVA salient
Since this type of fault is also considered in TRV analysis, poles generator is depicted on Fig. 5:
the generator shall be considered by its Xq" reactance. Comparison of fundamental and second harmonic voltages
1.5
⎡ 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎤
⎢ +⎜ − ⎟. exp( t Td ') + ⎥
Xd ⎝ Xd ' Xd ⎠ -1.5
Possible reason for the usage of the above method is that 1.15
but does not account for the internal voltages of the 0.85
Consider the same circuit as presented in Fig. 3. V. DATA, MODELING TOOLS AND
For a system with earthed neutral, the frequency is METHODOLOGY FOR SUCCESSFUL TRV
given by Eq.8, where Lm=0: ANALYSIS
1
FTRV _ earthed _ Lm =0 = (8) This section details the major factors that should be
2.π . Lp.Cp considered for successful TRV analysis.
This frequency will vary with mutual inductances (see
Appendix A. ); where Lm is related to Lp with a coefficient A. Data
factor k as:
Lm The following TABLE IV summarizes the system data
k= (9) required for TRV analysis:
Lp TABLE IV
The coefficient k is positive for static equipment REQUIRED DATA FOR TRV ANALYSIS
(transformers or cables) and negative during the initial Equipment Short-circuit data Additional data for
instants after current interruption for generators, see TRV
Appendix B. The exact numerical value of k at the Upstream source Attenuation and
(Utility) S.c. power, rated natural frequency
moment of current interruption is function of the generator voltage, X/R ratio (RC branch
values and on the power factor during the fault, i.e. the connected phase
position of the rotor with respect to the stator at the to earth)
moment of current interruption. Transformers Rated power, Capacitance
For earthed neutral systems with Lm≠0, the frequency Voltage, short- primary/secondary
of the transient will be reduced as given in Eq.10: circuit voltage, no to earth and
load current, zero primary to
sequence secondary winding
1
FTRV _ earthed _ Lm ≠ 0 = impedances
1 + k − 2.k 2 (10)
Generators Rated Power and Capacitance phase
2.π . .Lp.Cp Voltage, Xd, Xd’, to earth
1+ k Xd”, Xq, Xq’, Xq”,
Td’, Td”, Tq”, Ta,
For the case of isolated neutral with earthed fault, Ra
independently on the presence or not of mutual Lines/Cables Capacitance to
impedances, a fixed oscillating frequency will be obtained; earth, traveling
impedance wave modeling,
it will be lower by a factor of 2 / 3 compared to the value distributed
calculated in Eq.8: parameters
Neutral Earthing impedance No particular
2 1
FTRV _ isolated _ Lm ≠ 0 = . (11)
3 2.π . Lp.Cp From Table IV, typical short-circuit data is easily
accessible. However, parameters for additional data are
Note that the isolated generator neutral is a common often unknown and estimation is needed. IEEE standards
arrangement in MV networks with multiple generators, C37.04-1999 (§5.9.2.2 b) and IEEE C37.011 [3], provides
where earthing is made up of earthing transformers information about capacitances of several equipment,
installed on the busbar. according to rated power and voltage. Also, information
To illustrate the impact of generator earthing the ratio of and typical capacitance values for generators and other
TRV frequencies for solidly and isolated earthing (by equipment are also provided in [13].
Eq.10 and by Eq.11) as function of the factor k is depicted For conservative approach, the circuit breaker is
assumed as an ideal switch (with no arc voltage
introduced), to give worst case initial conditions. 5.) Compare the TRV envelope with the IEC standard
TRV values
B. Simulation software
6.) If necessary: conduct additional analyses with
There are two principal methods for TRV investigation: appropriate surge protections:
by analytical equations or by using dedicated transient a. Surge arresters
simulation software. b. Surge capacitors (0.25-1µF)
The first solution applies relatively easy and correctly c. R-C snubber (R=10-80 Ohm, C=0.25-
when the analysis does not include generator 1µF)
applications, or with a single generator modeled as a Note: In case of generator with earthed neutral, when
round rotor machine. However, when there are multiple the fault is earthed, the TRV will be lower; there will not
generators in the system, or when the generator is of be line side contribution. However with the reduced
salient pole type, and / or there are additional loads voltage oscillation on the generator side, efficiency of
(parallel feeders, motors, reactors, etc…); it is necessary surge arresters, if installed, may be reduced as well.
to conduct a computer simulation study instead. Let’s
recall that salient pole generator can not be correctly 7.) Analyse tolerances on generator data
represented by a source-impedance equivalent since this
will eliminate the impact of second harmonic, (refer Generator impedances are subject to tolerances.
section IV-B. ). Therefore, for salient type machines, the Typically it may be considered a range of ±15% for the
usage of dedicated simulation software is mandatory. It is subtransient values, which impact the most the TRV.
recommended that the simulation software is capable of
verifying the proposed generator model as well as 8.) Analyse the out of phase switching
modelling traveling waves in conductors. Among the
reputable software candidates includes EMTP-ATP, Note: Out-of-phase switching will induce a higher TRV,
PSCAD, EMTP-RV and others. since there is no fault which could damp the impact
In this paper, the authors have used the EMTP-ATP from downstream network. However, since modern
software, [14], widely known for its capabilities for synchronising relays are very accurate, the probability
transient simulations, and the built-in synchronous of out-of-phase switching may not be required and
machine model SM59. requires verification, depending upon the network and
Although this machine model is not initially intended for network operating mode.
TRV analysis, it can be easily “updated”. Authors When necessary this analysis shall be conducted for
observed that the SM59 model is capable of correctly 90° phase difference/ shift as stated in IEEE C37.013-
representing the quadrature reactance for a terminal fault. 1997.
Care must be taken to include generator tolerances
during the TRV analysis, typically ±15% is retained. The 9.) Derive final conclusions for applicability of the IEC
high frequency of TRV voltage requires reconsideration of CB.
adjusting the machine values – mainly increasing the
generator armature resistance and including self-damping VI. TRV ANALYSIS OF SUITABILITY OF IEC
parameters. BREAKERS IN TYPICAL GENERATOR
APPLICATIONS
C. Methodology of TRV analysis In order to demonstrate the applicability of IEC breakers
in generator applications, two test cases will be
The following details the recommended step-by-step considered- generators in industrial plant and utility
procedure for successful TRV analysis: generation plant. The prospective TRV of each case will
be analyzed and results presented here.
1.) Model the power system according to A. and B.
A. Industrial plant generator application
2.) Establish the system fault locations, typically:
a. Bus bar GT1 GT2
b. Generator side
c. Downstream to bus bar side (A)
d. Special attention on fault locations when
CB are separated from bus bar with CB
n°1
cables; two fault locations shall be
considered, one at each side of cable CB
n°2
(B)
(C)
12.5
For each fault location the short circuit currents are 0.0
TRV test duty is determined for current with less than -25.0
20% of DC component. According to the IEC 62271-100,
-37.5
if the percentage of DC component at contact separation
does not exceed 20%, the short circuit breaking current is -50.0
0 10 20 30
(f ile QC_LNG_article_PS.pl4; x-v ar t) c:B_BARA-CB_2A
40 50
c:B_BARB-CB_2B
60
c:B_BARC-CB_2C
70 ms 80
characterised only by the r.m.s value of its alternating Fig. 8 Fault currents through CB n°1, fault at A
component. When the DC component is higher, which is
often the case with generators; it is necessary to put in
form the fault current with 20% of DC component. The
ANSI C37.09 defines a formula to calculate the
40 50
*103
kV
TRV envelope T60 [kV]
30
40
30
20
20
10
10
0
0
64,0 64,3 64,6 64,9 65,2 [ms] 65,5
(file QC_LNG_article.pl4; x-var t) v:B_BARA-CB_2A m:TTR1
Fig. 9 TRV and T60 TRV envelope from IEC standard, data, fault at C
fault at C
It can be observed that the peak value is above any
In addition to the analysis for the fault locations, the withstand rating of a 15kV circuit breaker, but in the range
impact of load has also been studied. It was found that in of 24kV CB. This means that even IEEE C37.013 certified
case of fault at A the maximum TRV was obtained without breakers would need to be oversized in order to withstand
load. The presence of load at the same side with a that overvoltage. It also underlines the importance of
generator did reduce the transient on that side. However, consideration of the asymmetry of the rotor of the
when the fault location has been moved to busbar, B, or generator, which is actually often neglected. TABLE VIII
on the outcoming feeder, C, the presence of load below summarises the results with tolerances:
increases the TRV peak on CB2. The load in this case
was on the other side of the circuit breaker; hence TABLE VIII
generator TRV has not been damped. TRV CALCULATIONS WITH TOLERANCES
Fault CB Test IEC IEC Simulation Simulation
location to duty Peak RRRV Peak TRV Rate of rise
TABLE VII summarizes the maximum TRV results for open TRV (kV/µs) (kV) TRV
the different fault locations: (kV) (kV/µs)
TABLE VII A CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 42.9 0.21
TRV CALCULATIONS WITHOUT TOLERANCES B CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 47.1 0.23
Fault CB Test IEC IEC Simulation Simulation C CB2 T60 27.6 0.95 44.4 0.22
location to duty Peak RRRV Peak TRV Rate of rise
open TRV (kV/µs) (kV) TRV 7) Recommendation of protection equipment
(kV) (kV/µs)
A CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 30.5 0.16
B CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 34.6 0.17
The preferred way to limit the TRV peak is by using surge
C CB2 T60 27.6 0.95 32 0.19 arrester protection, connected phase-to-earth or phase-to-
phase.
Note the load damping impact to the TRV results, The most appropriate connections are at the generator
where the TRV peak on B is higher than that on A, even side of each generator CB and on the busbar side of CB2.
though it is almost the same current passing through the
breaker. For the fault cases at A and B, a 12kV rated phase-to-
Finally, the most critical situation is with fault on C. In all earth surge arresters will limit the TRV peak under the
the tests, the TRV peak values are over the withstand envelope given in the standard IEC 62271-100. However
levels defined by standard. It is thus required to review the for fault located at C, phase-to-earth surge arresters will
size of the overvoltage protection equipment. However not be sufficient to protect the circuit-breaker, therefore
this may not be necessary if the manufacturer of the surge arresters connected phase to phase were used.
circuit breaker can prove the capability of his CB to Since the application involves generators, the surge
withstand the values without protection, i.e. if there are arrester shall account for higher voltage fluctuations,
tests with similar values. It may also be possible that the hence a voltage rating of 15kV is recommended.
required overvoltage protection gets “lightened” because Therefore, for this example, a 15kV rated phase-to-phase
of known capabilities of the CB. installed surge arrester will result in the TRV peak within
the envelope of the IEC 62271-100 values, even if the
6) Analysis of tolerances on generator data maximum tolerance on generator reactances is taken into
account. Fig. 11 and
The calculation results presented in Table VII does not TABLE IX summarise the TRV analysis with surge
include the impact of generator impedance tolerance. In protection considered:
30
practice, there is always a variation to the quoted *10 3
[kV]
generator data and hence tolerances should always be 25
0
64,0 64,3 64,6 64,9 65,2 [ms] 65,5
(file QC_LNG_article.pl4; x-var t) v:B_BARA-CB_2A m:TTR1 m:PMAX1
Note that the conclusion and recommendation derived Note that utility short-circuit power is almost 350%
remains valid for systems with rapid current interruption higher than that of a single generator.
protection installed (i.e. fault current limiters). The The topology of the utility plant is presented on Fig. 13:
configuration in Fig. 12 could also represent the one half
of a section rapidly disconnected by such protection
scheme.
Xc
Caroline Vollet received her Electrical Engineering
Vb Ib
degree from the National Polytechnic Institute of Grenoble
Xm Xc
in 1988. She joined Merlin Gerin (now Schneider Electric)
Vc
in 1989. She is currently working on electrical network
Ic Xp
analyses such as stability, harmonic and overvoltages
Xc
studies. She has been personally involved in several
instances of equipment failure or malfunctioning in
The voltage can be expressed as: different kind of industrial plants.
Va = Ia.( Xp − Xc) + ( Ib + Ic). Xm
Vb = Ib. Xp + Ia. Xm + Ic. Xm Christophe Durand received his MSc degree in
(13) electrical engineering from the Joseph Fourier University
Vb = Ic. Xp + Ia. Xm + Ib. Xm
of Grenoble, in 2009. He is currently working for
Va + Vb + Vc = 0 Schneider Electric as Power Systems Engineer. He is
working on electrical network analyses such as stability,
After some operations one can obtain: protection coordination and overvoltages.
− Va − 2 .Ia . Xm
Ib + Ic =
Xp + Xm st
Adita Husin received a 1 class Honors in Electrical &
2 2 (14) Electronic Engineering from the University of Surrey, UK
( Xp + Xm . Xp − 2 . Xm − Xc ( Xp + Xm ))
Va = Ia . in 2000 and completed her MSc in Electrical Power
Xp + 2 . Xm
System from the University of Manchester in 2007. She is
now a Chartered Electrical Engineer with KBR and is
The equivalent inductance of the system at the natural
responsible for power system studies for various oil & gas
frequency can be obtained by posing the right hand part
onshore plants and offshore platforms and FPSO.
of the equation to zero. It follows:
Xp 2 + Xm. Xp − 2. Xm 2 − Xc ( Xp + Xm) = 0
Kate Edey received her BEng (Hons) in Electrical &
Xp 2 + Xm. Xp − 2. Xm 2 Electronics Engineering from University of Leicester, UK
= Xc
( Xp + Xm) in 1990. She is a Chartered Engineer and has been
(15) heavily involved in generator excitation controls design
Xp 2 + Xm. Xp − 2. Xm 2 1 + k − 2.k 2
Xeq = = Xp. and later in power distribution design with various
( Xp + Xm) 1+ k companies. She is now with KBR and is responsible for
1 + k − 2.k 2 power system studies for onshore, offshore and
Leq = Lp.
1+ k renewable projects. She is currently the Lead Electrical
Engineer for an LNG project in Western Australia.
B. Explanation of the negative value of mutual
inductance in generator at current interruption
XI. VITA