Thermodynamics

Chapter 1: Introduction and Basic Concepts

Dr. Tsrong-Yi Wen
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
 Thermodynamics and
Energy
• Thermodynamics

– All aspects of energy and energy transformation

including power generation, refrigeration,
relationships among the properties of matter

– The science of energy that can be viewed as the

ability to cause changes

2
Scope of Thermodynamics
• The most fundamental law of
nature: conservation of energy

– Energy cannot be created or

destroyed

– Total amount of energy remains

constant

– Energy can change form

3
Scope of Thermodynamics
• The first law of thermodynamics

– Energy is a thermodynamic property

• The second law of thermodynamics

– Energy has quality and quantity

– Actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality

of energy

4
 Applications of
Thermodynamics

5
 Dimensions and Units
• Any physical quantity can be
characterized by dimensions

– Primary dimensions (fundamental

dimensions)

– Secondary dimensions (derived

dimensions)

• The magnitudes assigned to the

dimensions are units

• All equations must be dimensionally

homogeneous: every term in an equation
must have the same unit 6
 Mass and Weight
• The mass of a body remains the same regardless
of its location in the universe

• The weight changes with a change in gravitational

acceleration

Weight = Mass
! × Gravitional
! ### # "Acceleration
#### $
!"
# # $ m
W g

7
 Systems and Control
Volumes
• System

– A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study

– Closed (fixed mass) or open (fixed volume)

• Surrounding

– The mass or region outside the system

• Boundary

– The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings

– Fixed or movable
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Closed/Open Systems
Closed Systems Open Systems

Mass Across
No Yes
Boundary

Energy Across
Yes Yes
Boundary

Movable Movable
Boundary Types
Real/Imaginary Real/Imaginary

Isolated when energy

Others does not across the
boundary
9
 Closed System
(Control Mass)
• No mass can cross the boundary

• Energy can cross the boundary

• Boundary can be fixed or movable

• Isolated system

– Mass and energy do not cross

the boundary

10
 Open System
(Control Volume)
• A properly selected region in
space (any arbitrary region)

• Both mass and energy can

cross the boundary

• Control surface

– The boundaries of a control

volume

– Can be real or imaginary

11
 Properties of a System
• Intensive properties

– Independent of the mass of the system

• Extensive properties

– Dependent on the size of the system

– Extensive properties per unit mass are

specific properties

• To determine whether a property is intensive

or extensive

– Divide the system into two equal parts

12
Density and Specific Gravity
• Density: mass per unit volume

– Gases: proportional to pressure and inversely

proportional to temperature
density is a constant
– Liquids and solids: essentially incompressible, the
variation of their density with pressure is usually
negligible

m
ρ=
V

13
Density and Specific Gravity
• Specific volume: volume per unit mass
V
v=
m

• Specific gravity (relative density)

ρ
SG =
ρ H 2O

• Specific weight
γ S = ρg

14
State and State Postulate
• State: system can be described by a set of properties

• The number of properties required to fix the state of a

system is given by the state postulate

• The state of a simple compressible system is

completely specified by two independent intensive
properties

15
 Equilibrium
• Equilibrium: no unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system

– Thermal equilibrium: temperature

– Mechanical equilibrium: pressure

– Phase equilibrium: mass of each phase

– Chemical equilibrium: chemical composition

16
 Processes and Cycles
• Process

– Any change that a system undergoes from on equilibrium state

to another

• Path

– The series of states through which a system passes during a

process

17
 Processes and Cycles
• Quasi-static (quasi-equilibrium) process

– Sufficiently slow process that allows the system to

self-adjust internally so that properties in one part
of the system do not change any faster than others

– Not a true representation of an actual process

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 Processes and Cycles
• Isothermal process

– A process during which the temperature

remains constant

• Isobaric process

– A process during which the pressure remains

constant

• Isochoric (Isometric)

– A process during which the specific volume

remains constant

• Cycle

– The initial and final states are identical 19

 Steady-Flow Process
• Steady

– No change with respect to time

• Uniform

– No change with location over a specified region

20
 Steady-Flow Process
• Steady-flow process

– A process during which a fluid flows through a

control volume steadily

– The fluid properties can change from point to point

in the control volume, but at any fixed point they
remain the same during the entire process

– Volume, mass, and total energy remain constant

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 Temperature
• Celsius scale (℃)

• Fahrenheit scale (℉)

• Kelvin scale (K)

• Rankine scale (R)

T (K) = T (o C) + 273.15
T (R) = T (o F) + 459.67 = 1.8T (K)
T ( F) = 1.8T ( C) + 32
o o

ΔT (K) = ΔT (o C)
ΔT (R) = ΔT (o F)
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 The Law of 0 th

Thermodynamics
• The equality of temperature is the only requirement for thermal
equilibrium

• The 0th law of thermodynamics

– If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they

are also in thermal equilibrium with each other

– Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same

temperature reading even if they are not in contact

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 Pressure
• Pressure (N/m2 or Pa): a normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area

– Only when we deal with gases or liquids

– For solids: normal stress

1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa

1 atm = 101,325 Pa
1 kgf/cm2 = 9.807 N/cm2 = 9.807 x 104 Pa = 0.9807 bar = 0.9679 atm

24
 Pressure
• Absolute pressure: relative to absolute vacuum (absolute zero pressure)

• Gage (gauge) pressure: difference between the absolute pressure and local
atmospheric pressure

– Readings of most pressure-measuring devices are gage pressure

• Vacuum pressure: pressure below atmospheric pressure

Pvac = Patm − Pabs

Pgage = Pabs − Patm

25
 Pressure
• Pressure is a scalar quantity

– Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all

directions

– Pressure has a magnitude but not a specific

direction

• Absolute pressure is almost always used

throughout this class

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Variation of Pressure with
Depth

∑ F = ma
z z =0 ⇒ P2 Δx −P1Δx − ρ gΔxΔz = 0
Dividing by Δx
pressure head
ΔP = P2 − P1 = ρ gΔz = γ s Δz
specific weight 27
 Variation of Pressure with
Depth
• Liquids and gases (essentially incompressible substances)

– The variation of density with depth is negligible

– The variation of density with temperature can be

significant

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Variation of Pressure with
Depth

29
 Pascal’s Law
• A consequence of the pressure in a fluid remaining
constant in the horizontal direction is that the
pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the
pressure throughout by the same amount

P1 = P2
F1 F2
=
A1 A2
F2 A2
=
F1 A1
ideal mechanical advantage
of the hydraulic lift
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 The Manometer

P1 = Patm + ρ1gh1 + ρ 2 gh2 + ρ 3gh3

P2 = Patm + ρ gh

P2 = P1 + ρ1g(a + h) − ρ 2 gh − ρ1ga
P1 − P2 = ( ρ 2 − ρ1 ) gh

31
 The Barometer and
Atmospheric Pressure
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a
barometer

• Barometric pressure = atmospheric

pressure

• Standard atmosphere

– Pressure of a column of mercury 760 mm

height at 0 C (density of mercury is
13595 kg/m3) under standard
gravitational acceleration (g=9.807 m/s2)

– 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 133.3 Pa

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