Real Axis
Definition
Let z = x + yi be a complex number. The magnitude or modulus of z,
denote |z|, is defined as the distance from the origin to the point (x, y) or
|z| = x2 + y 2 This is also called the absolute value of z.
Theorem
Let z = x + yi and let z be the complex conjugate of z. Then
|z| = z • z
202
Recall that if a point (r, θ) was in polar form, we were able to convert it into
rectangular form by using x = rcos(θ) and y = rsin(θ). Thus, for a complex
number in rectangular, z = x + yi, we can replace x by rcos(θ) and y by
rsin(θ) to write the complex number in polar form. To make a representation
of a complex number in polar form unique, we will restrict r to be greater
than or equal to zero and θ to be in the interval [0, 2π).
Definition
If r ≥ 0 and 0 ≤ θ < 2π, then the complex number z = x + yi can be written in
polar form as:
z = [rcos(θ)] + [rsin(θ)]i = r[cos(θ) + isin(θ)]
where r = |z| and the θ is called the argument of z.
Plot the following numbers in the complex plane and then write the
number in polar form:
Ex. 1a 5 – 5i Ex. 1b – 2 – ( 3 )i
Ex. 1c – 3 +i Ex. 1d 2 + 2i
Solution:
a) First, we plot the point (5, – 5) on 5
the complex plane. This point is
in quadrant IV. Next, we will
calculate r = |z|:
r2 = (5)2 + (– 5)2 = 50
r = 50 = 5 2 –5 5
y −5 2
Since sin(θ) = = =– ,
r 5 2 2
then our reference angle is z = 5 – 5i
–5
θR = 45˚. Because the number
is in quadrant IV, then θ = 360˚ – 45˚ = 315˚.
Plugging r and θ into the polar form, we get:
z = 5 2 [cos(315˚) + isin(315˚)]
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–5
204
y 2 2
Since sin(θ) = = = ,
r 2 2 2
then our reference angle is
θR = 45˚. Because the number
is in quadrant I, then θ = 45˚.
Plugging r and θ into the polar form, we get:
z = 2 2 [cos(45˚) + isin(45˚)]
De Moivre's Theorem
Let z = r[cos(θ) + isin(θ)] and n be a natural integer. Then
zn = rn[cos(nθ) + isin(nθ)]
Proof:
To prove this, we will need to use a method called mathematical induction.
In mathematical induction, you first show that the statement is true for
some initial value of n, usually n = 1. You then assume the statement is
true for value k and then show it to be true for k + 1.
Part I: n = 1
z(1) = r(1)[cos((1)θ) + isin((1)θ)] = r[cos(θ) + isin(θ)] true
Part II: Assume it is true for n = k, show it is true for n = k + 1.
For n = k, rk = rk[cos(kθ) + isin(kθ)] is assumed to be true.
zk + 1 = zk•z = rk[cos(kθ) + isin(kθ)]•r[cos(θ) + isin(θ)]
(use the product and quotient theorem)
= rk•r[cos(kθ + θ) + isin(kθ + θ)]
= rk + 1[cos([k + 1]θ) + isin([k + 1]θ)]
Now, we get the domino effect:
Part I says the statement is true for n = 1
Part II implies that if it is true for n = 1, then it is true for n = 2.
But, part II also implies that if it is true for n = 2, then it is true for n = 3.
But, this implies that if it is true for n = 3, then it is true for n = 4, and so
on.
Hence, by mathematical induction, this statement is true for any natural
€ number n.
= 81(cos(1120˚) + isin(1120˚))
But the argument needs to be in [0, 360˚).
1120˚ – 3(360˚) = 40˚
= 81(cos(40˚) + isin(40˚)) Polar Form
= 81(0.76604… + (0.64278…)i)
≈ 62.05 + 52.07i Rectangular Form
Now, we will consider finding the complex nth root of a number. For a
number z be a complex nth root of a complex number w, the following
equation has to be true: zn = w
Solution:
First, we will rewrite the number in polar form. The number is in
quadrant III:
r2 = (– 27)2 + (– 27)2 = 1458
r = 1458 = 27 2
y −27 2
sin(θ) = = =– , so our reference angle is θR = 45˚.
r 27 2 2
Thus, θ = 180˚ + 45˚ = 225˚.
Hence, the number in polar form is:
27 2 [cos(225˚) + isin(225˚)]
Now, apply the formula using n = 4:
4 225o 2k(180o ) 225o 2k(180o )
zk = 27 2 [cos( + ) + isin( + )]
4 4 4 4
4
zk = 1458 [cos(56.25˚ + 90˚k) + isin(56.25˚ + 90˚k)]
4 8
But, 1458 = ((1458)1/2)1/4 = (1458)1/8 = 1458
8
zk = 1458 [cos(56.25˚ + 90˚k) + isin(56.25˚ + 90˚k)]
for k = 0, 1, 2, and 3.
Thus, the four roots are:
8
z0 = 1458 [cos(56.25˚ + 90˚(0)) + isin(56.25˚ + 90˚(0))]
8
= 1458 [cos(56.25) + isin(56.25)],
8
z1 = 1458 [cos(56.25˚ + 90˚(1)) + isin(56.25˚ + 90˚(1))]
8
= 1458 [cos(146.25) + isin(146.25)]
8
z2 = 1458 [cos(56.25˚ + 90˚(2)) + isin(56.25˚ + 90˚(2))]
8
= 1458 [cos(236.25) + isin(236.25)], and
8
z3 = 1458 [cos(56.25˚ + 90˚(3)) + isin(56.25˚ + 90˚(3))]
8
= 1458 [cos(326.25) + isin(326.25)].