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Active Safety or Primary Safety

• safety systems that help avoid accidents, such as good steering and brakes.
• safety systems that are active prior to an accident.
Examples
• good visibility from driver's seat,
• low noise level in interior,
• legibility of instrumentation and warning symbols,
• early warning of severe braking ahead,
• head up displays,
• good chassis balance and handling,
• good grip,
• anti-lock braking system,
• Electronic Stability Control,
• Chassis assist,
• intelligent speed adaptation,
• brake assist,
• traction control,
• collision warning/avoidance,
• adaptive or autonomous cruise control system.

head up displays

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good chassis balance and handling,

The technology Nissan created is the New Chassis Control, which
consists of the following three technologies. Active Ride Control. By
controlling the engine (drive force) and brakes, this technology can improve
driver confidence and comfort when driving over uneven surfaces. Active
Engine Brake

Chasiss control diagram

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Traction control
• Traction control is an active vehicle safety feature designed to help vehicles
make effective use of all the traction available on the road when accelerating
on low-friction road surfaces.
• When a vehicle without traction control attempts to accelerate on a slippery
surface like ice, snow, or loose gravel, the wheels are liable to slip.
• The result of wheel slip is that the tires spin quickly on the surface of the
road without gaining any actual grip, so the vehicle does not accelerate.
• Traction control activates when it senses that the wheels may slip, helping
drivers make the most of the traction that is available on the road surface.
It is important to remember that traction control cannot create traction where
there is none.

Traction control

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Blind Spot Warning

Passive or Secondary Safety

• features that help reduce the effects of an accident, such as seat belts, airbags and
strong body structures.
• active during an accident. To this category belong seat belts, deformation zones and
air-bags, etc.
Examples
• passenger safety cell,
• deformation zones,
• seat belts,
• loadspace barrier-nets,
• air-bags,
• laminated glass,
• correctly positioned fuel tanks,
• fuel pump kill switches

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loadspace barrier-nets,

Active Safety

Driving Safety

Conditional Safety

Perceptibility Safety

Operating Safety

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Driving Safety
Driving safety is the result of a harmonious chassis and suspension design with
regard to wheel suspension, springing, steering and braking and is reflected in
optimum dynamic vehicle behavior.

Conditional Safety
Conditional Safety results from keeping the physiological stresses that the vehicle occupants are
subjected to by vibration, noise and climatic conditions down to as low a level as possible.

It is a significant factor in reducing the possibility of misactions in traffic.

Vibrations within a frequency range of 1 to 25 Hz (stuttering, shaking, etc) induced by drive and
wheel components reach the occupants of the vehicle via the body, seats and steering wheel.

The effect of these vibrations is more or less pronounced, depending on their direction, amplitude
and duration.

Noises as acoustical disturbances in and around the vehicle can come from internal sources
(engine, transmission, propeller shafts, axles) or external sources (tire/road noises, wind noises),
and are transmitted through the air or the vehicle body.

Noise reduction measures are concerned on the one hand with the development of quiet-running
components and the insulation of noise sources (e.g. engine encapsulation), and on the other hand
with the noise damping by means of insulating or anti-noise materials.

Climatic conditions inside the vehicle are primarily influenced by air temperature, air humidity,
rate of air flow through the passenger compartment and air pressure.

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Perceptibility Safety
The perceptibility of a safety system is defined as the extent to which the
system can be perceived by the senses or the mind.

Measures which increase perceptibility safety are concentrated on

Lighting equipment,

Acoustic warning devices,

Direct and indirect view (Driver's view : The angle of obscuration caused
by the A-pillars of both of the driver's eyes- binocular – must not be more
than 6 degrees).

Operating Safety

Low driver stress and thus a high degree of safety, requires optimum design of the
driver's surroundings with regard to ease of operation of the vehicle controls.

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Passive safety
Exterior safety

Interior safety

Deformation behavior of vehicle body

Exterior safety
The term "exterior safety" covers all vehicle-related measures which are designed to
minimize the severity of injury to pedestrians and bicycle and motorcycle riders struck by
the vehicle in an accident.
Factors which determine exterior safety are:
Vehicle-body deformation behavior,
Exterior vehicle-body shape.
The primary objective is to design the vehicle such that its exterior design minimizes the
consequences of a primary collision (a collision involving persons outside the vehicle and
the vehicle itself).
The most severe injuries are sustained by passengers who are hit by the front of the vehicle,
whereby the course of the accident greatly depends upon body size.
The consequences of collisions involving two-wheeled vehicles and passenger cars can only
be slightly ameliorated by passenger-car design due to the two-wheeled vehicle's often
considerable inherent energy component, its high seat position and the wide dispersion of
contact points.
The design features which can be incorporated into the passenger car are, for example:
Movable front lamps,
Recessed windshields wipers,
Recessed drip rails,
Recessed door handles.

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Exterior safety

Exterior safety

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Exterior safety

Risk to pedestrians in event of collisions with passenger cars

as a function of impact frequency and seriousness of injury
(based on 246 collisions)

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Interior Safety
The term "interior safety" covers vehicle measures whose purpose is to minimize the accelerations
and forces acting on the vehicle occupants in the event of an accident, to provide sufficient survival
space, and to ensure the operability of those vehicle components critical to the removal of passengers
from the vehicle after the accident has occurred.
The determining factors for passenger safety are:
Deformation behavior (vehicle body),
Passenger-compartment strength, size of the survival space during and after impact,
Restraint systems,
Impact areas (vehicle interior), (FMVSS 201),
Steering system,
Occupant extrication,
Fire protection.
Laws which regulate interior safety (frontal impact) are:
Protection of vehicle occupants in the event of an accident, in particular restraint systems (FMVSS
208, ECE R94, injury criteria),
Windshield mounting (FMVSS 212),
Penetration of the windshield by vehicle body components (FMVSS 219),
Parcel-shelf and compartment lids (FMVSS 201).
Rating-Tests:
New-Car Assessment Program (NCAP, USA, Europe, Japan, Australia),
IIHS (USA, insurance test),
ADAC, ams, AUTO-BILD.

Interior Safety
• Side Impact Protection
-- Expanded foam components are located with in the door frames and arm rest areas
to counter-balance the side impact forces.
-- Expanded high density polypropylene foam is sandwitched between the metal and
plastic central reservation of the seat belt mechanism to provide hip protection
• Head Impact Protection
-- High density polypropylene pads clipped beneath the roof lining offers head impact
protection
• Front Impact Protection
-- Expanded polypropylene bumper cores.
-- Expanded polypropylene low density foot-well in-fill pieces located under the
carpet to support the heel.
-- Expanded polypropylene foot-well parts act as footrests.
-- Expanded polypropylene pads supplied taped for fixing to the steering cowl
assemble for knee impact protection.
-- Expanded heat resistant co-polymer foam pad fixed to the passenger air bag door
protects during deployment.

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Interior Safety
• Interiors Under Carpet/Floor Levelling Systems
-- Floor levelling systems alow the same platform to be used for many different car
variants. Produced in expanded polypropylene these low weight mouldings also offer
acoustic protection and are manufactured to incorporate airflow and wire channels.
-- Expanded polypropylene shapes are used to level floor areas and fill voids.
• Seating
-- Expanded polypropylene lumber cores in seats.
-- Expanded polypropylene arm rest cores.
-- Anti-submarine inserts.
Car Boot
-- Car boot levelling.
-- Integrated Tool Tray with spare wheel cover-tools.
-- Infill spacers.
-- CD player holders (including banking plugs).
-- Wet stowage trays.
-- Plastic liners and leather look finishes available

Interior Safety

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Interior Safety

Anti-lock Brake System (ABS

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Anti-lock Brake System ABS

• The ABS (Anti-lock Brake System)
monitors the speed of each wheel to
detect locking. When it detects
sudden braking, it will release
braking pressure for a moment and
then provide optimum braking
pressure to each wheel. By
repeating this process in a short
period of time, it enhances steering
control during sudden stops. As a
result, it will also help improve the
ability of stopping the vehicle.
• ABS only supports the driver's
control of the vehicle, and it is not a
substitute for it. It is the driver's
responsibility to drive at the
appropriate speed depending on the
condition of the road and to keep a
generous distance from the car
ahead of you.

Brake Assist

• Studies show that nearly half of all

drivers do not step on the brake quickly
and strongly enough to stop the vehicle
in case of an emergency (Toyota's
research shown in Figure1).
• When Brake Assist detects an
attempted panic stop, it supports drivers
by strengthening the power (Figure2).
• Brake Assist will detect attempted panic
braking based on the force that is
applied to the brake pedal and how fast
the driver is stepping on the pedal.
When the system recognizes sudden
braking, it will add additional pressure to
the brake.
When your foot is released during
Braking Assist,braking power lessens
and regulates the brakes with ease.

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Brake Assist

Traction Control (TRC)

• When you are starting the vehicle or
accelerating on a wet surface, you could lose
control of the wheel because of wheel spin. TRC
will help prevent such events from happening.
• TRC continually monitors the condition between
the tires and the surface of the road.
• When it detects wheel spin, the system applies
brakes or slows down the engine to regulate
spinning and help ensure proper contact of tires.
This help prevent the car from becoming
unstable.
• There might be the cases in which the half-side
of the wheel runs off or the wheels spin off on
the snowy road. And also there might be the
case that the current tractino control might not
be working well.
In those cases, Auto LSD is one of the
technologies which both improve startability and
runability.

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Vehicle Dynamics Integrated

Management (VDIM)
• Integrated control of "Drive, Turn and Stop"
and maintains driving stability
• The goal of VDIM is to provide stability of the
vehicle based on vehicle performance control
technology. Great passive safety and ideal
maneuverability plus driving stability are
fundamental elements of success.

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Hill-start Assist Control

(HAC)/Downhill-Assist Control (DAC)
• Supports drivers on steep hills and descending
slopes
• HAC (Hill-start Assist Control) supports drivers on steep
hills, while DAC (Downhill Assist Control) supports
drivers when descending slopes.
• There may be unexpected cases for the driver where the
vehicles may slide when starting on sudden hills or
slippery surfaces. HAC minimizes vehicle roll-back by
controlling brake fluid pressure as the driver's foot is
removed from the brake to the accelerator on such steep
incline.
Furthermore, DAC maintains vehicle speed at 5km/h to
help ensure vehicle stability when descending sharp
slopes or slippery surfaces.

(HAC)/Downhill-Assist Control
(DAC)

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Tire Pressure Monitoring System

(TPMS)
• Helps prevent accidents caused by
decreased tire air pressure
• This system will alert drivers when critically low
tire air pressure is detected.
There are two different types of sensors in this
system: a direct method, in which a pressure
sensor on each tire employs direct pressure,
and an indirect method, in which the ABS
monitors low air pressure from the sensor on
each tire.

TPMS

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Dynamic Radar Cruise Control

(DRCC)
Making long highway drives easier and less tiring by maintaining a
distance with the vehicle ahead

[2] Control of deceleration cruising and follow-up cruising

Millimeter-wave radar determines the distance between vehicles. By adjusting speed
within a preset range depending on the speed of the preceding vehicle, the system
maintains a safe distance while ensuring follow-up and deceleration cruising.

[3] Acceleration speed control

Sensors (a camera and millimeter-wave radar) detect vehicles moving in and
out of the lane ahead. This helps ensure smooth acceleration.

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[4] Stop maintenance control (when all-speed cruise control is available)

The system slows or stops your vehicle when the preceding vehicle slows or stops.
When the preceding vehicle speeds up, the system makes your vehicle accelerate
accordingly, until it resumes the preset speed.

Lane Keeping Assist

Helps keep drivers within lanes
According to NHTSA's data, the 37% of all transportation fatalities in USA are caused
by running off from the road. (Figure1)
Lane Keeping Assist technology is designed to alert the driver when the system
detects that the vehicle is about to deviate from a traffic lane. The system can also
work in conjunction with the Radar Cruise Control system to help the driver steer and
keep the vehicle on course.

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Lane Departure Alert (LDA)

Warning the driver when the vehicle deviates from its lane.
This system alerts the alerts the driver if their vehicle deviates from its lane. The onboard
single lens camera detects the vehicle’s position relative to the white or yellow lane
markings, and when the car begins to leave its lane without turn signal activation, the
driver is warned with an audible and visual alert.

Navigation-Brake Assist
Works with the navigation system to provide stop sign information
The system coordinates with the navigation system and provides information about certain
stop sign locations and supports braking.

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Road Sign Assist (RSA)

Displaying road sign information in an easy-to-understand format on the dash

meter display
The vehicle’s onboard camera detect and recognize road signs in a number of countries.
This information is displayed in a format tailored to the vehicle.

Front and Side View Monitor

Helps to verify safety in hard-to-view areas
With cameras located at the center of the front grill and under the side mirrors, the
driver can check hard-to-view areas by viewing the camera images on the screen.
It provides the drivers a better view at intersections with unclear visibility and T-
shaped junctions.

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Multi-Angle Monitor
Verifies the vehicle's surroundings
The cameras that are mounted on the front, rear and side mirrors can capture
images and process them quickly. Through processing the images, an aerial is
visualized to verify the vehicle's surrounding, providing security in driving.

Intelligent Adaptive Front-lighting System (AFS)

Changes the direction of the headlights based on the cornering angle
Intelligent AFS redirects low-beam headlamp units in accordance with the
steering angle and vehicle speed at night to improve visibility during cornering.
Intelligent AFS functional Image

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Automatic High Beam (AHB)

Switching automatically between high and low beams to ensure excellent
forward visibility during nighttime driving
AHB detects nearby light sources such as the headlights or tail lights of vehicles
ahead. The system automatically switches between high beams and low beams to
ensure optimum nighttime visibility. This also helps vehicles detect pedestrians at
night from further away.

Conditions for activation

High beams are automatically activated when all of the
following conditions are met simultaneously:
Vehicle speed is 30km/h or more
Area in front of vehicle is dark
No oncoming headlights
No tail lights in front of vehicle
No strong lighting, from street lights, etc., ahead of vehicle

Conditions for deactivation of high beams

High beams are automatically deactivated when one or more of the following
conditions are met simultaneously
Vehicle speed is less than 30km/h
Area in front of vehicle is not dark
Oncoming headlights are detected
Tail lights are detected in front of vehicle
There are significant nearby lighting sources from street lights, etc.

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Approaching Vehicle Audible System

Notifies pedestrians of your vehicle

Sensor Packages
Detecting potential collisions
Toyota Safety Sense is available in two packages, both of which integrate
numerous sensors to detect for potential collisions ahead of the vehicle.

Laser radar
Can make precise distance measurements, even at night or at short distances;
effective for detecting vehicles ahead.
Millimeter-wave radar
Particularly effective when detecting vehicles relatively far ahead
Not easily impacted by adverse weather (e.g. rain, fog or falling snow)
Pedestrian detection also possible (works in combination with single lens camera)
Single-lens camera
Can detect objects and recognize shapes and white or yellow lane markings.

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Sensor combinations offered in Toyota Safety Sense packages

Single-lens camera and laser radar
Combined, a single lens camera and laser radar device ensure
exceptionally high performance and reliability.

System and features

[Laser radar]
Can make precise distance measurements,
even at night or at short distances; effective for
detecting vehicles ahead
[Single-lens camera]
Can detect objects and recognize shapes and
white or yellow lane markings.

Single-lens camera and millimeter-wave radar

System and features

[Millimeter-wave radar]
Particularly effective when detecting
vehicles relatively far ahead
Not easily impacted by adverse weather
(e.g. rain, fog or falling snow)
Pedestrian detection also possible (works
in combination with single-lens camera)
[Single-lens camera]
Can detect objects and recognize shapes
and white or yellow lane markings.

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Alerts

Warning the driver about potential collisions

Based on the vehicle’s position, speed and predicted course relative to an object
ahead, the vehicle uses audible and visual alerts to warn the driver when necessary.

Pre-collision Brake Assist (PBA)

Assisting braking
If the driver applies insufficient force to the brakes before a potential collision,
PBA applies supplemental force to assist collision avoidance or mitigation.

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Pre-collision Brake
Automated braking
If the vehicle determines that a collision cannot be avoided and the driver has
not applied the brakes, the vehicle brakes automatically. This feature can help
mitigate damage resulting from an unavoidable collision.

Toyota's Strict Internal Assessments

Main types of collision tests

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Main Evaluation Items

Evolution of GOA

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Effect of GOA

Passenger Protection : Case of Frontal Collision

In case of a frontal collision, the crumple zone at the front of the vehicle will
effectively absorb the impact. At the same time, seatbelts tightly secure
passengers to the seats. During severe collisions, in addition to the seatbelts
being secured, airbags will inflate to lessen the impact on chest and head areas.

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(1) Body structure

The front and back of a vehicle absorbs impact, and a durable cabin helps
protect passenger space - helping to reduce damage from a collision.
Impact Absorption and Load Dispersion Sample Image

(2) Restraint device

Seatbelt
Seatbelts equipped with pretensioner and force-limiter mechanisms help enhance
occupant protection by holding back the movement of passenger's chest while the
belt softens the impact.

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SRS airbag
In case of a collision, SRS (Supplemental Restraint System) airbag will quickly open to
help protect occupants from serious or fatal injuries.
Name of airbag and location
*Black letters represent the airbags activated in frontal collision

Conditions to activate airbag (in the case of frontal collision)

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Synergy Effect Between the Seatbelt and Airbag

Passenger Protection : Case of Side Collision

Deformation of the vehicle can be reduced during side collision by enlarging the locker
panel and the center pillar, as well as strengthening the door lock area. Additionally, the
intrusion rate of the doors being pushed into the cabin will be reduced and the impact of
the collision will be distributed and absorbed effectively. In case of a severe collision,
seatbelts restrain passengers and the SRS side and curtain air bag activates to help
reduce impact on heads and chests.

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Affected parts in car fatalities during side collision

(1)Body structure
The durable body form including the center pillar, rockers, and floor cross
rockers etc., helps protect passenger space - helping to reduce damage from
a collision. Impact Absorption and Load Dispersion Sample Image

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(2)Restraint device
SRS airbag
In case of a collision, the SRS frontal airbags will deploy to help protect the
occupants from serious or fatal injuries.
Name of airbag and location
*Black letters represent the airbags activated in side collision

Passenger Protection : Case of Rear Collision

At the time of a rear-end collision, the chassis effectively absorbs the impact to
minimize the deformation of the passenger cabin. At the same time, the
WIL(Whiplash Injury Lessening) concept seat lessens injury from whiplash for the
passengers.

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(1)Body structure
The chassis is designed to effectively distribute and absorb impacts from rear-end
collisions. The strengthened cabin helps to protect the passenger space and is
designed to help reduce casualties.
Impact Absorption and Load Dispersion Sample Image

(2) Restraint device

Whiplash Injury Lessening (WIL) Concept Seat
WIL Concept Seat helps lessen passenger's whiplash injury from the impact
caused by certain low-speed rear-end collisions.

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SRS airbag
In the event of a collision, SRS Airbag inflates immediately to help absorb the impact
from the collision.

Upon impact from behind, the air bag inflates from above the rear seat passenger
compartment to ease impact with interior components and the rear window.

Mutual safety for vehicles : All-around compatibility

Help ensure safety for both vehicles (of different weights and heights) at the time of
collision.
"Compatibility" is the way of thinking that vehicles of different weights and heights
should both be safe at the time of crash. Both types should be considered when
analyzing safety performance from the impact on the lightweight vehicle to reducing
the damage from the heavyweight vehicle. Toyota utilizes the concept of this
compatibility in the approach to help improve the collision safety for both the driver's
vehicle and the other party's vehicle with a 2 ton class vehicle.
Toyota's effort (approach)
2002 Collision test with "Ist"(Scion xA) and Celsior (Lexus LS) (50 kph)
2003 Collision test with "Prius" and an SUV (50 kph)
2005 Collision test with "Vitz" (Yaris) and 2 ton class vehicle (55 kph)

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Body Structure: Impact-absorbing body and high-strength cabin

The suppression of cabin intrusion and absorption of impact are effective in reducing
injury of occupants during a collision.
According to data, the rate of severe injuries increases dramatically past a certain
threshold of cabin intrusion.
Using a highly efficient, impact-absorbing body structure and a high-strength cabin,
Toyota has designed a collision safety body to preserve residual space for passengers
and help reduce injury during a collision.

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Protects occupants with impact absorbing body and a high strength cabin
In order to help reduce the impact on the occupants during a collision and reduce
cabin deformation, crumple zones at the front and rear of the vehicle absorb the
impact with high efficiency. The cabin uses a body structure that is strong and does
not deform easily. To help protect occupants during side collisions, where little
crumple zone is available, a high-strength body frame, including the center pillar and
the floor cross member, absorbs the impact with decreased deformation.

Restraint Device : Seat Belt

Seatbelt equipped with Pretensioner and Force Limiter mechanism

A seatbelt effectively controls the movement of the occupants within the limited cabin
space and is designed to reduce the impact on their chests. Seatbelts are designed to
maintain comfort during a normal drive, but they will firmly restrain occupants during a
collision.
Front Seatbelt Pretensioner mechanism instantaneously retracts the seatbelts when a
strong impact is sensed during a frontal collision, thereby quickly clinching the
seatbelts.
Force limiter mechanism keeps adequate tension force on the seatbelt to help avoid
the overload force applied to the chest. These devices together help reduce the
seatbelt impact to the chest while reducing the distance the occupant's chest moves
during a collision.

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Unbuckled Seat Belt Warning System with a lamp and reminder buzzer to warn
passengers
These various collision passive safety technologies are designed as Supplement
Restraint System. At Toyota, we urge passengers to wear seatbelts securely by
combining the existing warning lamp with a newly developed Unbuckled Seat Belt
Warning System with a lamp and reminder buzzer which incorporates a buzzer into a
seatbelt.
Unbuckled Unbuckled Seat Belt Warning System with a lamp and reminder buzzer
(Driver's seat & passenger seat)

Restraint Device : Supplemental Restraint System (SRS) Airbag

The SRS Airbag System is designed to supplement the seatbelt system and
improve occupant protection in certain type of crushes.
Airbags supplement the seat belt and enhance passenger safety in certain types
of collision.
All kinds of airbags were developed and adopted, including Driver's side Airbag
(1989), Passenger side Airbag (1992), Side Airbag (1996), Side Curtain Airbag
(1998) and Knee Airbag (2002).
In the case of the SRS Airbag (Driver's side), a sensor will detect the impact and
calculate the collision intensity and deploy the airbag. The time it takes for the
airbag to finish deploying is approximately 0.03 seconds. That deployed airbag will
deflate and the total time it takes is about 0.1 seconds.
The human eye blinks for about 0.1 -0.3 seconds. For this reason, some who have
been near an airbag deployment report they didn't see the airbag expand because
it happens so rapidly.

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Restraint Device : Whiplash Injury Lessening (WIL) Concept Seat

The WIL Concept Seat helps reduce risk of whiplash neck injuries in lower
speed rear-end collisions

Approximately 53% of passenger car injury accidents in Japan are rear-end

collisions, and approximately 90% of these injuries are neck injuries, including
whiplash.
Seats incorporating the WIL (Whiplash Injury Lessening) concept are designed to
cushion the passenger's head and chest simultaneously, helping to minimize
injuries in lower speed collisions.
Seats incorporating the WIL (Whiplash Injury Lessening) concept are designed to
cushion the passenger's head and chest simultaneously, helping to minimize
injuries in lower speed collisions
Main injury areas in rear-end collisions causing
Injury patterns of accidents involving injury to driver/passenger
driver/passenger

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Main injury areas in rear-end collisions causing injury to driver/passenger

① When driver is hit, the back sinks into the seat.

② Supports the head and body simultaneously to help minimize whiplash.

Deformation Behavior of Vehicle Body

Distribution of accidents by type of collision,
Symbolized by test methods yielding equal results

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Frontal Impact Test

 Vehicle is driven at a speed of 48.3 km/h (30 mph) into a rigid barrier which is
either perpendicular or inclined at an angle of up to 30° relative to the longitudinal
axis of the car.
 Manufacturers worldwide conduct left asymmetrical front impact tests on LHD
vehicles covering 30 ... 50 % of the vehicle width.
 In a frontal collision, kinetic energy is absorbed through deformation of the
bumper, the front of the vehicle, and in severe cases the forward section of the
passenger compartment (dash area).
 Axles, wheels (rims) and the engine limit the deformable length.
 Adequate deformation lengths and displaceable vehicle aggregates are necessary,
however, in order to minimize passenger-compartment acceleration.

 Depending upon vehicle design (body shape, type of drive and engine position),
vehicle mass and size, a frontal impact with a barrier at approx. 50 km/h results in
permanent deformation in the forward area of 0.4 ... 0.7 m. Damage to the passenger
compartment should be minimized.
This concerns primarily
 dash area (displacement of steering system, instrument panel, pedals, toe-panel
intrusion),
 underbody (lowering or tilting of seats),
 the side structure (ability to open the doors after an accident).
 Acceleration measurements and evaluations of high-speed films enable deformation
behavior to be analyzed precisely.
 Dummies of various sizes are used to simulate vehicle occupants and provide
acceleration figures for head and chest as well as forces acting on thighs.
 Head acceleration values are used to determine the head injury criterion (HIC).
 The comparison of measured values supplied by the dummies with the permissible
limit values as per FMVSS 208 208 (HIC: 1000, chest acceleration: 60 g/3 ms, upper leg
force: 10 kN) are only limited in their applicability to the human being.

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In order to optimise pedestrian protection, the new BMW 3 Series is designed with flexible
structures and precisely modelled body areas at the front of the vehicle, which reduce the risk of
injury to those on foot in the event of a collision.

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Occupant Protection

Occupant Protection
electronic systems increase occupant protection through ever faster response times.
electronic occupant protection systems activate in-vehicle restraint systems, such as
seat-belt tensioners and airbags.

 In many cases occupant protection electronics must measure, analyze and respond in

only five thousandths of a second.

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Pedestrian Protection

electronically controlled
system for active impact
protection for pedestrians
offers the impacting body
a more efficient
deformation zone and
reduces the risk of injury.

Pedestrian Protection
The system consists of acceleration sensors in the front part of the vehicle (Pedestrian
Contact Sensors PCS) and a control unit, which triggers actuators that can, for example,
lift the engine hood within a fraction of a second.
This allows for the pedestrian to impact against a more effective crumple zone, thereby
minimizing the risk of injury.
The system is simple to integrate and does not alter the appearance of the front end of
the vehicle.

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Crash Detection

Intelligent occupant protection electronics recognize the type and severity of the crash
and adapt the protective devices to the body features and seating positions of the
occupants. In case of a crash, optimal protection is given to occupants.

Front Impact

A crucial element for optimal occupant protection is the matching of the airbag
deployment with the occupant's forward position. An optimal seat-belt protection
requires that the seat-belt tensioners are triggered as early as possible in co-ordination
with the airbag. The following protective devices can be triggered:

Single- and multi-stage front airbags

Belt pretensioner
Knee airbags and Footwell airbags

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Side Impact
To allow sufficient time for the
deployment of the lateral protection
systems after a collision, the airbag
control unit has to determine in less
than 5 milliseconds, dependent on the
type and severity of the impact,
whether triggering is required or not.

The following protective devices can

be triggered:

Belt pretensioner
Side and head airbags
Rollover bar

Rear Impact
Rear collisions even at low speeds frequently lead to injuries to the cervical vertebrae.
Although injuries of this kind are rarely life-threatening, they are being increasingly taken
into account in consumer tests and by legislators.

Deploying active headrest systems reduce the risk of injury in the event of a rear collision.

Adapted to the crash situation, the headrests of the vehicle are moved forward towards the
heads of the vehicle occupants.

The following protective

devices can be triggered:

Belt pretensioner
Active headrest

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Roll Over

Many crashes with fatal outcome for vehicle occupants are associated with the vehicle
overturning. In the USA, the figure is around 20%

The following protective devices can be triggered:

Belt pretensioner
Side and head airbags
Rollover bar
.

Internal Crash Sensors

In the central airbag control unit, sensors are integrated to measure the acceleration
during a crash. To detect a vehicle rollover event, additional roll rate and acceleration
sensors might be located in the airbag control unit as well. Together with the other
components of the occupant protection system, sensors help to protect vehicle occupants.

Central acceleration sensor

Plausibility sensor
Low-g sensor
Roll rate sensor

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Central acceleration sensor

The central acceleration sensor is integrated in the airbag control unit.
Provides signals along the vehicle’s longitudinal and lateral axis in one device.
These signals generate the airbag triggering decision and provide a plausibility signal.
 The sensor is manufactured using surface micro-mechanical technology.

Plausibility sensor
The plausibility sensor is a one-axis acceleration sensor
Sensor is integrated in the airbag control unit
Sensor generates a separate crash plausibility signal
signals used by airbag control unit to verify the triggering decision
The sensor can be used in configurations without any upfront sensors

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Low-g sensor
sensor is designed for the rollover sensing application
It measures accelerations both in the vehicle’s longitudinal and vertical axis
Together with the angular rate signal the rollover sensing algorithm is able to detect a
vehicle rollover event
Additional sensor signals about the vehicle dynamics help to improve this application
even further.

Roll Rate Sensor

Roll rate sensor is integrated in the airbag control unit
It measures the vehicle’s yaw rate along its longitudinal axis
Together with acceleration signals the rollover sensing algorithm is able to detect a
vehicle rollover event.
Additional sensor signals about the vehicle dynamics help to improve this application
even further.

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Peripheral Sensors
In order to provide early signals about a crash event, peripheral sensors are located in
the vehicle's side and front area or rear end.

All sensor data is processed by the central airbag control unit.

The triggering decision of the airbag control unit is based on information from the
internal and the peripheral sensors.

Acceleration sensors (PAS/UFS/PCS)

Two-channel acceleration sensor (PAS enhanced)
Pressure sensor (PPS)
Peripheral Sensor Interface (PSI5)

Peripheral Acceleration Sensor (PAS) and Upfront

Sensor (UFS)
In addition to the central acceleration sensors integrated in the airbag control unit,
Peripheral Acceleration Sensors (PAS) and Upfront Sensors (UFS) for side, front or rear
installation may be used.

 The sensors are secured with only one fastener.

 This makes them more compact and eases assembly for the vehicle manufacturer.

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Two-channel acceleration sensor

(PAS enhanced)
Alongside the Peripheral Acceleration Sensor (PAS) and the Upfront Sensor (UFS), the
two-channel acceleration sensor (PAS enhanced) offers an additional variant.

This sensor is able to measure accelerations in two directions.

The optional installation of this sensor can achieve improved performance of the
system as additional acceleration data on the vehicle’s longitudinal axis is made
available.

Pedestrian Contact Sensor (PCS)

Pedestrian Contact Sensor is a special acceleration sensor for the installation in the
front bumper.
These sensors immediately detect a pedestrian impact and signal the ECU that the
engine hood needs to be slightly lifted, in order to gain additional, valuable deformation
space between hood and engine block thus minimizing the risk of injury.
The Pedestrian Contact Sensors can also contribute towards improved front crash
sensing.

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Peripheral Pressure Sensor (PPS)

Depending on the vehicle application a combination of two or four PPS combined with
peripheral acceleration sensors is connected to the airbag control unit. A robust triggering
decision is achieved by using two physical measuring principles. The Peripheral Pressure
Sensors identify side crashes and are mounted in the door compartment.

Side Impact Test

 Places a high risk of injury on the vehicle occupants due to the limited energy
absorbing capability of trim and structural components, and the resulting high degree
of vehicle interior deformation.
 The risk of injury is largely influenced by the structural strength of the side of the
vehicle (pillar/door joints, top/bottom pillar points), load-carrying capacity of floor
cross-members and seats, as well as the design of inside door panels (FMVSS 214,
ECE R95, Euro-NCAP, US-SINCAP).

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Rear Impact Test

 Deformation of the vehicle interior must be minor at most.
 It should still be possible to open the doors,
 Edge of the trunk lid should not penetrate the rear window and enter the vehicle
interior,
 Fuel-system integrity must be preserved (FMVSS 301).

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Roll Over Test

Roof structures are investigated by means of rollover tests and quasi-static car-roof crush
tests (FMVSS 216).

In addition, at least one manufacturer subjects his vehicles to the inverted vehicle drop test
in order to test the dimensional stability of the roof structure (survival space) under extreme
conditions (the vehicle falls from a height of 0.5 m onto the left front corner of its roof).

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Pre-test photograph showing 1989 Nissan Pickup chassis fixed rigidly in position to
the roof crush device's lower platform

Figure shows Nissan pickup and its orientation with respect to the load plate for
a test with plate roll angle at 25 deg and pitch angle of 5 deg.

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Huanghai DD6119K30 Passes Roll-over Test

During the test, DD6119K30 passed the 38°slope test, which is higher than the
national standard of 35°,reaching at the industrial leading position.

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Acceleration, speed and distance traveled, of a passenger compartment when

impacting a barrier at 50 km/h

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Steering system
Legal requirements (FMVSS 203 and 204) regulate the maximum displacement of
the top end of the steering column toward the driver (max. 127 mm, frontal impact at
48.3 km/h) and the limit of the impact on the steering system of a test piece (maximal
1111 daN at an impact speed of 24.1 km/h).

Slotted tubes, corrugated tubes and breakaway universal joints (among others) are
used in the design of the lower section of the steering column spindle so that it can be
deformed both longitudinally and transversely.

Passenger Restraint Systems

Automatic seat belt (manual systems)

Three-point seat belt with retractor mechanism ("automatic seat belt") represents a
good compromise between effective safety, ease of buckling, comfort and cost.
When a specific vehicle-deceleration value is reached, a built-in, quick-response
interlock inhibits the seat-belt roller.

Inertia-reel seat-belt system

1 Seat belt, 2 Ratchet wheel, 3 Inertia-reel Three point seat belt
shaft, 4 Pendulum, 5 Pawl (in locked position).

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Five Point Seat Belt

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Seat-belt Tightener Systems

Represents a further development and

improvement of the three-point automatic seat-
belt systems.
By reducing seat-belt slack, they eliminate
excessive forward passenger movement in serious
accidents.
This in turn reduces the differential speed
between the vehicle and passengers, and thus also
reduces the corresponding forces acting on the
passengers.

Integrated belt-force limiters ensure that

controlled give of the belt takes place after it has
Seat-belt tightener been tightened, so as to prevent potential
1 From sensor overloading in the chest area.
2 Firing pellet
3 Solid propellant
4 Tensioning cable
5 Cylinder
6 Piston
7 Seat belt

Airbag Systems
Airbags (frontal airbags, side bags, window bags) serve to prevent or reduce the impact
of the occupant against interior vehicle components (steering wheel, instrument panel,
doors, windows, roof pillars).

1 Belt tightener
2 Front airbag for passenger
3 Front airbag for driver
4 ECU

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