Basic Semiconductor and P-N Junction Theory 29

The Si (or Ge) atom at the centre share one of its

valence electrons with each of the valence electrons of
the four Si (or Ge) atoms surrounding it, as shown in
Fig. 2.10 (b). This sharing of valence electrons produces
four pairs of electrons that are covalently bonded thus
completing its octlet.
In io n ic bon ds, atoms of one element transfer elec­
trons to the other so that both have stable configurations.
In this arrangement, some atoms part with outer-shell
electrons, but these are accepted into the orbit of other
atoms. Thus, the atoms are ionized; those which give up
electrons become positive ions, and those which accept the
e le ctron s b ecom e n ega tiv e ion s. This creates an
POSITIVE IONS
electrostatic bonding force between the atoms, called the
ionic bonding [Fig. 2.10 (c)]. Such bonding occurs in some (a) Metallic Bonding
of the insulating materials.
VALENCE
JS I I
ELECTRONS

© © t y

(b) Covalent Bonding

Fig. 2.10. B o n d in g B etw een Atom s in Solids

2.11. INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Sem iconductor m aterials m ay be classified into two classes viz. « t r » » c (or pure)

conductors and the semiconductor material in its

, An truely intrinsic unless its impurity content is
extremely pure form. A ts o f semico„ductor. In fact, recent advances have

f e s r i S S L . « «• "• > *
 Basic Eloctronics
30
“ of silicon material can change that mat erial^ [Vom a
relatively poor conductor to a good conductor of oloctri. ty.
There are many semiconductor materials auc i t
germanium, silicon, grey crystalline tin, se
tellurium, boron etc. available but silicon S.) and
germanium (G e) are the tw o m ost w id ely u sed
semiconductor materials in electronics. The reason toi
this is that energy required to break their covalent bonds
(i.e. the energy required to release an electron from their
valence bands) is very small (1.12 eV for silicon and
0.72 eV for germanium). Both elements have the same Fig. 2.11. Crystal Lattice
crystal structure (Fig. 2.11) and similar characteristics. Structure
N U C LE U S W IT H
The atoms of silicon and germanium are illustrated 14 P R O T O N S

in Fig. 2.12. It is seen that each of these atoms has four

electrons in a valence shell that can have a maximum
of eight. Thus we say, that their valence shells have four
electrons and four holes. A hole is defined, simply as an
absence o f an electron in a shell where one could exist.
Silicon is a tetravalcnt element and its atomic num­
ber is 14. It has, therefore, 14 protons and 14 electrons
(two in first orbit, eight in second orbit and four in the
third orbit) as shown in Fig. 2.12 (a). (a) siUcon 0 ) Germanim
Crystal lattice structure o f silicon (also applicable to , . I
germanium) is shown in Fig. 2.11. Each atom is equidistant g' s Atomic Model j
from its four neighbouring atoms. In a crystalline structure each atom shares its four valence |
electrons with the four adjacent atoms. This occurs because each tetravalent semiconductor j
atom needs a total of eight out-shell electrons. This sharing of electron pairs is called covclent j
bonding, already explained in Art. 2.10. The covalent bonds are illustrated in Fig. 2.11 by j
means of rods connecting the adjacent atoms. For simplified discussion, the crystal structure
may be reduced to two dimensional, as illustrated in Fig. 2.10 (6). The core represents the
nucleus and all the orbiting electrons except the valence electrons. Since there are as many
protons in the nucleus as there are electrons orbiting around it and there are four valence
electrons, the core will have an excess
+4 charge. The core of silicon contains
14 protons and 10 electrons (whereas
CONDUCTION BAND
germanium core has 32 protons and 28
electrons). ------------- 1------
Eq = 1.12 e V
The energy band diagram for sili­ ■VS/SS///)///////
R A N n //A
con is shown in Fig. 2.13 (a). '
/ / VALENCE BAND

G erm aniu m is also a tetravalent

‘ element i.e. it has 4 valence electrons.
Its atomic number is 32. It has, there­
fore, 32, protons and 32 electrons [two
in first orbit, eight in second orbit, eigh­
teen in third orbit and four in fourth
orbit], as shown in Fig. 2.12 (b). Its crys­
tal lattice structure has already been
discussed above. Energy band diagram (a) For Silicon ( b ) For G erm a n iu m
for germanium is shown in Fig. 2.13 (6).
Fig. 2.13. E n erg y B a n d D iagra m s
 Basic Semiconductor and P-N Junction Theory 31
For semiconductors at a temperature of absolute zero (-273-15°C) the valence band is
usually full and there may be no electron in the conduction band. At absolute zero temperature
E0 for silicon and germanium are 1.21 eV and 0-785 eV respectively and it is difficult to get
additional energy of this magnitude from applied electric field. Hence the conductivity of
intrinsic semiconductors at absolute zero temperature is zero. However, at room temperature
(300 K), the energy provided by the heat is sufficient to lift electrons from the valence band
to the conduction band. Some electrons do jump the gap and go into the conduction band.
So at room temperature, semiconductors are capable of conducting some electric current.
Since eneigy required in transferring electrons from valence band to conduction band
is more in case of silicon than that in case of germanium, the conductivity of silicon will
be less than that of germanium at room temperature.
2 .1 1 .1 . Production of Holes and Free Electrons
Breaking of covalent bond is equivalent to raising an electron from valence band to the
conduction band. So the energy required to break a covalent bond is the same as the
forbidden energy EG and equals 0-72 eV in case of germanium and 112 eV in case of silicon.
This energy may be supplied either (i) by raising the temperature and thereby imparting
thermal energy (ii) by incidence of photons in the visible range or {iii) by bombardment of
the semiconductor materials by the a-particles, electrons and other particles and X-rays.
When an electron , - h o le

breaks a covalent bond of • / • •

an intrinsic semiconductor • / • •
and moves away, a vacancy • •©<?•©• •©• • CONDUCTION BAND
is created in the broken FREE * *
covalent bond. The vacancy e l e c t r o n • • •
so caused constitutes a hole * • c? • " ^ ^ * FORBIDDEN ENERGY
. GAP
and is represented by a • • •
small circle. Whenever a ••©••■©••©•• A
free electron is generated, • • • H0L, VALENCE BAND
a hole is simultaneously ere- • • •
ated. Thus, free electrons (a) Crystal Structure (b) Energy Band Diagram
and holes are always gen­
erated in pairs. So concen- Fi6‘ 2' 14' Formation o f Electron-Hole P air in an
, Intrinsic sem iconductor
tration ot free electrons and
holes will always be equal in an intrinsic semiconductor. Such generation of free electron-hole
pairs* is referred to as thermal generation. The formation of electron-hole pairs using crystal
structure and energy band diagram is illustrated in Figs. 2.14 (a) and (b) respectively.
Since a crystal is electrically neutral, whenever an electron moves, a hole is left
behind with a net positive charge equal in magnitude to that of negative charge of free
electron.
Although strictly speaking, a hole is not a particle; for all practical purposes it is
viewed as a positively charged particle capable of conducting current. This concept of a
hole as a positively charged particle merely helps in simplifying the explanation of con­
duction in semiconductors.
2.11.2 Carrier Generation and Recombination
In an intrinsic semiconductor crystal equal number of free electrons and holes are created
by ^hermal^ (heat^energy. The reason being that a hole is created only by removing an

* ^ T h e lib era ted e lec tro n an d th e hole le ft b eh ind is called an electron -h ole pair.
32 Basic Electronics

electron from the covalent bond. Thus the electrons and h° les]^ S a ^ s s ib tfS ;
the free electrons and holes move randomly within the cry si . when a fr?
of an electron meeting a hole. Although this p o s s i b l y
electron approaches the hole, it gets attracted and^faLs. m recom bination, both th*
free electron and a hole is called recombination. In o n s proce~~ heat or light Th "
free electron and hole disappear and energy* is released as a qnan ^ h e a ^ o r h g h L T ts
quantum is absorbed by another electron to breakaway trom its valence band and creates
a new electron-hole pair. r ___,
The recombination rate is proportional to the product o* the 03r* '- rp nomhinnti^
of free electrons and holes. Thulths processes o f breaking o f covalent
of electrons and holes take place simultaneously. 'Die amount ox tlD^ De " jQ
and disappearance o f a free electron is called the lifetime. It v a n e s from a ® " n s
to several microseconds, depending how perfect the crystal is and ot er ac o
The rate of production o f electron-hole pairs increases with the n^e m tem pera ure,
the rate of recombination is proportional to the product o f c o n c e n tr a tio n s o ee e ec rous
and holes and at a given temperature, the concentrations or densities o f free electrons and
holes remain fixed and equal. So the rate o f generation o f electron-hole pairs must be
equal to the rate o f their recombination. With the increase in tem perature, the rate of
generation of electron-hole pairs increases. The concentration o f electrons and holes goes
on increasing until rate o f recombination equals the increased rate o f generation. Thus
with the increase in temperature, concentrations o f free electrons and holes increase.
2 .1 1 .3 . Conduction in Intrinsic Sem iconductors
When the electrons are liberated on breaking o f covalent bonds, they m ove randomly
through the crystal lattice. These free electrons are neither attracted by the nuclei o f the
atoms nor repelled by the electrons bound by covalent bonds because their electrical
effects are fully engaged in maintaining the covalent bond. W hen an external electric field
is applied to a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor, the conduction through the semiconductor
is by both free electrons and holes. The free electrons in the conduction band move to­
wards the positive terminal o f the battery’ while the holes in the valence band move
towards the negative terminal of the battery i.e. the electrons and holes m ove in opposite
directions. As the holes reach the negative terminal B, the electrons reaching there com­
bine with the holes which are thus destroyed. A t the same time, the loosely held electrons
near the positive terminal A are attracted away from their atoms into the positive termi­
nal o f the battery. Now new holes are created which again drift tow ards the negative
terminal B. The electric current flows through the in­
trinsic semiconductor in the same direction as in which -----------* elections
the holes are moving (the holes having positive charge).
Since electrons are negatively charged, the direction o f
conventional current is opposite to that o f movement o f ■ H O LES
electrons. The total current inside the conductor is thus
the sum of
me oum ui currents uwiug
owing to free electrons and holes
lu ires _____ : ij11
(though the two types o f charge carriers move in the ~
opposite directions) but current in the external wires is F.i g‘ 2'15- C o n d u c tio n o f C urrent
only because o f electrons, as illustrated in Fig. 2 15 In an *nfrin5,’c S e m ic o n d u c to r
The mobility o f electrons is more than that o f holes because the probability o f an
electron having: the energy required to move to an empty state in the co n d u ctio n band is
much greater than the probabihty o f an electron having the energy required to move to
W h e n an e le c tr o n is fr e e d fr o m v a le n c e b a n d , c e r ta in a m o u n t o f e n e r e v is a h ^ r K ^ t t . * „ fan (ire,-
is released w h e n a n e le c tr o n fa lls in to a h o le . R a b s o r b e d . T h e s a m e a m o u n t o f en ergj
 Basic Semiconductor and P-N Junction Theory

the empty state in valence band. Thus the current due to movement of electrons is greater
than that due to the hole drift in the semiconductor. The mobility o f hole is about half that
of an electron. The net current is very small.
Effccts of Heat and Light on Conductivity of Intrinsic Semiconductors
At absolute zero temperature (- 273°C), all the electrons of intrinsic semiconductors (germanium
or silicon) are tightly held by their atoms. The inner orbit electrons are bound to nucleus
whei'cas, the valence electrons are bound by the forces of covalent bonds. Thus, at absolute
zero temperature, no free electron is available in the intrinsic semiconductor and so it behaves
like a perfect insulator.
When the material is heated, electrons breakaway from their atoms and move from the
valence band to conduction band. This produces holes in the valence band and free electrons
in the conduction band. Conduction can then occur by electron movement and by hole transfer.
With the increase in temperature, the rate of generation of electron-hole pairs is increased.
This in turn increases the rate of recombination. Thus with the increase in temperature, the
concentration of charge carriers (electrons and holes) increases. As more charge carriers are
made available, the conductivity of a pure semiconductor increases with the increase in
temperature. In other words resistivity of a pure semiconductor decreases with the increase
in temperature i.e. the semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient o f resistance.
When the semiconductor is illuminated, its resistance decreases in the same way as
in case of increase in temperature.
The forbidden energy gap EG also depends somewhat on temperature. It has been determined
experimentally that E0 for semiconductors decreases with the increase in temperature. For
example EG for Si becomes 1.12 eV and that for Ge becomes 0.72 eV at room temperature
while the respective values at absolute zero temperature are 1.21 eV and 0.785 eV.
The resistance of a semiconductor depends largely on (a) temperature—decreases with
the increase in temperature, (b) illumination—decreases in brighter surroundings and
(c) magnitude of the electric field—the current does not increase in proportion to the
applied potential, as in case of conductors obeying Ohm’s law but increases by far more
than the voltage i.e., the semiconductors are nonlinear.
2.11.5. Fermi Level in an Intrinsic Semiconductor
The Fermi level is simply a reference energy level. It is the energy level at which the
probability of finding an electron n energy units above it in the conduction band is equal
to the probability of finding a hole (electron absence) n energy units below it in the
valence band. Very simply, it can be considered to be the average energy level of the
electrons, as illustrated in Fig. 2.16 (a).
-P (E )-

f‘J^tfC/.•O**• «*.* «•
-* /,V,:-
’7777777777?C777777i
N D U C T IO N B A N D jv tf# Pandv.w.
FERMI LEVEL

•Vj»VV.*4V// .*/ •>.*•'*/••iV'.iW/jV

:< # £ } * v a ic n c c b a n d # # ; # :

(a) (b) (O
Fig. 2.16
 M Basic Electronics

Im hi any temperature T K
Number of electron* in the conduction band be nc
Number of electrons in the valence band be /iy
Total number of electrons in both bands, n =
For simplification let uh assume that (t) widths of energy bands are small in compa^
non to forbidden energy gap between them (it) all levels in a band have the 8arne energy
bandwidths being assumed to be email (m) energies of all levels in valence band are E
hh shown in Fig, 2.1G (a) und (iu) energies of all levels in conduction band are EQ.
Lot the zero*energy reference level be taken arbitrarily at the top of the valence band
as shown in Fig. 2.16 (b).
Now number of electrons in conduction band, /ic = n. P (Eq) ■••(2.3)
where J* (E0) represents the probability of an electron having energy EG. Its value may be
determined from Fermi-Dirac probability distribution function given as

P (E) = j + e(B-Er )/kT "^2-4)

where P (10) is the probability of finding an electron having any particular value of energy E,

So P (E0) = j + e<Et, - Kk)/kT -^ • 5)

where Ep is the Fermi level.

Substituting the value of P (Ef.) from Eq. (2.5) in Eq. (2.3) we have

...(2.6)
C” 1 + e(K« " K' )/kT
Now number of electrons in valence band, nv = n P (0) ...(2.7)
The probability P (0) of an electron being found in the valence band with zero energy
can be determined by substituting E = 0 in Eq. (2.4)

P (0> ~ , + t (0 - K K|/kT = j + g- Ep/kT -(2.8)

S° “ V = 1+C- ' U T ...(2.9)

Now total number of electrons in both bands,

n = nr + /[„ =
l + e (E0 - E P)/kT 1 + e - E F/kT

or 1 -
l + e - E r /kT 1 + e (B0 - E K)/kT

or EF = | Eq (2.i0)
i.e. in an intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies midway between the c o n d u c t i o n and
valence bands.

2.12. EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Intrinsic (or pure) semiconductor by itself is of little significance as it has little current
conduction capability at ordinary room temperature. However, the electrical conductivity
ot intrinsic semiconductor can be increased many t i m e s by adding very small a m o u n t of
 Basic Semiconductor and P-N Junction Theory 35
impurity (of the ° ^ er. one atom per million atoms of pure semiconductor) to it in the
process of crystallization. This process is called doping and the doped material is called
tKe impurity or extrinsic semiconductor.
Germanium and silicon are tetravalent. So the impurity or doping material may be
either pentavalent or trivalent. Accordingly the impurity introduced may be of two types
viz- (0 donor type or N-tvpe and (it) acceptor type or P-type. Depending on the type of
impurity added, the extrinsic conductors can be divided into two classes namely (i) N-type
semiconductors and (ii) P-type semiconductors.
1* N-Type E xtrin sic S em icon d u ctors. When a small amount of pentavalent impu­
rity, such as arsenic, antimony, bismuth or phosphorus, is added to a pure semiconductor
crystal during the crystal growth, the resulting crystal is called the N-type extrinsic semi­
conductor, where N stands for negative.
When a pentavalent or a donor impurity is added to silicon (or germanium), the
impurity atoms form covalent bonds with the silicon (or germanium) atoms; but since
intrinsic semiconductor atoms have only four electrons and four holes in their valence
shells, one spare valence-shell electron is produced for each impurity atom added. Each
spare electron so produced enters the conduction band of pure semiconductor as a free
electron. The pentavalent impurity is called the donor type impurity as it donates one
electron to the conduction band of a pure semiconductor. Though each impurity provides
only one free electron yet an extremely small amount of impurity provides enough atoms
to supply millions of free electrons.
The effect of adding donor impurity in a semiconductor is illustrated in Fig. 2.17 (a).
As shown in the figure, the unbound electron remains near its parent atom. This occurs
because the impurity atom has a proton in its nucleus which attracts the unbound elec­
tron. However, due to the geometry involved, the electron is partially shielded from its
parent atom and the attractive force between them is somewhat reduced. The energy
required to detach this fifth electron from the atom is of the order of only 0.05 eV for

0.05 eV FOR Si
0.01 eV FOR Ge

DONOR ENERGY
LEVEL
SLIGHTLY RAISED Eq AS BEFORE
FERMI LEVEL I 1.12 e V FOR Si
eV FOR Ge
072

ft,) Energy Band Diagram For

N-Type Semiconductor
(a)
Fig. 2.17
 36 Basic Bloctronlcs

T o n (0 01 eV for geririunium). Tbto energy to •» m M that at room temperature^

tknUy »n’ *«eh electron. become free. In other words, ^

IRMUn 111*” u j u v i u ^ viw ii ----- u , .

essentially a discrete level because the added impurity atoms are far apart in the cryat*
structure and hence their interaction is small. In the case o f silicon, the distance of
new discrete allowable energy level is only 0.05 eV (0.01 eV in germ anium ) below ti*
conduction hand and, therefore, at room temperature almost all o f the fifth electrons d
the donor impurity are raised into the conduction band and the conductivity of the mj.
torial increases considerably. At room temperature in an intrinsic silicon there is aboir
1 free electron for every 101~ atoms (1 to 109 for germanium). If the dosage level wen
1 in 10 million (107). the ratio 10,2/107 i.e. 10r' would indicate that the carrier concentre
turn has increased by a ratio 10' : 1.
Negative or N-Type Conductivity. When an electric field electron
is applied, the excess electrons donated by impurity atoms ,
move towards the positive terminal of the battery, as shown © © © ©

m Fig. 2.18. This constitutes the electric current. This type *©* "*©L *’©*
of conductivity is called the negative or N-type conductiv­
V
P O SITIVELY C HAR G ED
IM PAR ITY ATOM S
ity because the current flows through the crystal due to
free electrons (negatively charged particles). -------------- d ' k ----------------
Although N-type semiconductor has excess of electrons Fig. 2.18
but it is electrically neutral. This is due to the fact that
electrons are created by the addition of neutral pentavalent impurity atoms to the pur:
semiconductor i.e. there is no addition of either negative charges or positive charges.
Since pentavalent impurity donates electrons, which have negative charge, to the pure
semiconductor, such an impurity is also called the N-type impurity.
Since current flowing through the crystal is primarily due to free electrons (negativelj
charged particles), such a conductor is called the N-type semiconductor.
In an N-type semiconductor material, the number of holes is small in comparison to parent
intrinsic semiconductor because the larger number of electrons present increase the rate of
recombination of electrons with the holes. Thus, the number of free electrons becomes &
greater than the number of holes. That is why it is said that an N-type semiconductor h*
electrons as majority carriers, and the holes as minority carriers.
2. P -Type E x trin sic S e m ico n d u cto rs. When a small amount of trivalent impurity
such as boron, galimm, mdiwn or alummmm, is added.to a pure semiconductor crystal durW
‘ h „C
rlT f BrT tfpk ‘f 8, “ J ?® 1 “ callcd the P'lyPe extrin« « semiconductor, where f
Fig 2 19 °” e th08C i,n0urities ^ Si or Ge is illustrated i*

T r rity “ odde? t0 silia,n (or Bermanium), these impurity ate#

COVjlont bonda Wlth four aurroundmg intrinsic semiconductor (silicon or germania*'
 ■m m .V ; 'jiWtSBNtt

Basic Somiconductor and P-N Junction Thoory 37

atoms but one bond is loft incomplete and given
rise to a hole, as illustrated in Fig. 2.1!). Such
impurities make available positive carriers be­
cause they create holes which can accept elec­ ©
trons. These impurities are consequently known
as acceptor or P-type impurities. The amount
of impurity which is required to be added to
have an appreciable effect on the conductivity
is very small.
The effect of this doping process on the
relative conductivity can best be explained by
energy band diagram shown in Fig. 2.20. When
acceptor or P-type impurities are added to the
intrinsic sem iconductor, they produce an
allowable discrete energy level which is just
above the valence band, as shown in Fig. 2.20.
Since a very small amount o f energy (0.08 eV
in case of silicon and 0.01 eV in case of
germanium) is required for an electron to leave Fig. 2.19
the valence band and occupy the acceptor energy
level, holes are created in the valence band by
these electrons. The holes so created constitute /V. V / S/4.U.
/^ .C O N D U C T IO N Q A N D j/^ .
the larger num ber o f carriers in the
SLIGHTLY LOW ERED
semiconductor material. FERMI LEVEL
= 1 12 e V FOR Si
0 72 eV F O R G e
Since holes can be said to have a positive ACCEPTOR
charge, acceptor-doped semiconductor mate­ ENERGY LEVEL

rial is referred to as P-type semiconductor. '# & V A L E N C E W pm & i 0 06 e V FOR Si

0 01 e V FOR Ge
The resulting P-type material is electrically
neutral, for the same reasons as for the N-type
material.
The worthnoting points about P-type semi­ Fig. 2.20. Energy Bund D iagram For
conductors are : P-Type S em icond uctor
(0 In P-type semiconductors, the majority
^ P -T Y P E
carriers are holes while the minority carriers S E M IC O N D U C T O R
are electrons.
(a) P-type sem iconductor remains electrically
neutral as the number o f mobile holes under
all conditions remains equal to the number
of acceptors.
(Hi) When an electric field is applied across a
P-type semiconductor, as shown in Fig. 2.21, Fig# 2,21
the current conduction is primarily due to holes. Here the holes are shifted from one
covalent bond to another covalent bond. As the holes are positively charged, they are
directed towards the negative terminal and constitute the hole current. The hole
current flows more slowly than electron current in N-type semiconductor.
(iv) In P-type conductivity, the valence electrons move from one covalent bond to
another covalent bond unlike N-type where conduction is by electrons.
 38 Basic Electronics

Since the current flowing through the crystal i* utsrsr and £fc*
positive charge, such a semiconductor is called the -t/pe - £-rc<*' tiesoicocdvtr+rjr &
tivity is called the P-type conductivity. The impuntv maxir^
called the P-type impurity. rmicondoctor, Iwrfcre
Note : In the manufacturing process of an "Ly controlling. tbe arsons?. J
pure crystal of silicon or germanium *8t ^ n n ^ u elr controlled. Historic^

vaiiable- Bees’-
techniques improved and pure silicon crystals became f v ,
silicon has become the most popular and usefu cetnico
2.12.1. Terms Used in Extrinsic S e m ic o n d u c to r s
Various terms used in reference to extrinsic semiconductor*, are xp ' ^ ^ cay ,
1. Doping. Addition of impurity atoms to intrixisic &emuxn J t " , ' '
doping and the impurity used for doping is called the
2. Diffusion. The process of doping a semiconductor with impurities is known *
diffusion.
3. Donor. Arsenic, antimony or phosphorus or any other pentavalent impurity ^
as dopant to produce an N-type semiconductor is called the d onor type impun
4. Acceptor. Boron, gallium, indium or any other trivalent impurity used as dop=r
to produce a P-type semiconductor is called the acceptor type im purity.
2.12.2. Effect of Temperature on Extrinsic Semiconductors
Addition of a small amount of impurity (donor or acceptor) produces a large number of chsrp
carriers in an extrinsic semiconductor, as already discussed above. In fact, this number 1=5
large that the conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor is many times that o f an intms:
semiconductor at room temperature.
If the temperature of an extrinsic semiconductor (say N-type) is raised, the addition
thermal energy increases the thermally generated carriers. As*a result, the concentrate
of minority carriers increases. Eventually, a temperature is reached, called the critics
temperature, (85°C in case of Ge and 200°C in case of Si) when the number of covaler
bonds, that are broken is very large, so that the number of holes becomes approximate?
the same as the number of electrons. The extrinsic semiconductor now behaves like a:
intrinsic semiconductor but with higher conductivity.
2.12.3. Charge Carriers
As discussed above, current conduction in an N-type semiconductor is due to excess of fr*
“ ™ whcreas ln. a f-'y P e semiconductor it is due to excess o f holes. One mav thin*
that N-type semiconductor has a net npf negative charge
-------
anH j P I T. -, _
But this conclusion is wrong. Even though t h e N t™ „ ' ! ^ 3sltlve cha^
electrons but these extra electrons w o r . s u p p H d b y h e a t o ^ n f H " h as. f xces,s 2
atom of donor impurity is electrically neutral When th ! T a*>d ea“ ’
excess electrons" refers to the excess with referPn™ . impurity is added, the tere
to fill _* 1 * reference to the numhpr nf oio^fmno
to fill the covalent bonds in the ? T ™ * t0 the nUmber ° f electrons required
there to increase the conductiWtv The extra free electrons are
electrically neutral. Similar situation occurs empC° nductor>. however, N-type semiconductor i*
neutral. Free electrons in N-type semicondnrf ^ s®n?iconducto*‘ which is also electrically
charge carriers. 8emicond^ to rs and holes in P-type semiconductors a*