CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION 255 us

The functions of oxyphil cells are unknown.

Parathyroid Disorders. (i) Hypoparathyroidism
(deficiencyOf PTH). It causes the lowering of btood cal-
cium level This increases the excitability of nerves ana
muSGies, causing cramps and convulsions. Sustained con-
tractions of the muscles of larynx, face, hands and feet
are produced. This disorder is called parathyroid tetany or
hypocalcaemic tetany.
(ii) Hyperparathyroidism s of PTH). Excess
of PTH draws more calcium from the bones. It causes
demineralisatiOll, resulting in softing and bending of the
bones. Some of the bone substance is re-placed by cavities
that are filled with fibrous tissues. This condition leads to
ted osteitis fibrosa cystica or osteoporesita; ecause bones
nds become deformed, they are easily fractured:<5;teoporosis Fig. 22.10. Parathyroid tetany.
eUs in women who have reached menopause (ces-
live sation of menstruation). An excess of parathormone also causes calcium to be deposited in
ner the kidneys. Analysis of the content of kidney stones sometimes suggests the presence of
a parathyroid tumour.
Differences between Hypoparathyroidism and Hyperparathyroidism

Hypoparathyroidism
1. It is deficiency of PTIJ.
RY 2. lt is due to accidental damage to tbe
parathyroids or their blood supply during
thyroidectomy.
3. There is deficiency of calcium which
leads to muscle twitches, spasms and
convulsions. This condition is called
parathyroid tetany or hypocalcaemic
tetany.
Hyperparl.llhyroidism
I. It is excess of PTH.
2. It is usually due to formation of a tumour
in the parathyroids.
3. The bones become soft, deformed and the
destroyed bone tissues are replaced by
cavities that are filled with fibrous tissues.
Such bones are easily fractured. This
condition is called osteitis fibrous cystica
or osteoporosis.

3. Adrenal or SUprarenal Glands (Glands of Emergency)

Par- Location and Structure.
y- These are paired structures located
or the top of the kidneys. Each
une :renal gland has two parts exter-
the adrenal cortex and internal ad- KIDNEY

the med.uUa. The cortex is sur-

lion rounded by a fibrous capsule. Both
'I'H Jren.a1. cortex and medulla have dif-
the embryonic origin, structure
ates to be described ahead. 8

ood
OripL The adrenal cortex is Fig. 22.11. A, Position of adrenal gland.
bor-
B, T.S. AdrJmal gland.
nin. ...r tbe mesoderm of the
us 256 TRUEMAN'S ELEMENTARY BIOLOGY +1

Structure (Fig. 22.12). The adrenal cortex is

subdivided into three zones :
(i) Zona glomerulosa (zona- belt, glomerul-
little ball). This is the outer zone that lies just below
the capsule. It constitutes about 15% of the gland.
Its cells are closely packed and arranged in spheri-
cal clusters and arched columns which secrete
homones called mineralocorticoids because they
affect mineral homeostasis.
(ii) Zona fasciculata (jascicul- little bundle).
This is the middle zone which is widest of the three
zones. It constitutes about 50% of the gland. It
consists of the cells arranged in long, straight col-
umns. The cells of this zone secrete mainly
glucocorticoids, which are named because they
affect glucose home stasis.
(iii) Zona reticularis (reticul- network). This
is the inner zone that constitutes about 7% of the
gland. The cells are arranged in branching cords
which secrete gonadocorticoids (e.g., androgens
that have musculinizing effects). Fig. 22.12. Microscopic structure
of adrenal gland.
The cells of the zona fasciculata and zona
reticulata contain ascorbic acid (vitamin C).
Hormones. All hormones of adrenal cortex are synthesized from cholesterol. Corticos-
teroids (corticoids-hormones of adrenal cortex) are grouped into three catagories : min-
eralocorticoids, glucocorticoids and gonadocorticoids.
(i) .Mineralocorticoids. These hormones are secreted by the cells of zona glomerulosa
of adren'al cortex. As the name indicates, they are responsible for the regulation of mineral
metabolism. Aldosterone (salt-retaining hormone) is the principal mineralocorticoid (90 to
95%) in humans. Like all other hormones of the adrenal cortex, aldosterone is a steroid. Its
main function is to regulate the sodium content of the body. It is secreted when the sodium
level is low. It acts on the kidneys to cause more sodium to be returned to the blood and more
potassium to be excreted. As the sodium concentration in the blood increases, water
follows it by osmosis, so the blood volume also increases. Thus the effect of aldosterone
is to increase both sodium and water in the blood.
Target cells. Mineralocorticoids act on the cells of the kidneys.
(ii) Glucocorticoids. As their name suggests, they affect carbohydrate metabolism,
however, they also affect the metabolism of proteins and fats. Glucocorticoids include three
main hormones: cortisol (= hydrocortisone), corticosterone and cortisone. Of the three,
cortisol is the most abundant (about 95%). It stimulates the liver to synthesize carbohydrates
from non-carbohydrates such as amino acids and glycerol. Thus increases level of glucose
in the blood. Cortisol also stimulates the degradation of proteins within cells and amino acids
in the blood, therefore, increases level of amino acids in the blood. A third effect of cortisol
is to stimulate the break-down of fats in adipose tissue and release fatty acids into the blood.
Thus cortisol has anti insulin effect. It atso helps in reducing pain. Cortisol is anti-inflam-
matory. It retards phagocytic acitivities ofWBCs and thus suppresses 'inflammation reaction'.
This hormone also reduces the number of mast cells, reducing secretion of histamine. This ·s r::rv-
 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION 257 us
is also an anti-infammatory effect. Cortisol is also ''immunosuppressive". It suppresses
synthesis of antibodies by inhibiting the production of lymphocytes in the lymphoid tissues.
That is why, cortisol is used for treatment of allergy. It is also used in transplantation surgery
to suppress the formation of antibodies in the body of recipients so that the latter may accept
the transplanted organs. This hormone increases RBC count, but decrease the WBC count
of blood. It also elevates blood pressure. Cortisol has the capacity to cope with stress. When
we are under stress our body secretes cortisol that is why this hormone is called "stress
hormone".
Target Cells. Glucocorticoids act on the _cells. of the liver.
(iii) Gonadocorticoids (Sexcorticoids). They are also called sex hormones of adrenal
glands. Large quantities of male than female sexcorticoids (sex hormones) are produced.
These male sex hormones are called androgens which are important in the development of
a male foetus. Although the genetic sex is determined by the chromosomes in a fertilized egg,
a male foetus develops normal male characteristics only if the foetal gonads and adrenal
glands produce sufficient quantities of androgens. Therefore, androgens stimulate the de-
velopment of male secondary sexual characters like distribution of body hair. Female sex
hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are oestrogens which maintain the development of
female secondary sexual characters.
Target cells. Gonadocorticoids act on the cells of gonads (testes and ovaries). .
The adrenal cortex is essential for life. Its removal or destruction is fatal unless the
hormones produced by it are supplimented artificially.
Disorders of the Adrenal cortex. (i) Addison's disease. This disease is caused by the
deficiency of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids. It is also caused by the destruction of
adrenal cortex in disease such as tuberculosis. Its symptoms include low blood sugar, low
plasma Na+, high K+ plasma, increased urinary Na+, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and a
bronze-like pigmentation of skin. Severe dehydration is also common in the person suffering
from this disease.
(ii) Cushing's Syndrome* (Fig. 22.13). It is caused by excess of cortisol which may
be due to a tumour of the adrenal cortex. It is characterised by high blood sugar, appearance

BALDNESS
RECEDING
HAIRLINE
ANDROGENIC
FLUSH
SMALL
BREAST
PENDULOUS
ABDOMEN

POOR WOUND
HEAUNG

A B
Fig. 22.13. A, Cushing's syndrome. B, Adrenal Virilism.

*Syndrome is a group of igns and symptoms that occur together.

us 258 TRUEMAN'S ELEMENTARY BIOLOGY +1
of sugar in the urine, rise in plasma Na+, fall in plasma K+, rise in blood volume, high blood
pressure, obesity and wasting of muscles of thighs and pectoral and pelvic girdles.
(iii) Aldosteronism (Conn's Syndrome). Excessive production of aldosterone from
an adrenal cortical tumour causes this disease. Its symptoms include a high plasma Na+, low
plasma K+, rise in blood volume, high blood pressure and polyurea.
(iv) Adrenal Virilism (Fig. 22.13). Appearance of male characters in female is called
virilism. Excessive production of male sexcorticoids (androgens) produces male secondary
sexual characters like beard, moustache, hoarse voice in woman.
(v) Gynaecomastia. It is the development of enlarged mammary glands (breasts) in the
males: It is due to excessive secretion of female sex hormones (oestrogens) in males.
Decreased testo!!terone may also lead to gynaecomastia.

Origin. The adrenal medu!la develops from the neuroectoderm of the embryo.
Structure. The adrenal medulla consists of rounded groups of relatively large and
granular cells. These cells are modified postganglionic cells of sympathetic nervous system
which have lost normal processes and have acquired a glandular function. These cells are
called chromaffin cells or phaeochromocytes. These cells are connected with the pregan-
glionic motor fibres of the sympathetic nervous system. Obviously, the adrenal medulla is
simply an extension of the sympathetic nervous system, therefore, these are discussed
together as sympathetico-adrenal system.

The medulla of. the adrenal glands secretes two hormones : norepinephrine (norad-
renaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline). Norepinephrine and epinephrine are derived from
tyrosine aminoacid.
. (i) Norepinephrine (= Noradrenaliae). It regulates the blood pressure under normal
condition. It causes constriction of essentially all the blood vessels of the body. It causes
. increased activity of the heart, inhibition of gastrointestinal tract, dilation of the pupils of the
eyes and so forth.
(ii) Epinephrine(= Adrenaline). It is secreted at the time of emergency. Hence it is also
called emergency hormone. It causes almost the same effects as those caused by norepi-
nephrine, but the effects differ in the following respects. First, epinephrine has a greater
effect on cardiac activity than norepinephrine. Second, epinephrine causes only weak con-
striction of the blood vessels of the muscles in comparison with a much stronger constriction
that results from norepinephrine. A third difference between the action of epinephrine and
norepinephrine relates to their effects on tissue metabolism. Epinephrine probably has several
times as great a metabolic effect as norepinephrine.
Target Cells. Both adrenaline and noradrenaline acts on the cells of skeletal, cardiac and
smooth muscles and blood vessels and fat cells.
Because of ' the role of their hormones, the adrenal glands are also called 'glands of
emergency'.
Sympatheticoadrenal System. Stimulation of the sympathetic nerves to adrenal me-
dulla causes large quantities of epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
to be released into the blood circulation and then lhese hormones are carried to all the tissues
of the body. Both the hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) and sympathetic nervous
system act on the same organs and produce similar effects on them (e.g., accelerates heart
beat, raises blood pressure, slows peristalsis, etc.). Since the sympathetic nervous system