2541623

Special Topics in Architectural History and Theory

Burmese Modernities: Colonial and Modern architecture in

Myanmar, 1824-1962

Semester I/2016

Master of Architecture

(International Program)

Chulalongkorn University

Submitted to

Dr.Chomchon Fusinpaiboon

By Pale Thitsar Kyaw

List of Figures

1. Colonial absorption of Burma ,1824-86

2. Aerial View Rangoon Air Survey ca 1900
3. Map of Colonial square grid pattern layout Rangoon (1914)
4. Dalhousie St. looking west, Rangon ABM 4028
5. Staicase inside the secretariat
6. The Secretariat building and its compound
7. One of the wings of Secretariat
8. The Secretariat Building
9. Old photo of secretariat
10. Spiral staircase inside the building
11. The Secretariat Building
12. Entrance view of City Hall, Yangon
13. Old photo of City Hall, Yangon
14. City Hall, Yangon
15. Traditional ornaments base on ancient Bagan
16. Japanese entered into Burma
17. Celebrating Sixth Buddhist council in Burma
18. Nat Mauk Technical High School, Yangon
19. Rangoon university
20. Glass mosaic wall
21. Tripitaka Library, Yangon
22. Concrete cantilevers
23. Pointed arches inside the building
24. Inside Tripitaka library
25. Front view of Tripitaka library
26. Tripitaka library, Yangon
Chapter 1 Introduction:

In the conventional history of our world, the term “modernity” for our world coupled
with the word “West” (Europe and North America). It is a fact that the word “modernity”
attached to various political and social changes such as industrial revolution, democracy,
capitalism, EU enlightenment rationalism, which brought the western world to modernity. In
the conventional way of thinking, many historians and theorists had claimed that modernity
came from West first and distributed to Non-West countries as Europe has a unchallengeable
and superior modern world that all of the countries outside the west should try to achieve that
kind of European modern future. However, Indian theorist, Dipesh Chakrabarty had
championed a rethinking of historicizing modernity not in a linear way of thinking of “first in
the West, and then elsewhere”. (1)

In “Provincializing Europe”, the writer encouraged to rethink of historicizing “political

modernity” of Southeast Asia as it is deeply embedded in the thoughts of historicists and
theorists that Europe is an “imaginary figure” of modernity for Southeast Asia. Furthermore,
historians had a hegemonic view that the modern period of Southeast Asia originated from “the
West” during colonizing period and all these countries have the same way of process when
transforming into modern nations. In fact, heterogeneous changes that took place in every
individual country is clearly different geographically and temporally. Europeans started to
come to Southeast Asia for trading and they were able to take control of the international trade
of Asia. They considered Southeast Asian countries as underprivileged and uncivilized nations
that they had to help to improve with their administrative rule and started to establish Colony
Empire in Southeast Asia.

In this paper, it will mainly focus on the conventional history and criticisms of modern
architecture in Myanmar, one of the Southeast Asian countries outside the West. For the west,
modern architecture is the emergence of first half of 20th century as a result of various changes
in western world such as democracy, rationalism, industrial revolution, capitalism and Europe
enlightenment. Then, how can people define “Modern Architecture in Southeast Asia”? It is
simple to understand “Southeast Asian Architecture” as monuments, pagodas, temples and
vernacular houses. However, when it is linked with the word “modern”, it is difficult to define
heterogeneous conditions and nature of every Southeast Asian countries. Many historians,
scholars have recorded, researched and criticized many different styles of architecture

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Dipesh Chakrabarty .\\ Provincializing Europe
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throughout the time. Nonetheless, there are still lack of historicizing of modern architecture in
Non West region as Sibel Bozdogan mentioned that the “Non-West Modern Architecture” is
“doubly marginalized” in Jiat-Hwee Chang and S.W. Lim paper “ Non-West Modernist Past”.
This means that modern architecture in Non West countries is neglected by both historians of
modern architecture and area specialists. Modern architecture in other regions including
Myanmar are only described in the history of modern architecture either the building is built
by the master architects or the building is included in the discourse of critical regionalism. (2)

In the first place, this paper will scrutinize about the architecture in Myanmar during
colonial period and consequently architecture after independence, in accordance with diverse
situations that led to the transition of modern Myanmar.

Chapter II Colonial Architecture in Myanmar

• First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26)

• Second Anglo- Burmese War (1852)
• Third Anglo- Burmese War (1885-1886)

Fig.1.Colonial absorption of Burma, 1824-86

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Jia-Hwee Chnag and William S.W,Lim \\ Non West Modernist Past

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 Colonial period is a time which brought a lot of changes in architecture in Myanmar.
Europeans saw local architecture as uncivilized architecture and introduced architecture with
construction techniques and materials which were their traditional way of construction and an
architecture which suited their way of living, traditions and cultures. This architecture is new
to Myanmar at that time. Although colonial architecture in all Southeast Asia had been named
and packaged by historians as an architecture which was brought by Europeans during
colonizing period, there were numerous situations which led to the emergence of these
architecture in every individual country. Colonial architecture in Myanmar brought by British
as well but it cannot be ignored that these buildings had been emerged as a country’s need at
that time and related with political and social changes in Myanmar.

British annexed Burma in three Anglo-Burmese wars (1824-1826, 1852-1853 and

1885) These three Anglo-Burmese wars were caused Burmese westward expansionist moves
into British-administered East Bengal and Manipur (1824-1826); greed- access to the natural
resources of Burma proper and commercial disputes (1852); and French influence and potential
economic expansion- if not direct colonization- of Upper Burma and control over the
potentially lucrative trade with China through Yunnan Province (1885)(Fig.1).(3)During under
British rule, important changes did occur in all parts of Myanmar. The most striking changes
were that the political changes of monarchy to administrative rule, the location of capital
changes as Yangon become capital and the economic changes. Before colonial period,
Rangoon used to be a run-down port area, dominated by palm-leaf huts and timber shacks with
muddy roads around the town and in 1862, it became capital and administrative center of all
British Burma.

Fig2. Aerial View Rangoon Air Survey ca 1900

3
David I.Steinberg \\ Burma/ Myanmar (What everyone needs to know)

3
 The new colonial Rangoon was completely different from the old city. As it became
capital, there were population growth, strong colonial economy and rise of new buildings.
British laid out a square grid pattern in Rangoon because they thought that the old city layout
was unorganized.(Fig.2) (4)
In the book “A History of Modern Burma”, the writer, Michael
W.Charney, mentioned that “Rangoon was a foreign city erected on Burmese soil. In its
imposing architecture, its physical arrangement, its landscaped gardens, its focus on the harbor
and maritime trade, the ethnic division of its population, and in many other ways, Rangoon was
a replica of dozens of port cities scattered throughout colonial south and Southeast Asia. A
person only had to squint to be confused as to whether he or she was standing in Singapore,
Penang, Calcutta, or elsewhere.” (4)

Fig.3 Map of Colonial Square Grid Pattern Layout Rangoon (1914)

Colonial period is a time where Myanmar people exposed and saw a lot of changes in
society, traditions, cultures and new buildings that they have never been experienced in their
lives. In terms of society, colonial Burma assumed a “three tiered” structure in which the British
and other westerners occupied the top managerial, administrative, and professional positions.

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Michael W.Charney \\ A History of Modern Burma
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On the second tier, Indians as railroad workers, telegraphers, telephone operators and mail
carriers and Chinese operated retail shops. Indians held more than 50 percent of government
jobs. On the lowest tier the Burmese were found in the villages-unable to enter the modern
sectors of the economy. Rangoon’s population in 1931 was 50 percent Indian, with lower
percentages of Chinese, Indo-Burmese, Eurasians, and Europeans. Burmese comprised only 36
percent. (5) Most of the immigrants at that time were form Southeastern India and Southeastern
China, particularly the Hokkien and Guangdong. Chittagononians from Bengal, Ooriyas form
Ganjam,Bihar,Orissa, Tamils from the southern Madras Presidency, Telgus from the
Coromandel coast, and other groups. Ooriyas worked on the docks or railways. Tamils work
as rices mills and some are government staffs. Chittagonians worked on the river boats. For
Chines immigrants, Hokkien dialect group dominated gold selling and Guangdong Province
dominated the construction industry and they lived in to symmetrical blocks of the town
opposite each other along Dalhousie Street. European population in the city and Burmese are
outsiders for the modern society. 6British considered “West” as an ideal modern nation where
all of the other Southeast Asian countries are in a “not yet” condition to being modern country
and they thought the people at Southeast Asia are not qualified enough to rule the modern
nation. Therefore, British colonies at that time treated local Myanmar people as uncivilized and
underprivileged people who were not fit into the modern society although they preached
democracy and human equality for a new nation, they had neglected in reality.

The administrative system of British was new to a nation used to be ruled under
monarchy. During the 1880s and 1890s, there were building boom in Rangoon, wooden houses
gave way to masonry buildings. New types of transportation were also introduced such as
electric trams between 1906 and 1908, private automobile in 1905, followed by motor bus in
1913. The opening of Suez Canal in 1869, and the construction of railroads (reaching
Mandalay, Myitkyina and Lashio) drew the country more tightly into the international
economic system. Between 1870 and 1926-27, the value of exports increase 20 times and the
value of imports, 15 times.

5
David I.Steinberg \\ Burma/ Myanmar (What everyone needs to know)

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Michael W.Charney \\ A History of Modern Burma
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 Fig 4. Dalhousie St. looking west, Rangoon ABM 4028

II.1.The Secretariat Building (Yangon)

All of the above mentioned modern changes affected modern architecture in Myanmar
as well. Because of the government changes and transformations, many government and
commercial buildings appeared in Myanmar. One of the building is Ministers’ Office (The
Secretariat Building), a building which is similar to byzantine architecture with the usage of
domical vault and arched windows and spiral stairs. This building was designed by Architect
Henry Hoyne-Fox and constructed by the father-and-son team from Northern India, Naitram
Rambux family’s construction company. Rambux handed over the construction company when
he was just a teenager after his father death at 1894. His father was responsible for the first
wing and he built the latter wings. This building is built in urgent need of colonial government’s
administrative work as the old Secretariat building was small for various administrative works.
The construction for the southern wing started in 1889 and
completed in 1893. The construction for East and West started in
1903 and completed in 1905. In this buildings, the departments
located within its labyrinthine halls with many departments in the
building such as political, general, police, revenue, forest, finical,
judicial, Municipal and commerce. A variety of army of
secretaries, clerks, stenographers, statisticians, and record-keepers
worked in each of these departments.

Fig 5.Staircase inside the Secretariat

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 During construction period, builders had face with difficulties when built this building
as the building site was used to be a water tank and they had to bailed out the water continuously
especially in monsoon season. To stabilize the unstable soil, they have to use hard timber which
is called Pyinkado logs that were 13-20 feet long had to be driven into the ground and topped
with a grid of iron rails. As this building was built in urgent need, the builders probably did not
study about the site condition and geography precisely at that time and they encountered many
problems during construction period. During the construction of southern wing, the work
delayed as the artificial stone ordered for the decorative details failed to arrive and when they
built east and west wings, they manufactured stone on site to avoid the same problem.
Moreover, that building was not popular for those who worked there as E.C.V.Foucar , a British
barrister and member of the Legislative Council during the 1930s, described in a memoir that
“ugly, vast and insanity building”. However, after working hours, the building was opened to
general public who came to enjoy the evening and some people came for playing chinlon [a
Burmese ball game played with a rattan ball] .(7)

Fig 6. The Secretariat building and its compound

Fig.7.One of the wing of Secretariat

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Association of Myanmar Architects \\ 30 Heritage Buildings of Yangon
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Although such kind of building will probably use to western people and society, it was
completely modern to Myanmar at that time. The purpose and function of building is quite new
as local people have to deal with new administrative systems. Not only the building itself, the
people and society, types of jobs people working in that building are modern to Myanmar
people. Such kind of building with multiple departments and massive structure is never existed
before in traditional Myanmar architecture. Although it was new at that time, the modern
function that used inside that building was not associated with local people at that time as this
building was meant only for the westerners. In terms of modernity, this building had shown the
identity of a new colonial Burma but human equality could not find inside that people as local
Myanmar people did not have the chance to experience the modern function inside that building

Fig.8. The Secretariat Building. Fig.9. Old photo of Secretariat

Fig.10.Spiral Staircase inside the building Fig.11..The Secretariat Building

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 II.2 City Hall, Yangon

The next building colonial period is City Hall in downtown Yangon. is a building with
combination of European design and engineering technology with traditional Myanmar
ornaments. Moreover, it was a first building designed by Burmese Architect Sithu U Tin, a
palatial form with three-tiered pyatthat roofing and traditional Myanmar iconography such as
peacocks and serpants as a result of the awareness of nationalism during colonizing period. In
1886, the city’s municipal authority purchased Ripton hall, a community dance hall which
located in the present location of City hall. This dance hall was converted into municipal
headquarters but as the cities expanded, the dance hall was not enough for the need of municipal
offices. In 1903, the municipality purchased again the land behind Ripton Hall for extension of
the building. However, in the end, the whole compound was supposed to build an entire new
building as Health Department claimed that the original existing building was unsafe with
“plague-infested” rats. The aim was to build a large building which would reflect a regional
trading center and capital city. In 1913, the Municipal Committee held a competition for the
building and Architect L.A.McClumpha won the competition.

Fig.12 Entrance view of City Hall, Yangon

However, due to the interference of World War I, construction did not begin until over
a decade later in 1925. By then, nationalist sentiment grew stronger and Burmese politician U
Ba Pe gave a rousing speech at the Legislative Council that the building to be incorporated with
Burmese architectural ornamentations of ancient Bagan. At that time, there was a new calling
for a new design and Architect U Tin proposed a new design with Myanmar traditional

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flourishes. (8) Construction started in 1926 and ended in 1936. Therefore, it can be seen that the
desire to get freedom of the local people, that nationalist movement at that time not only
concerned with the politics of the country, but also affected the architecture of a particular
country. Although it is a civic building mainly controlled by the British, nationalist movement
supported the willing of local Myanmar people who wanted to have their own identity in
architecture of a nation. Moreover, the hope and the awareness of Burmese politician who
strived for the independence and wanted to gain a democratic modern nation could be seen in
the architecture of this building. Furthermore, this is a unique and modern building at that time
which local architects got the initial idea to mix European construction techniques with
traditional design.

Fig.13 Old Photo of City Hall, Yangon

Fig.14.City Hall, Yangon

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Association of Myanmar Architects \\ 30 Heritage Buildings of Yangon
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 Fig.15 Traditional ornaments based on ancient Bagan

III. Modern Architecture in Myanmar

Modern Architecture in Myanmar can be seen after country’s independence and the
modern buildings were built as a part of reform of new nation and new politic systems. The
impact of political movement and economy have a great influence to modern architecture in
Myanmar. New buildings were required as much of the infrastructure and industry were
destroyed during World War II. These new buildings had shown a new architecture which
reflected the political modernity of an independent nation which recently got freedom from the
colonial Burma. Moreover, many post war architects from the west were commissioned to
design new buildings in Myanmar and they had a different modern thoughts for architecture
which was different from the colonial era.

The Japanese occupation in World War II destroyed the illusion of Western and British
invulnerability and raised up the Burmese nationalism. However, Japanese treated Burmese
with disdain and a brutality. World War II ended the colonial era in Burma and it also brought
young Burmese nationalist leaders of the independent movement and the new government,
such as Aung San, U Nu, Ne Win, and others who played important roles in modern Burma.
Myanmar had gone through a lot of changes in government such as nationalist movement,
parliamentary government (1948-1962), military rule (1962-2011) and democratic reform
period (2011 to present). During nationalist movement, General Aung San was the main leader
who try to unite and make links with minority leaders of various ethnic groups in Burma.
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However, General Aung San and his partners were killed in the morning of July 19, 1947. On
October 17, 1947, Prime ministers U Nu and Clement Attlee signed a treaty formally
recognizing the independence of the Union of Burma. On December 10, 1947, the British
Parliament over the strenuous opposition of Churchill’s conservative Party passed the Burma
Independence Act, January 4, 1948 (Independence Day of Myanmar) was set as the date for
the transfer of power. Between 1948 and 1958, Burma was a dominant-party state in which
freedom of speech, press and assembly, the principle of judicial independence, and legal
framework of parliamentary democracy were largely respected. Politics was dominated by the
AFPFL (Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League), its popular support guaranteed through its
historical role as the party of Aung San and the struggle of independence.

In terms of economic policy, land reform, nationalization and socialist industrial

planning formed the keystones. In 1952 Pyidawtha ( Welfare State) Conference in Rangoon, U
Nu announced an ambitious eight-year program of development, drawn up with the assistance
of United States and United Nations advisers. The Pyidawtha program was to be financed
through exports, principally rice. However, this eight year program was scrapped as there was
a collapse in international rice prices and poor quality of Burmese rice. During consecutive
years, although the government tried to propose another proposed plans, many sectors of
economy of had not returned to prewar levels. This caused military officers chose to commit
to socialism and led to more serious situations when the country’s was under General Ne Win
socialist military rule.

Fig.16 Japanese entered into Burma

In terms of Religion and Nation unity, Buddhism is the most important value that
defines a Burman and Theravada school is the most important institution in classical Burma.
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Buddhism permeates the government and peoples’ lives and values. There is a saying goes that
“To be a Burman is to be Buddhist, Buddhism was the primitive value of Burman society.
Every Burman male had become a monk at some time in his life. The function of education,
the prestige and glory was associated to sangha and controlled by an administrative hierarchy
with the thathanabaing at the apex and monks were the most prestige.(9) People used to offer
goods to monks for one’s good karma, health and wealth for the family. They believed monks
could help build up good karma for previous incarnations. However, British saw monks as
begging goods from the people. Previously, education in Myanmar also based on monastic
education. British introduced modern secular education in both English and Burmese which
eliminated the formal structure of Buddhism and people with traditional educations could not
fit into the modern positions. That is why, some people went England to educate as lawyers
and doctors, some went to prestigious mission schools in Burma and some went to university
of Rangoon. Because of the British’s downplaying of Buddhism, elimination of its structure of
authority and establish modern education systems had made the nationalism became stronger.
In nationalist movement, Burmese established religious and political organization such as
UMBA (Young Men’s Buddhist Association) and the General Council of Buddhist (Burmese)
Associations in 1920 and monks were actively involved in nationalist movement . During post-
colonial period, president U Nu was a devout Buddhist who believed Buddhism as a personal
faith and a basis for national unity. He embraced Buddhism as the state religion. (8)

Fig.17. Celebrating Sixth Buddhist council in Burma

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David I.Steinberg \\ Burma/ Myanmar (What everyone needs to know)
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III.2. Nat Mauk Technical High School and Rangoon University

Due to these various situations, new remarkable buildings were also erected as
landmarks and demonstration of power of newly independent state as well. (10) The first two
modern building which were designed by the British architect Raglan Squire were Nat Mauk
Technical high school and Rangoon University. Raglan Squire was one of the architect who
designed post war architecture and Rangoon University is the first oversea project for him. His
other foreign work included a town planning scheme in Mosul in Iraq, and a report for Baghdad
airport (1955). He was also much in demand abroad, particularly in Singapore and Middle East.
His building in Myanmar were Rangoon university, Assembly Hall in Rangoon and Nat Mauk
Technical high school.

Nat Mauk technical school was opened on 1956. It was paid by the US government and
built by a British contractor. For the curriculum in that school, the Ford foundation paid for
instructors from a Minnesota vocational college to develop the curriculum. There are about 600
students and half of them are boarders, combined artisanal vocational training with obtaining
their high school degrees there. There are mosaics which are created as part of a wider
campaign to install art in educational facilities. The mural depicted was created by U San Win,
the first Burmese painter to embrace impressionism. There were also other artists involved in
that project such as U Nann Wai and U Ohn Lwin who are among Myanmar’s most famous
twentieth century artists. (7) Rangoon University was built between 1952 and 1956. Raglan
Squire thought his major accomplishment was an assembly hall “ Laik Khone” hall which was
a wooden structure but this building was demolished under general Nay Win military rule.

Both of these buildings were appeared because of the new secular education system
that British had introduced which was a new and modern education system to Burma at that
time.

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Yangon Heritage Trust\\Building the Future (The Role of Heritage in the Sustainable Development of Yangon)
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Fig.18 Nat Mauk Technical High School

Fig.20.Glass Mosaic Wall

Fig 19 Rangoon University

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III.2. The Tripitaka Library, Yangon

Another building is the Tripitaka library, Yangon. It is a building that U Nu

commissioned Architect Benjamin Kauffman Polk to design for meditation and study for the
monks. In 1954-56, president U Nu held the Sixth World Buddhist Council, commemorating
the 2500th anniversary of the Buddha’s attainment of nirvana. Like King Mindon, sponsor the
fifth council, he called thousands of monks and lay scholars from Theravada countries such as
Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka and Thailand to study and revise the Tripitaka. The Tripitaka
library was built together with the Kaba Aye ( World Peace Pagoda) and the Maha Pasana
Guha (Great sacred cave).This project is a major project for the newly young nation, which
gain independence only a few years earlier and was struggling with a brutal civil war and a
chronic shortage of funds. 40 acres of lands were allocated to this project and a million pounds
sterling of Government and AFPFL funds were used to build this project. It showed that the
importance of this project as the government spent a vast amount of money although the new
nation has a shortage of funds.

Fig.21.Tripitaka Library, Yangon.

Benjamin Polk was a pioneer in reconciling post-war modern architecture and its
construction materials with his deep insights into Buddhism. He designed a modern yet
tradition place of study and meditation for the monk. He put a number of symbolic elements
and numbers into the library as well: the radial design followed traditional stupa architecture,
Echoing the four noble truth, the number of four guided the ground plans and found expression
in the four connected parts that together make up the library. Polk travelled to Bagan to study
traditional Burmese architecture and returned inspired by the pyramidal silhouettes and pointed
arches used in ancient capital. For the scarcity of alternative building materials and skills, he
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chose reinforced concrete as a construction material which allowed him to cantilevers
extensively and to recess the pointed arches in the library’s interior. (11)

Fig.22. Concrete cantilevers Fig.23. Pointed arches inside the building

This building was a major project for the young nation, which gained independence
only a few years earlier and was struggling with a civil war and shortage of fund. At that time,
40 hectares of land were allocated to the project, and a million pounds sterling set aside for the
construction of Kaba Aye Pagoda and Maha Pasana Guha cave where the sixth Buddhist
council was held. Thousands of people came to offer their help during constructing of this
project and many more observed the proceedings. From this building, it can be seen the
architect’s attempt to identify the religion of a nation and unique usage of ornaments. He
studied traditional stupa architecture and used a modern way of thinking to adapt with the
advanced construction system. Moreover, this building symbolized the religious believe of a
new president, represent of a new nation, the need of a new religious building for newly
independent nation with unique modern design and the influence of religions on architectural
design of a nation. Furthermore, this building interpreted an architecture for the purpose of
traditional monastic education but in a modern type of building which had never existed before
in traditional history at that time and represented a new modernity for the nation.

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Ban bansal, Elliot Fox\\ Architectural Guide Yangon

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Fig.24 Inside Tripitaka library Fig.25 Front view of Tripitaka library

Fig.26 Tripitaka library, Yangon

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 Conclusion

The historicism of modern architecture of the “ Non West “ region has been neglected
as historians of modern architecture have packaged by the word “ Non West” and considered
“ the modernity” of Non West as a “ waiting room” which have to try to achieve the same
future of “ modern nation” of the west. In fact, the word “Non West” itself is a combination of
multiple countries with diversities of culture, traditions and different historical background. In
terms of architecture for today, instead of thinking in a conventional way of thinking,
“modernity comes from west”, we need to emphasize the heteronomy of modernism, social-
cultural and economic political conditions as Architecture today will represent the new nation
of the future which should not be the same for every nations. In Myanmar also, the
heterogeneous conditions, especially political and social changes had affected the modern
architecture of Myanmar. By understanding the colonial and modern architecture in Myanmar
at the time, there were a variety of modernities since that time. For colonial period, Yangon
city hall was one of the building which showed a modernity of political situation, such as
nationalist movement had influenced to mixed with “West” and “Non West” tradition so as to
satisfy the local people. For the post-independence period, buildings such as Rangoon
University and technical high school were the proofs of introduction of secular modern
education at that time. Another building, the Tripitaka library proved that the role of Buddhism
in Burma affected to architecture in a way that modern building had emerged to promote the
traditional and also modern monastic education. That is why, the term “modernity” has always
connected to various situations and conditions and also it is related to the present as well as
present day is changing every single minute of our lives. In today’s architectural practice as
well, we should consider not only on the autonomy of architecture but also the diversities of
political and social conditions which reflected the identity of nation, geography and local
context.

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 List of REFERENCES

1. Dipesh Chakrabarty .\\ Provincializing Europe (Postcolonial Thought and historical

Difference) \\Sherry B.Ortner, Nicholas B.Dirks, Geoff Eley\\ Princeton University Press
Princeton and Oxford.
2. Jia-Hwee Chnag and William S.W,Lim \\ Non West Modernist Past : Rethinking
Modernisms and Modernities beyond the West
3. David I.Steinberg \\ Burma/ Myanmar (What everyone needs to know)\\ Second
Edition.\\ Oxford University Press 2010,2013.
4. Michael W.Charney \\ A History of Modern Burma\\ Cambridge University Press 2009
5. Association of Myanmar Architects \\ 30 Heritage Buildings of Yangon (Inside the city
that captured time0 \\ 2013 Association of Myanmar Architects and Serindia
Publications\\ Shane Suvikapakornkul [ Serindia Publications]
6. Yangon Heritage Trust\\Building the Future (The Role of Heritage in the Sustainable
Development of Yangon)\\ Report of an international conference held in Yangon,
Myanmar.\\January 15-17,2015.
7. Ban bansal, Elliot Fox\\ Architectural Guide Yangon
8. William Evans-Smith\\Burma ( A Country study) \\ Third Edition\\ Foreign Area
Studies \\ The American University \\ Edited by Frederica M.Bunge\\ 1983
9. http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/burma.html

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