COMPUTER:

A computer can be defined as an electronic device that accepts data from an input device,
processes it, stores it in a disk and finally displays it on an output device such as a monitor.
Computer is an electronic device that can perform a variety of operations in accordance with
a set of instructions called program. The term ‘computer is derived from the term
‘computare’, this means to calculate. It takes raw data as input from the user and processes
these data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives the result
(output) and saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-numerical
(arithmetic and logical) calculations.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Computers are not just adding machines; they are capable of doing complex activities and
operations. They can be programmed to do complex, tedious and monotonous tasks. All
computers have certain common characteristics irrespective of their type and size. The
following are the important characteristics which took together, enable a computer to surpass
its performance in some tasks in which the human beings cannot perform efficiently:

1. Speed: A computer is a very fast device capable of data processing at unbelievable speed.
It can perform in a few seconds the amount of work that a human being may not be able to do
in an entire year even if he works day and night and does nothing else. Computers can
process millions of instructions per second thus carrying out even the complex tasks in
fractions of seconds without any mistake. While talking about the speed of a computer, we do
not talk in terms of seconds or even milliseconds (103). Our units of speed are the
microseconds (106), the nanoseconds (109), and even the picoseconds (1012). A powerful
computer is capable of performing about 3 to 4 million simple arithmetic operations per
second.

2. Accuracy: In addition to speed, the computer has high accuracy in computing. The
accuracy of a computer is consistently high and the degree of accuracy of a particular
computer depends upon its design. But for a particular computer, each and every calculation
is performed with the same accuracy. Errors can occur in a computer, but these are mainly
due to human rather than technological weakness. The errors in computer are due to errors in
programming and operation by human and due to inaccurate data.

3. Versatility: A computer is a very versatile machine. Versatility is one of the most

wonderful features of the computer in the sense that they are not only capable of handling
complex arithmetical problems, but can do equally well other number of jobs. They can
perform activities ranging from simple calculations to performing complex CAD modeling
and simulations to navigating missiles and satellites. In other words, computers can be
programmed to perform any task that can be reduced to a series of logical steps. Computers
can communicate with other computers and can receive and send data in various forms like
text, sound, video, graphics, etc. We, now, live in a connected world and all this is because of
computers and other related technologies.
4. Diligence: Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, lack of
concentration etc. and hence can work for hours together without creating any error and
without grumbling. Due to this property computers obviously score over human beings in
doing routine type of jobs, which require greater accuracy. They will perform the tasks that
are given to them - irrespective of whether it is interesting, creative, monotonous or boring;
irrespective of whether it is the first time or the millionth time - with exactly the same
accuracy and speed.

5. Storage Capability: Computers have their main memory and auxiliary memory systems.
A computer can store a large amount of data. With more and more auxiliary storage devices,
which are capable of storing huge amounts of data, the storage capacity of a computer is
virtually unlimited. The factor that makes computer storage unique is not that it can store vast
amount of data, but the fact that it can retrieve the information that the user wants in a few
seconds. Every piece of information can be retained as long as desired by the user and can be
recalled as and when required. Even after several years, the information recalled is as
accurate as on the day when it was fed to computer. A computer forgets or looses certain
information only when it is asked to do so. So it is entirely up to the user to make a computer
retain or forget particular information.

6. Reliability: Reliability of the computers is indeed very high. Modern electronic

components have long failure free lives. A microprocessor chip is said to have a life of 40
years even under adverse conditions and much before it fails, it will become obsolete.
Computers are also designed in modular form so as to make maintenance easy; when a
component fails, it can be replaced or repaired at a minimal cost.

7. Automation: The level of automation achieved in a computer is phenomenal. It is not a

simple calculator where you have to punch in the numbers and press the equal to sign to get
the result. Once a task is initiated, computers can proceed on its own till its completion.
Computers can be programmed to perform a series of complex tasks involving multiple
programs. Computers will perform these things flawlessly. They will execute the programs in
the correct sequence, they will switch on/off the machines at the appropriate time, they will
monitor the operational parameters, and they will send warning signals or take corrective
actions if the parameters exceed the control level, and so on. Computers are capable of these
levels of automation, provided they are programmed correctly.

8. No IQ: A computer is not a magical device. It possesses no intelligence of its own. Its IQ
is zero, at least till today. The difference is that it performs these tasks with unthinkable speed
and accuracy. Hence, only the user can determine what tasks a computer will perform. A
computer cannot take its own decision in this regard. Unlike the human brain, a computer
cannot think on its own, but has to be given very explicit, step-by-step instructions to make it
perform a task.
9. No Feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. They have no feelings and no instincts
because they are machine. Although men have succeeded in building a memory for the
computer, but no computer possesses the equivalent of human heart and soul. Based on our
feelings, taste, knowledge, and experience, we often make certain judgments in our day-to-
day life. But computers cannot make such judgments on their own. Their judgments are based
on the instructions given to them in the form of programs that are written by us. They are
only as good as man makes and uses them.

Thus a computer is not intelligent: it is a fast, rule-following idiot. Fast because it works at
electronic speeds; rule-following because it needs to be given very detailed and complete
instructions before it can do even the simplest task; and an idiot because it will unhesitatingly
follow instructions even when to us it would be obvious that they were nonsense.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS:

1. Classification based on area of applications

Modern computers depending upon their applications are classified as:
a.) Special Purpose Computers: - A special purpose computer is designed only to
meet the requirements of a particular task or application. The instructions needed to
perform a particular task are permanently stored into the internal memory, so that it can
perform the given task on a single command. It therefore doesn’t posses unnecessary
options and is less expensive.

b) General Purpose Computers: - A General Purpose computers are designed to meet

the needs of many different applications. In these computers, the instructions needed to
perform a particular task are wired permanently into the internal memory. When one job
is over, instructions for another job can be loaded into the internal memory for
processing. This, a general purpose machine can be used to prepare pay-bills, manage
inventories, print sales report and so on.

2. Classification based on Operating Principles

Based on the operating principles, computers can be classified into one of the following
types:
 a. Digital Computers: Operate essentially by counting. All quantities are expressed as
discrete or numbers. Digital computers are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and
manipulations of data (such as preparation of bills, ledgers, solution of simultaneous
equations etc). Digital computers manipulate most data more easily than analog computers.
They are designed to process data in numerical form and their circuits perform directly the
mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

b. Analog Computers: An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the

continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or
hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital
computers represent varying quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change. An
analog computer must be able to accept inputs which vary with respect to time and directly
apply these inputs to various devices within the computer which performs the computing
operations of additions, subtraction, multiplication, division, integration and function
generation

c. Hybrid Computers: are computers that exhibit features of analog

computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller
and provides logical operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver
of differential equations.

Classification digital Computer based on size and Capability

Based on size and capability, computers are broadly classified into

a. Microcomputers(Personal Computer)
A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose processing system. Microcomputers is a
computer whose processing unit consists of one or more microprocessors, one or more input /
output units and sufficient memory to execute instructions. They are used in schools, homes,
office etc. The older pc started 8 bit processor with speed of 3.7MB and current pc 64 bit
processor with speed of 4.66 GB. Examples: IBM PCs, APPLE computers. Microcomputer
can be classified into 2 types:
1. Desktops
2. Portables
The difference is portables can be used while travelling whereas desktops computers cannot
be carried around. The different portable computers are:

 Laptop: - this computer is similar to a desktop computers but the size is smaller. They
are expensive than desktop. The weight of laptop is around 3 to 5 kg.
  Notebook: - These computers are as powerful as desktop but size of these computers
are comparatively smaller than laptop and desktop. They weigh 2 to 3 kg. They are
more costly than laptop.

 Palmtop (Hand held): - They are also called as personal Digital Assistant (PDA).
These computers are small in size. They can be held in hands. It is capable of doing
word processing, spreadsheets and hand writing recognition, game playing, faxing
and paging. These computers are not as powerful as desktop computers. Ex: - 3com
palmV.

 Wearable computer: - The size of this computer is very small so that it can be worn
on the body. It has smaller processing power. It is used in the field of medicine. For
example pace maker to correct the heart beats. Insulin meter to find the levels of
insulin in the blood.

b) Workstations: Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM),

desktop publishing, software development, and other such types of applications which require
a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of
RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a
mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless
workstation, comes without a disk drive. Common operating systems for workstations are
UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, Workstations are also single-user computers like PC but
are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as
stand-alone systems.

b) Minicomputer: A minicomputer is a medium-sized computer. That is more powerful than

a microcomputer. These computers are usually designed to serve multiple users
simultaneously (Parallel Processing). Mini Computers are medium scale computer in the
sense that they are faster than micro computers. These computers have large storage capacity
and can support up to 120 terminals. Mini computers have operating systems with
multitasking and network capabilities enabling them to serve more than one user. They are
more expensive than microcomputers. Examples: Digital Alpha, Sun Ultra.

c) Mainframe computers: - Computers with large storage capacities and very high speed of
processing (compared to mini- or microcomputers) are known as mainframe computers. They
support a large number of terminals for simultaneous use by a number of users like ATM
transactions. They are also used as central host computers in distributed data processing
system. They are specially designed to handle all type of scientific and business application
with large volume of data instruction and information. Examples: IBM 370, S/390. The main
features of supercomputers can be summarized as below:
 are the fastest, largest and most expensive computers.
 use processing power to solve a few computer intensive task.
 can process I trillion instructions per second.
 have parallel processor.
 can perform simultaneously many computations whereas a conventional computer
uses a series of sequential steps.
 are often used for complex scientific applications like weather forecasting, problems
concerning ballistic missiles, nuclear reactor designs, modeling large linear
programming, seismic data processing etc. The aerospace, automotive, chemical,
electronics, petroleum industries use supercomputers extensively

d) Supercomputer: Supercomputers have extremely large storage capacity and computing

speeds which are many times faster than other computers. A supercomputer is measured in
terms of tens of millions Instructions per second (mips), an operation is made up of numerous
instructions. The supercomputer is mainly used for large scale numerical problems in
scientific and engineering disciplines such as Weather analysis. These computers are
characterized by their large size and are very high processing speed and are generally used
for complex and scientific applications these are most powerful computer and are very
expensive .These can execute instructions in the large of 5 billion instructions per second.
Examples: IBM Deep Blue. The main features of mainframe computers can be summarized
as below
 are large, fast and expensive.
 provide centralized data storage, processing and management.
 are used by business, industry and government.
 can handle several hundred requests quickly.
 often have more than one CPU.

Classification based on word-length

A binary digit is called “BIT”. A word is a group of bits which is fixed for a computer. The
number of bits in a word (or word length) determines the representation of all characters in
these many bits. Word length lies in the range from 16-bit to 64-bits for most computers of
today.

Classification based on number of users

Based on number of users, computers are classified into:

a. Single User: - Only one user can use the resource at any time.

b. Multi User: - A single computer shared by a number of users at any time.

c. Network: - A number of interconnected autonomous computers shared by a number

of users at any time.
Classification based on number of microprocessors
Based on the number of microprocessors, computers can be classified into
a) Sequential computers: Any task complete in sequential computers is with one
microcomputer only. Most of the computers (today) we see are sequential computers where
in any task is completed sequentially instruction after instruction from the beginning to the
end.

b) Parallel computers: The parallel computer is relatively fast. New types of computers that
use a large number of processors. The processors perform different tasks independently and
simultaneously thus improving the speed of execution of complex programs dramatically.
Parallel computers match the speed of supercomputers at a fraction of the cost.

COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER/ BLOCK DIAGRAM

The internal Architectural Design of computers differs from one system model to another.
However, the basic organization remains the same for all computer systems. All computer
systems perform the following five basic operations inputting, storing, Processing, Outputting
and Controlling. The function of each of these units is described below.

INPUT UNIT
Data and instructions must enter the computer system before any computation can be
performed on the supplied data. The input unit that links the external environment with the
computer system performs this task. Data and instructions enter input units in forms that
depend upon the particular device used. For example, data is entered from a keyboard in a
manner similar to typing, and this differs from the way in which data is entered through a
card reader which is another type of input device. However, regardless of the form in which
they receive their inputs, all input devices must provide a computer with data that are
transformed into the binary codes that the primary memory of a computer is designed to
accept. This transformation is accomplished by units called input interfaces. Input interfaces
are designed to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of input devices to the
requirements of the computer system. In short, an input unit performs the following
functions:
 It accepts (or reads) the list of instructions and data from the outside world.
 It converts these instructions and data in the computer acceptable form.
 It supplies the converted instructions and data to the complete system for further
processing.

OUTPUT UNIT
The job of an output unit is just the reverse of that of an input unit. It supplies information
and results of computation to the outside world. Thus, it links the computer with the external
environment. As computers work with binary code, the results produced are also in the binary
form. Hence, before supplying the results to the outside world, it must be converted to human
acceptable (readable) form. This task is accomplished by units call output interfaces. Output
interfaces are designed to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of output
devices (terminals, printers, etc.) to the requirements of the external environmental.
In short, an output unit performs the following functions:
 It accepts the results produced by the computer, which are in coded form and hence
cannot be easily understood by us.
 It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.
 It supplies the converted results to the outside world.

STORAGE UNIT
The data and instructions that are entered into the computer system through input units have
to be stored inside the computer before the actual processing starts. Similarly, the results
produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer
system before being passed on to the output units. Moreover, the intermediate results
produced by the computer must also be preserved for ongoing processing. The storage unit at
the primary/main storage of a computer system is designed to cater to all these needs. It
provides space for storing data and instructions; space for intermediate results; and also space
for the final results. The main functions of storage unit are:
 To hold all data to be processed and instructions required for processing.
 To store intermediate results of processing.
 To store final results of processing before these results are released to output device.
The main memory, housed inside the computer unit, is built from two different kinds of
memory chip: the first kind, called ROM (read only memory), has permanently built into
information and instructions the computer needs to know in order to operate properly; the
second kind of memory, called RAM (random access memory), holds the program and other
information typed in at the keyboard. The RAM is a 'read and write' memory. This means we
can store, or 'write', information into this memory and later recall it, or 'read' it out again. The
ROM, on the other hand, can only be read; we cannot write information into it. This ensures
that we do not destroy the vital information held in ROM by over-writing it. An important
difference between the two types of memory is that RAM is 'volatile', i.e. it loses all the
information stored when the power is switched off. ROM, on the other hand, is 'non-volatile';
its information is not lost when the power is switched off. The secondary storage medium
stores data, instructions and output for archival purpose so that whenever any data or
instructions is required in the future it can be retrieved for reference or for further processing.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The Arithmetic Logic Unit and the Control Unit of a computer system are jointly known as
the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain of any computer system. In a
human body, the brain takes all major decisions and the other parts of the body function as
directed by the brain. Similarly in a computer system, all major calculations and comparisons
are made inside the CPU and the CPU is also responsible for activating and controlling the
operations of other units of a computer system.

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the actual
execution of the instructions takes place during the processing operation. To be more precise
all calculations are performed and all comparisons (decisions) are made in the ALU. The data
and instructions stored in the primary storage prior to processing, are transferred as and when
needed to the ALU where processing takes place. Intermediate results generated in the ALU
are temporarily transferred back to the primary storage until needed at a later time. Data may,
thus, move from primary storage to ALU and back again to storage many times before the
processing is over. After the completion of processing the final results, which are stored in
the storage unit, are released to an output device. ALU's are designed to perform the four
basic arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide) and logic operations or
comparisons such as less than, equal to, or greater than. Thus functions of ALU are
 It accepts data and decoded instructions from main memory and control
 It performs Arithmetic and Logical operations on data according to instructions.
 It returns the final results to main memory for storage.

CONTROL UNIT
Although, it does not perform any actual processing on the data, the Control Unit acts as a
central nervous system for the other components of the computer. The control unit controls
and co-ordinates all the operations of the CPU and peripheral devices. Its functions are to
ensure that the program instructions are carried out in the desired sequence and to control and
co-ordinate the flow of data between the CPU and the input-output devices. By selecting,
interpreting, and seeing to the execution of the program instructions, the Control Unit is able
to maintain order and direct the operation of the entire system. It manages and coordinates
the entire computer system. It obtains instructions from the program stored in main memory,
interprets the instructions, and issues signals that cause other units of the system to execute
them.

 The control unit instructs the input unit where to store the data after receiving it from
the user.
  The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and
instructions are executed. It acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in
proper fashion.
 It controls the flow of data and instructions from the storage unit to ALU and also
controls the flow of results from ALU to the storage unit.

PERIPHERAL DEVICES
A peripheral device connects to a computer system to add functionality. Examples are a
mouse, keyboard, monitor, printer and scanner. A computer peripheral is a device that is
connected to a computer but is not part of the core computer architecture. The core elements
of a computer are the central processing unit, power supply, motherboard and the computer
case that contains those three components. A peripheral device is an internal or external
device that connects directly to a computer but does not contribute to the computer's primary
function, such as computing. It helps end users access and use the functionalities of a
computer. A peripheral device provides input/output (I/O) functions for a computer and
serves as an auxiliary computer device without computing-intensive functionality.

INPUT DEVICES
Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer: Keyboard,
Mouse, Joy Stick, Light pen, Track Ball, Scanner, Graphic Tablet, Microphone, Optical
Character Reader(OCR), Bar Code Reader, Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data
to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although
there are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions. Keyboards are
of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also
available for Windows and Internet. The keys on the keyboard are as follows:

Sr.No Keys Description

1 Typing Keys These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which
generally give same layout as that of typewriters.

2 Numeric It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it

Keypad consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration
used by most adding machines and calculators.
3 Function Keys The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are
arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has
unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.

4 Control keys These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four
directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert,
Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).

5 Special Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift,
Purpose Keys Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and
sends corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed. Generally it has
two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the buttons. Mouse
can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into
the computer.
There are three types of mouse: mechanical, optomechanical and optical. The mechanical
mouse has a ball at its bottom. It can be rolled across a flat and smooth surface to control the
position of the cursor on the screen. By pointing and clicking on icons and menu options
displayed on the screen, it is easy for the user to control the computer with a mouse.
Mechanical sensors within the mouse detect the direction the ball is rolling and move the
screen pointer accordingly. The optomechanical mouse is more or less the same as the
mechanical mouse, but it uses optical sensors to detect motion of the ball. Optical mouse uses
a laser to detect the mouse movement. The mouse requires to be moved along a special mat
with a grid so that the optical mechanism has a frame of reference. It has no mechanical
moving parts. It responds more quickly and precisely than mechanical or optomechanical
mouse. Optical mouse is more expensive than the other two. Advantages of using mouse are:

 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen.
It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball
moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions. The function of joystick
is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and
playing computer games. The screen-cursor movement in any particular direction is measured
by the distance that the stick is shifted or moved from its centre position.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu
item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system
placed in a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen
button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be
moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A
track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square. Advantages of Trackball
are:
 It can be placed on any type of surface, including our palm or lap.
 It is stationary so it does not need much space for its use.
 Due to their compact size these are most suitable for portable computer.

Touchpad
This is a small sensitive pad used on portable computers (laptops). The touch pad is used as a
pointing device. The pointer is moved on screen by touching the touch pad with the finger.
Tapping on the touch pad will give the same results as when using the mouse buttons. The
touchpad is particularly useful for persons with disability whom can have limitations in
moving their hand.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer
can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be
stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the
camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it
converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used
for doing fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications. Advantages of
Digitizer are:

 Interactive graphics is possible using digitizer.

 The sketches displayed on the monitor are neater and more precise than those on
paper.
Disadvantages are:
 They are quite costly.
 These suites to applications which require high resolution graphics only.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The
microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation
or for mixing music.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the
computer for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then
converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited
before they are printed.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by
character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system
memory. It detects shape, and can identify characters. It can examine each character as if it
were made up of a collection of minute spots. Once the whole character has been scanned, the
pattern detected is matched against a set of patterns stored in the computer. The pattern that
matches or nearly matches is taken to be the character read. Patterns that cannot be identified
are rejected. It is used in mail sorting and credit card billing.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may
be a hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans
a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer
to which bar code reader is connected.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is
specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions. Optical mark reader (OMR) reads the presence or absence of a mark on a paper
optically. Light is directed on to the paper and the reflected light is analysed for the detection
of a mark. If a mark is there on the surface of the paper, that area sends back lesser light are
to the OMR. It is used to read multiple choice answers in a test and the data are transferred to
a computer for processing.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) uses highly stylised character shapes printed in
a special ink containing particles that can be magnetised. This ink induces a current in a
reading circuit, which is proportional to the area of ink being scanned. The patterns of the
varying currents can be compared with and selected as bit patterns of the selected number
e.g., the number on a cheque). The MICR reader can only identify characters. Banking
industry uses this device for sorting of cheques. The MICR codes read from the cheques are
transmitted to an online computer for sorting and processing automatically.

OUTPUT DEVICE
An output device is a device which accepts results from the computer and displays them to
user. The output device also converts the binary code obtained from the computer into human
readable form. Output devices generate two types of output copy of results.
1. Hard Copy Output - it is a computer output, which is permanent in nature and can be kept
in paper files, or can be looked at a later stage, when the person is not using the computer.
For example, output produced by printers or plotters on paper.
2. Soft Copy Output - it is a computer output, which is temporary in nature, and vanishes
after its use. For example, output shown on a terminal screen, or spoken out by a voice
response system. Examples: CRT screen/TFT screen.

Monitor: It is also known as VDU (Visual Display Unit). It is the most basic output device.
It is used to display the output. Types of monitor on the basis of architecture:

CRT Monitor: CRT is the large bulky sized monitor. It has high power requirement so it is
not appropriate for portable devices. A monochrome CRT contains single electron gun which
emits beam of electrons. These electrons are attached towards positive phosphorous screen.
When an electron strikes the screen it glows and emits light. A small area in which an
electron strikes is known as pixel. To display a screen all the pixel are striked by electrons.
Accelerating anode varies the speed of the electron and deflecting system changes the path of
the electron. A color CRT monitor contains three electron guns which emits three electrons at
a time. These electrons converge in the same pixel to display a color.

Merits of CRT monitor are:

 It has better brightness.

 It is cheaper in cost.
 It is more durable.
De-merits of CRT monitor are:
  Due to its high brightness human eyes are negatively affected.
 It requires high power.
 It is large in size so occupies more space.

LED: LED contains multiple small bulbs. The contents are displayed by turning the bulbs
“on” and “off”. Initially it was used only for simple digital displays like in calculator, digital
watch, etc. At present it is also used in television, desktop PC, laptop, etc.

Merits of LED are:

 It is light in weight so, it can be used in portable devices.

 It requires less power.
 It is small in size.
De-merits of LED are:

 It has low brightness but is better than LCD and plasma.

 It is expensive compared to CRT.
 It is difficult to maintain.

LCD: LCD contains liquid crystals in between two plates of the screen. The plates are made
by either glass or plastic. The front plate is transparent and the back plate is reflective. Liquid
crystals are charged electronically to display the content. This monitor is popular for portable
devices because of its small size, light weight, low power requirement however it has low
brightness and it requires viewing angle of almost 90.

Merits of LCD:

 It is small in size.
 It is light in weight.
 It has low power requirements so, can be used in portable devices.
 It is cheaper than LED and plasma display.
De-merits of LCD:

 It has low brightness.

 It is expensive compared to CRT.
 It requires viewing angle of almost 90.

Plasma display: It contains neon gas in between the two plates of the screen in place of
liquid crystals of LCD. It has larger viewing angle but is expensive than LCD. It is smaller in
size, light in weight and it has low power requirement and low brightness.

Merits of plasma display:

 It is smaller in size and light in weight.

 It has low power requirement so can be used in portable devices.
  It has larger viewing angle.
De-merits of plasma display:

 It has low brightness.

 It is expensive than LCD.

Speaker: Speaker is a soft copy output device for audio. It generates analog sound wave
from stored digital sound by using vibrators. Different types of speakers vary on the loudness
of sound generated. Some of the speakers used are: Head phone, Normal speaker, Woofer,
Loud speaker.

Hard copy output devices:

Printer: Printer makes the permanent impression of color on the printing material like paper,
plastic, clothes, rubber, metal, etc. A printer can be single or multi-colored. Types of printer
are:

1. Impact printer: It prints by physically touching the printing material. It is noisier,

slower for printing, single colored. It produces low quality output. It is usually
cheaper and it can produce multiple copies at the same time by using carbon paper. It
uses ink ribbon for printing.

a.) Dot matrix printer: It is an impact type character printer. It prints character by the
combination of dots where each dot is printed when the hammer strikes the printing
material. It can print both image and text of different font and size. It is appropriate
for low volume printing. It is usually available in three operating modes: fast, medium
and slow. Faster speed will have low printing quality.
Merits:

 It can print both image and text of different font and size.
 Its operating cost is low.
 It can print multiple copies at the same time using carbon paper.

De-merits:

 It is noisy, slower.
 It has low printing quality.
 It can print single color only.
 It is not appropriate for large volume printing.

b.) Daisy wheel printer: It is an impact type character printer. It can only print text of
fixed size and font. It contains separate hammer for each character so it is also know
 as letter quality printer. Its printing quality is better than dot matrix printer. It is faster
than dot matrix printer. It is rarely used at present.

Merits:

 Its printing quality is better than dot matrix printer.

 It is faster than dot matrix printer.
 It can print multiple copies at the same time using carbon paper.
De-merits:

 It can print text of fixed size and font.

 It is noisy, slower than non-impact printers.
 It has low printing quality than non-impact printers.
 It can print a single color.
 It is not appropriate for large volume printing.
 It can’t print images.

c.) Line printer: It is an impact type printer. It can print a complete line of text at a time.
It can’t print images and text of different size and font. It is expensive than non-
impact. It is appropriate for continuous printing like printing mark sheet, bill, bank
statement, etc. the different line printers are: chain printer, drum printer, band printer.

Merits:
 It can be used for continuous printing.
 It is faster than character printer.
 It can print a complete line of text at a time.
 It can print multiple copies at a time.

De-merits:
 It can’t print images and text of different size and font.
 Its printing quality is low.
 It is slower and noisy.
 It can print a single color.
 It is expensive.
Drum Printer: It is a line printer. It has a drum that rotates at high speed. A set of characters
is embossed on the drum. It prints one line of characters at a time. The hammer for a
particular character position is activated when that character on the drum passes under it to
produce character impression on paper.

Chain Printer: The chain printer works like the drum printer. It consists of a set of typefaces
on a chain that rotates at high speed. The printer composes one line at a time and the
hammers are activated to produce one row of characters as it is composed. There is a hammer
for each print position. As the characters move around on the chain, the hammer strikes on
the opposite side of the print position to produce character impression on paper.
 2. Non impact printer: it prints without touching the printing material. It sprays liquid
or powder ink. It uses electromagnetic or electrostatic mechanism. It is noiseless, faster for
printing usually expensive, it has high printing quality, it can be single or multi-colored, it
cannot produce multiple copies at the same time. Example: ink jet printer, laser printer,
thermal wax printer.
a.) Inkjet: It is non impact type character printer. It uses liquid ink for printing. It can be
single or multi-colored. It is cheaper to buy but its operating cost is expensive due to
expensive ink. So, it is appropriate only for low volume printing. Inkjet is a non-impact
printer and is quiet when working. It sprays ink particles through its nozzle. On leaving the
nozzle, the tiny particles of ink get electrically charged. The electrically charged particles are
then guided on to the paper to form appropriate characters. Inkjet printers are as cheap as dot
matrix printers are; but their operating costs are far higher than those of dot matrix printers.
However, they give much better quality than DMPs. They are available in black and white
and colour.
Merits:
 It is not noisy and is faster than impact printers.
 It can be both single and multi-colored.
 It is cheaper to buy.
 It can print both text and images.
 Its printing quality is better than impact printers.
De-merits:
 Its operating cost is high.
 It is appropriate for low volume printing only.
 It can’t produce multiple copies at the same time.
 It is not appropriate for continuous printing.

b.) Laser Printer: It is non-impact type page printer. It uses powder ink (toner) for printing.
It is expensive to buy but its operating cost is low. So, it is appropriate for large volume
printing. Multi-colored laser printer is larger in size and they are slower and expensive. It can
print about 30 pages per minute. The laser beam is turned off and on under the control of a
computer. The areas that are exposed to the laser attract toner, which is generally an ink
power. Thereafter the drum transfers the toner to the paper. Then the toner is permanently
fused on the paper with heat or pressure in a fusing station. After this drum is discharged
cleaned so that it is ready for next processing.

Merits:
 It is not noisy and is faster than impact printer.
 It can be both single and multi-colored.
 Its operating cost is low.
 It can print both text and images.
 Its printing quality is better than impact printer.
 De-merits:
 It is expensive to buy.
 It can’t print multiple copies at the same time.
 It is not appropriate for continuous printing.

Plotter: It is large sized printer. It is used to plot large maps, designs, advertisements, etc. It
is multi-colored, slow for printing, expensive and large in size. Paper, plastic (mainly flex) is
used as printing material. It uses technology like ink jet technology, color pen technology.
Ink jet technology uses liquid ink whereas color pen technology uses multi colored pens
controlled by the mechanical arm. Ink jet is cheaper and color pen has better printing quality.
Different plotters in use are:

 Drum plotter: Here the paper moves along a drum vertically while pens move side to
side horizontally.
 Flat bed plotter: This uses a flat paper which is fixed, and pens (or styluses) that
move on it draw the required design.

STORAGE DEVICES
Computer storage or memory can be of two types: primary and secondary. Primary memory
provides very fast access and is used for storing frequently used programs and data. But,
primary storage is expensive and also volatile. Hence it is used for storing data and
instructions mostly temporarily. Large files and databases are stored on secondary storage
devices. Data and instructions from the secondary storage are moved into the primary
memory for the CPU to access them.

Random Access Memory (RAM): RAM stands for Random Access Memory and it is a
read/write memory. Information can be written into and read from a RAM. It is a volatile
memory. It retains the stored information as long as it is supplied with power. When power
supply of computer is switched off or interrupted the stored information in the RAM is lost.
RAMs of various capacities are available for example, 1K, 4K, 16K, 64K, 1M, 4M and so on.
There are two important types of RAMs - static RAM and dynamic RAM.
Static RAMs retain stored information as long as power supply is on. But a dynamic RAM
loses its stored information in a very short time even though the power supply is on.
Therefore, dynamic RAMs have to be refreshed periodically, generally every 2 millisecond.
The dynamic RAMs are cheaper and have high packing density and moderate speed. They
consume less power. They are used where large capacity memories are needed. Static RAMs
are costlier and consume more power. They have higher speed than dynamic RAMs. Static
RAM and dynamic RAM are also written as SRAM and DRAM.

ROM (Read Only Memory): ROM stands for Read Only Memory and it is a permanent
type memory. It contents are not lost when power supply of computer is switched off. The
user cannot write into a ROM. Its contents are written into at manufacturing time. ROMs
store permanent programs and other types of information which are needed by the computer
to execute user programs. ROMs store function such as sine, cosine, logarithm, square root,
exponential and code conversion tables, etc.

PROM (PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY)

A variation of ROM chip is programmable read only memory. ROM chip are supplied by the
computer system manufacture and it is not possible for a customer to modify the programs
stored inside the ROM chip. However, it is possible for a user to customize a system by
converting his own programs to micro programs and storing them in a PROM chip. Once the
users programs are stored in a PROM chip, they can usually be executed in a fraction of the
time previously required. PROMs are programmed to record information using a special
facility known as a pro-programmer. However, once the chip has been programmed, the
recorded information cannot be changed, i.e. the PROM becomes a ROM and it is only
possible to read the stored information. PROM is also non-volatile storage, i.e. the stored
information remains intact even if power supply of computer is switched off.

EPORM (ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY)

Once information is stored in a ROM or a PROM chip it cannot be changed or altered.
However, there is another type of memory chip called erasable programmable read only
memory that overcomes this problem. As the name implies, it is possible to erase information
stored in an EPROM chip. The chip can be reprogrammed to store new information using a
special prom-programmer facility. Information stored in an EPROM chip is erased by
exposing the chip for some time to ultraviolet light. When an EPROM is in use, information
can only be read and the information remains on the chip until it is erased. EPROMs are
mainly used by R & D personnel because they frequently change the micro programs to test
the efficiency of the computer system with new programs.

E2PROM (ELECTRONICALLY ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE ROM)

It is also called flash BIOS, in this type of memory high voltage electric pulses are used to
erase information content in the ROM. New information can be recorded in ROM by
special software program although there is a limit to the number of times that can be
programmed. E2PROM chip allows user to upgrade their BIOS.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY MEMORY AND SECONDARY MEMORY

PRIMARY MEMORY
 Primary memory of a computer is purely made of electronic devices either by
transistor or capacitor.
 Primary memory can directly communicate with CPU (Central Processing Unit)
hence it is called main memory.
 Primary memory is relatively faster than secondary memory.
 Primary memory is needed basically by the system itself for processing functions.
 Primary memory is relatively much costly than secondary memory.
 Primary memory has less memory space as compared to the secondary memory.
SECONDARY MEMORY
 Secondary memory is not purely made of electronic devices.
 Secondary memory cannot directly communicate with CPU hence it is called
auxiliary memory.
 Secondary memory is comparatively slower than primary memory.
 Secondary memory is needed basically by users for storing of data and information
permanently.
 Secondary memory is comparatively much cheaper than primary memory.
 Secondary memory has a huge memory space as compared to primary memory.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RAM AND ROM

RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY)
 RAM is both read and write enable means users can write into and read from a RAM.
 RAM is volatile in nature means its content gets erased when power supply to the
computer is switched off.
 A user can write information in RAM temporarily.
 RAM is necessary for holding of data at the time of processing.
ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY)
 ROM is only read enable.
 ROM is very much permanent like such as secondary memory.
 Normally users cannot write anything into ROM other than E2PROM.
 ROM is necessary only at the time of starting up (Booting) of the computer.
 ROM's contents are written at the time of manufacturing.
 ROM contains functions such as sine, cosine, square root, logarithm, code conversion
table, exponential tables, etc.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATIC RAM AND DYNAMIC RAM

SRAM (STATIC RAM)
 SRAM is called static RAM because each bit of Static RAM remains stored until
power supply to the computer goes off.
 For Static RAM each bit is stored in flip-flop.
 Static RAM does not need any extra circuit for maintaining bit value (logic 1 or 0) in
flip-flops.
 With respect to same size of Dynamic RAM, Static RAM can store fewer amounts of
data.
 Static RAM cells are large with respect to Dynamic RAM cells.
 Static RAM is faster than Dynamic RAM because Static RAM does not need any
refreshing circuit before accessing the bits of Static RAM.
 This memory is made of transistors.
 Static RAM is very costly as compared to Dynamic RAM.
 Static RAM has less storage density.
DRAM (DYNAMIC RAM)
 DRAM is also called Dynamic RAM, because each bit of Dynamic RAM needs to be
refreshed periodically.
 For Dynamic RAM each bit is stored in capacitors.
 Dynamic RAM needs extra circuits for maintaining each bit value.
  With respect to same size of Static RAM, Dynamic RAM can store more amounts of
data.
 Dynamic RAM cells are smaller with respect to Static RAM cells.
 Dynamic RAM is slower because it needs refreshing periodically before accessing
bits in the cell.
 This memory is made of capacitors.
 Dynamic RAM is relatively much cheaper.
 Dynamic RAM has higher storage density.

Flash Memory: It is a variation of electrically erasable programmable read only memory

(EEPROM) which, unlike flash memory, is erased and rewritten at the byte level, which is
slower than flash memory up dating. Flash memory is used in digital cellular phones, digital
cameras, LAN switch, PC cards for notebook computers, digital setup boxes, embedded
controllers and other devices.

Secondary storage is thus supplementary to primary storage. It is, therefore, also called
auxiliary storage. Secondary storage has larger storage capacity and is cheaper than primary
storage. But access to secondary storage is slower than that to primary storage. Hence,
secondary storage holds data and programs not currently in use.

Magnetic Disks
Magnetic disks are made of rigid metals or synthetic plastic material. The disk platter is
coated on both the surfaces with magnetic material and both the surfaces can be used for
storage. The magnetic disk provides direct access and is popular for both small and large
computer systems. The magnetic disk comes in two forms: hard disks and floppy disks.

Hard Disks
Hard disk is a metal platter with magnetic coating on both sides. Several such hard disks are
stacked one on the other, without touching each other, into a disk pack for large storage.
The disk pack, housed in metal container with a read/write head assembly unit, is fixed inside
a computer permanently. Hard disks are highly reliable and accessing data from hard disk is
faster and more efficient than that from floppies. A disk pack is a collection of disks stacked
vertically one on top of the other and it is mounted on a disk drive. The disk drive has a head
assembly with a read/write arm for each pair of recording surfaces. Each disk has two
surfaces for storage.
The top surface of the first disk and the lower surface of the last disk are not used for
recording as small dust particles might settle down on them. The disk drive mechanism
rotates the disk pack at a constant speed. Each read/write arm has one pair of read/write head,
one for each surface. To increase the speed of access, the read/write arm carries as many
heads as the number of tracks on the disk. The access time is determined by two factors: the
seek time and the rotational delay. The seek time is the time required to locate the track on
the recording surface. Rotational delay involves positioning the read/write arm at the right
track of the surface for reading/writing.
Advantages of Hard Disks
 They support direct access.
 They have quick access rates.
 They have fairly large storage capacities.
 Hard disks are essential for online systems.
Disadvantages of Hard Disks
 Hard disks are expensive.
 Hard disks are not always reliable. For example, hard disks can crash. If they crash,
the entire data on them may be lost as data recovery is difficult and expensive.
 Speed and performance of hard disks are slower than that of CPU. Hence, they slow
down overall speed of performance of the computer.

Floppy Diskettes: These diskettes, made of synthetic plastic material, are flexible. Hence
they are called floppy diskettes or simply floppies. Floppies are cheaper and more rugged
than metal disks. The floppies were introduced in the early 1970s and became very popular
with the arrival of microcomputers. The floppies are popularly used on microcomputers.
They are reliable and portable. They are available in many sizes like 5 1/4 -inches and 3 1/2 -
inches and vary in storage capacity from 360 KB to 2.88 MB. The 5 1/4 -inch floppies are not
used these days. The 3 1/2- inch floppies, called microfloppies, are very popular and they can
hold 1.44 MB to 2.88 MB of storage. The current trend is towards reducing the size and
increasing the storage capacity of the floppies.

Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tape is a serial access storage medium. It can store large volume
of data at low costs. The conventional magnetic tape is in reels of up to 3600 feet made of
mylar plastic tape; the tape is one half inch in width and is coated with magnetic material on
one side. The reel of tape is loaded on a magnetic tape drive unit. During any read/write
operation, the tape is moved from one spool to the other in the same way as in the
audiocassette tape recorder. The conventional tape is replaced by cartridge tape that is housed
in a small box, that is cartridge, which is more convenient to use. This eliminates the need to
manually handle and thread the tape for any read/write operation. The magnetic tape is
densely packed with magnetic spots in frames across its width. A frame records one byte and
each bit in the frame is read/ written by a read/write head for that bit position. The tape has
nine tracks, out of which eight are used as data tracks and the ninth one for parity bit meant
for error detection.

Differences between Magnetic Tapes and Magnetic Disks

1. Magnetic tape supports only serial access. Magnetic disk permits serial and random access.
2. Magnetic tape has much larger storage capacity than a magnetic disk.
3. Magnetic tape is divided length wise into tracks and data are recorded in tracks. In case of
disk it is divided into circular tracks and sectors. Data are recorded in one sector fully before
moving into the next.
4. Magnetic tape takes much more processing time than magnetic disk, as the access is serial.
5. Accessing and updating of on-line disk files are much faster than tape files.
6. A number of disk files affected by a single transaction can be updated simultaneously
whereas tape files have to be updated separately.
7. Disk file updating process rewrites the old records, and data files have to be backed up for
security.
Optical storage: Optical storage technology uses light as the medium for representing data.
Laser beams are used to store and retrieve data. Commonly used optical storage devices
include CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW and DVD.

CD-ROM: Compact-disk Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM) is the most exciting development

that has taken place in secondary storage in recent years. CD-ROM can store huge quantity of
data, of about 650 MB, which is equivalent to 200,000 pages of ordinary text on a single disk.
It is relatively inexpensive and is used in both small and large computer systems. This disk is
made of synthetic resin that is coated with a reflective material, usually aluminium. When
high intensity laser beam is focussed on the disk, it forms tiny pits on it. The pit represents I
and the data are read using low intensity laser beams. The pit reflects less intense light. The
reflected light is sensed to know the bit 0 from 1; the light will be more intense in the case of
the former as there is no pit. A special feature of CD-ROM is its ability to store different
kinds of data such as text, pictures, animation, sound, video and graphics. This makes it
valuable for certain industries like travel, entertainment and motion pictures. The data stored
on CD-ROM are read only as the name indicates, that is, the data on CD-ROM cannot be
modified. Hence, it is well suited for storing relatively static data.

CO-R: This is Compact Disk -Recordable. It can be used to write data on it once. The data
on it can be retrieved as and when needed.

CO-RW: Compact Disk Re-writable (CD-RW) is an optical disk that can be rewritten many
times. The data stored on it can be read, erased and re-written as frequently as needed.

DVD: Digital Versatile Disk is a large capacity secondary storage device. It stores seven
times CD capacity on a single side. Double-sided or dual layer DVDs are also available with
much larger storage capacity. DVD uses a 5-inch disc for storage. That is, it is of the same
size as a CD ROM. Single layer, single-sided DVD has a storage capacity of 4.7 GB. With
double-layer, double sided disc, it can store 17 GB of data on a single disk. (Single sided
DVDs can store 4.7GB for single layer and 8.5GB for dual-layer disks. Double sided DVDs
can store 9.40GB for single layer and 17GB for dual-layer disks). With such huge storage
capacity, DVDs are used to store full-length commercial motion pictures, video albums etc.
And its viewing quality is much better than tape storage

Pen drive: Pen drive is a compact secondary storage device. It can be carried like a pen. Its
capacity is in GB’s.

Computer software, or just software, is the collection of computer programs and related data
that provide the instructions telling a computer what to do. The term was coined to contrast
the old term hardware (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is
intangible, meaning it "cannot be touched". Software is also sometimes used in a more
narrow sense, to include application software only. Sometimes the term includes data that has
traditionally not been associated with computers, such as film, presses and records.

System software is the program that controls computer hardware. It also maintains computer
operation efficiently. The main components of system software are the operating system,
network operating system and utility. System software is computer software designed to
operate the computer hardware and to provide and maintain a platform for running
application software.

Application software is computer software designed to help the user to perform single or
multiple related specific tasks. Examples include enterprise software, accounting software,
office suites, graphics software, and media players. Some of the categories of application
 software include: Word Processing Software, Spreadsheets, Database Management Software,
Presentation Programs, Web browsers, Games etc.

Programming software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer

programs and software using different programming languages in a more convenient way.
The tools include: Compilers, Debuggers, Interpreters, Linkers, Text editors.

Utility software is software such as anti-virus software, firewalls, disk defragmenters and so
on which helps to maintain and protect the computer system but does not directly interface
with the hardware. Utility software is software specifically designed to help manage and tune
the computer hardware, operating system or application software.

The following is a summary of the boot process in a PC:

1. The power button activates the power supply in the PC, sending power to the motherboard
and other components.
2. The PC performs a power-on self-test (POST). The POST is a small computer program
within the BIOS that checks for hardware failures. A single beep after the POST signals that
everything's okay. Other beep sequences signal a hardware failure, and PC repair specialists
compare these sequences with a chart to determine which component has failed.
3. The PC displays information on the attached monitor showing details about the boot process.
These include the BIOS manufacturer and revision, processor specs, the amount of RAM
installed, and the drives detected. Many PCs have replaced displaying this information with a
splash screen showing the manufacturer's logo. You can turn off the splash screen in the
BIOS settings if you'd rather see the text.
4. The BIOS attempts to access the first sector of the drive designated as the boot disk. The first
sector is the first kilobytes of the disk in sequence, if the drive is read sequentially starting
with the first available storage address. The boot disk is typically the same hard disk or solid-
state drive that contains your operating system. You can change the boot disk by configuring
the BIOS or interrupting the boot process with a key sequence (often indicated on the boot
screens).
5. The BIOS confirms there's a bootstrap loader, or boot loader, in that first sector of the boot
disk, and it loads that boot loader into memory (RAM). The boot loader is a small program
designed to find and launch the PC's operating system.
6. Once the boot loader is in memory, the BIOS hands over its work to the boot loader, which in
turn begins loading the operating system into memory.
7. When the boot loader finishes its task, it turns control of the PC over to the operating system.
Then, the OS is ready for user interaction.