Group No.

2 March 4, 2019
Activity No. 7

1. Complete the following tables:

a.) Parts of the brain and spinal cord

STRUCTURE DESCRIPTION FUNCTION

Cerebrum
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Epithalamus
Cerebellum

b.) Where are the following centers located?

NAME OF CENTER LOCATION

Cardiac Medulla Oblongata
Respiratory Medulla Oblongata
Vasoconstriction Medulla Oblongata
Heat Regulation Hypothalamus
Water Metabolism Hypothalamus
Sleep Hypothalamus
Visceral Activity Hypothalamus
Emotional States Hypothalamus
Carbohydrate & Fat Metabolism
Vomiting Medulla Oblongata

2. What is the choroid plexus? Where is it located? Give its function.

 Definition: The choroid plexus is a network of capillaries and specialized ependymal cells that are
found in the walls of ventricles. The choroid plexus is composed of blood vessels and specialized
epithelial tissue called ependyma. Ependymal cells contain hair-like projections called cilia and
form a tissue layer that encases the choroid plexus. Ependymal cells also line the cerebral ventricles
and spinal cord central canal. Ependymal cells are a type of nervous tissue cell called neuroglia that
helps to produce cerebrospinal fluid.
 Location: The choroid plexus is located in the ventricular system. This series of connecting hollow
spaces house and circulate cerebrospinal fluid. Choroid plexus structures are found in certain
locations within both lateral ventricles, as well as within the third ventricle and fourth ventricle of
the brain. The choroid plexus resides within the meninges, the membrane lining that covers and
protects the central nervous system. The meninges are composed of three layers known as the dura
mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. The choroid plexus can be found in the innermost layer of
the meninges, the pia mater. The pia mater membrane contacts and directly covers the cerebral
cortex and spinal cord.
  Function: The choroid plexus serves two important functions necessary for proper brain
development and protection against harmful substances and microbes.
 Cerebrospinal Fluid Production
Choroid plexus ependymal cells are vital for the production of cerebrospinal fluid.
Ependyma tissue surrounds the capillaries of the choroid plexus separating them from the
cerebral ventricles. Ependymal cells filter water and other substances from capillary blood
and transport them across the ependymal layer into the brain ventricles. This clear fluid is
the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that fills the cavities of the cerebral ventricles, the central
canal of the spinal cord, and the subarachnoid space of the meninges. CSF helps to cushion
and support the brain and spinal cord, circulate nutrients, and remove waste from the
central nervous system. As such, it is vital that the choroid plexus function properly.
Underproduction of CSF would stunt brain growth and overproduction could lead to excess
accumulation of CSF in brain ventricles; a condition known as hydrocephalus.
 Blood–Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier
The choroid plexus, along with the arachnoid membrane of the meninges, forms a barrier
between the blood and the cerebrospinal fluid. This barrier is called the blood–
cerebrospinal fluid barrier. Together with the blood-brain barrier, the blood-cerebrospinal
fluid barrier serves to prevent harmful substances in the blood from entering the
cerebrospinal fluid and causing damage to central nervous system structures. Numerous
white blood cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and lymphocytes can also be
found in the choroid plexus. Microglia (specialized nervous system cells) and other
immune cells enter the central nervous system through the choroid plexus. These cells are
important for preventing pathogens from entering the brain. In order for viruses, bacteria,
fungi, and other parasites to infect the central nervous system, they must cross the blood-
cerebrospinal fluid barrier. Some microbes, such as those that cause meningitis, have
developed mechanisms for crossing this barrier.
Reference:
Liddelow, Shane A. “Development of the Choroid Plexus and Blood-CSF Barrier.” Frontiers in
Neuroscience 9 (2015): 32. PMC. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4347429/
Lun, Melody P., Edwin S. Monuki, and Maria K. Lehtinen. “Development and Functions of the Choroid
Plexus–cerebrospinal Fluid System.” Nature reviews. Neuroscience 16.8 (2015): 445–457. PMC.
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4629451/

3. Describe production, circulation and reabsorption of cerebrospinal fuid.

 Production: The majority of CSF production is from the choroid plexuses (KŌ-royd =
membranelike), networks of blood capillaries in the walls of the ventricles (Figure 14.4a).
Ependymal cells joined by tight junc- tions cover the capillaries of the choroid plexuses. Selected
sub- stances (mostly water) from the blood plasma, which are filtered from the capillaries, are
secreted by the ependymal cells to produce the cerebrospinal fluid. This secretory capacity is
bidirectional and accounts for continuous production of CSF and transport of metabo- lites from
the nervous tissue back to the blood. Because of the tight junctions between ependymal cells,
materials entering CSF from choroid capillaries cannot leak between these cells; instead, they must
pass through the ependymal cells. This blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier permits certain substances
 to enter the CSF but excludes others, protecting the brain and spinal cord from potentially harmful
blood-borne substances. In contrast to the blood–brain barrier, which is formed mainly by tight
junctions of brain capillary endothe- lial cells, the blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier is formed by
tight junctions of ependymal cells.
 Circulation: The CSF formed in the choroid plexuses of each lateral ventricle flows into the third
ventricle through two narrow, oval openings, the inter- ventricular foramina (in′-ter-ven-TRIK-ū-
lar; singular is foramen; Figure 14.4b). More CSF is added by the choroid plexus in the roof of the
third ventricle. The fluid then flows through the aqueduct of the midbrain (cerebral aqueduct) (AK-
we-dukt), which passes through the midbrain, into the fourth ventricle. The choroid plexus of the
fourth ventricle contributes more fluid. CSF enters the subarachnoid space through three openings
in the roof of the fourth ventricle: a sin- gle median aperture (AP-er-chur) and paired lateral
apertures, one on each side. CSF then circulates in the central canal of the spinal cord and in the
subarachnoid space around the surface of the brain and spinal cord. CSF is gradually reabsorbed
into the blood through arachnoid villi, fingerlike extensions of the arachnoid mater that project into
the dural venous sinuses, especially the superior sagittal sinus (see Figure 14.2). (A cluster of
arachnoid villi is called an arachnoid gran- ulation.)
 Reabsorption: Normally, CSF is reabsorbed as rapidly as it is formed by the choroid plexuses, at a
rate of about 20 mL/hr (480 mL/day). Because the rates of formation and reabsorption are the same,
the pressure of CSF normally is constant. For the same reason, the volume of CSF remains constant.
Source: Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 15th Edition

4. Identify and describe the protective coverings of the Central Nervous System (CNS). What substance
fills spaces of the middle layer of the meninges? Functions?

 Protective Coverings: The first layer of protection for the central nervous system is the hard bony
skull and vertebral column. The skull encases the brain and the vertebral column surrounds the
spinal cord, providing strong protective defenses against damaging blows or bumps. The second
protective layer is the meninges, three membranes that lie between the bony encasement and the
nervous tissue in both the brain and spinal cord. Finally, a space between two of the meningeal
membranes contains cerebrospinal fluid, a buoyant liquid that suspends the central nervous tissue
in a weightless environment while surrounding it with a shock-absorbing, hydraulic cushion.
 The middle layer of the meninges is the arachnoid mater. Between the dura mater (outer layer) and
the arachnoid mater (middle layer) is a thin subdural space which contains interstitial fluid.
Between the arachnoid mater and pia mater is a space, the subarachnoid space, which contains
shock absorbing cerebrospinal fluid. CSF is a clear, colorless liquid composed primarily of water
that protects the brain and spinal cord from chemical and physical injuries. It also carries small
amounts of oxygen, glucose, and other needed chemicals from the blood to neurons and neuro-
glia.

5. What are tracts? Give some functions of the ascending and descending tracts in the cord.

 Tracts serve as pathways for communication to and from the brain. In naming the tracts, if the tract
name begins with “spino” (as in spinocerebellar), the tract is a sensory tract delivering information
from the spinal cord to the cerebellum (in this case). If the tract name ends with “spinal” (as in
 vestibulospinal), the tract is a motor tract that delivers information from the vestibular apparatus
(in this case) to the spinal cord
 Ascending tracts are sensory. Its function is to deliver information to the brain.
The three major sensory tracts involve chains of neurons
1. First-order neuron
• Delivers sensations to the CNS
• The cell body is in the dorsal or cranial root ganglion
2. Second-order neuron
• An interneuron with the cell body in the spinal cord or brain
3. Third-order neuron
• Transmits information from the thalamus to the cerebral cortex
 Descending tracts are motor. Its function is to deliver information to the periphery.
There are two major descending tracts
1. Corticospinal tract: Conscious control of skeletal muscles
Consists of three pairs of descending tracts
a. Corticobulbar tracts: conscious control over eye, jaw, and face muscles
b. Lateral corticospinal tracts: conscious control over skeletal muscles
c. Anterior corticospinal tracts: conscious control over skeletal muscles

2. Subconscious tract: Subconscious regulation of balance, muscle tone, eye, hand,

and upper limb
Consists of four tracts involved in monitoring the subconscious motor control
a. Vestibulospinal tracts
• Send information from the inner ear to monitor position of the head
• Vestibular nuclei respond by altering muscle tone, neck muscle
contraction, and limbs for posture and balance
b. Tectospinal tracts

 Send information to the head, neck, and upper limbs in response to

bright and sudden movements and loud noises
 The tectum area consists of superior and inferior colliculi
 Superior colliculi: receives visual information
 Inferior colliculi: receives auditory information
c. Reticulospinal tracts
• Send information to cause eye movements and activate respiratory
muscles
d. Rubrospinal tracts
• Send information to the flexor and extensor
Source: PowerPoint Lecture Presentations prepared by Steven Bassett, Southeast Community
College, Lincoln, Nebraska

6. Why are the brain and spinal cord called the central nervous system?

 The brain is the center of our thoughts, the interpreter of our external environment, and the origin
of control over body movement. Like a central computer, it interprets information from our eyes
(sight), ears (sound), nose (smell), tongue (taste), and skin (touch), as well as from internal organs
such as the stomach. On the other hand, the spinal cord is the highway for communication between
the body and the brain. When the spinal cord is injured, the exchange of information between the
brain and other parts of the body is disrupted. To sum it up, they are called as the central nervous
system because they are both responsible for the control of the body and communication among its
parts.