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Abstract
Channel pattern effectively stratifies the dynamics of rivers and floodplains in forested mountain river systems of the Pacific
Northwest, USA. Straight channels are least dynamic, with relatively slow floodplain turnover and floodplains dominated by old
surfaces. Braided channels are most dynamic, with floodplain turnover as low as 25 years and predominantly young floodplain
surfaces. Island-braided and meandering channels have intermediate dynamics, with moderately frequent disturbances (erosion of
floodplain patches) maintaining a mix of old and young surfaces. Return intervals for the erosion of floodplains increase in the
order of braided, island-braided, meandering, and straight (8, 33, 60, and 89 years, respectively). A threshold for the lateral
migration of a channel occurs at a bankfull width of 15–20 m. The most likely mechanism underlying this threshold is that larger
channels are deep enough to erode below the rooting zone of bank vegetation. Above this threshold, channels not confined between
valley walls exhibit channel patterns distinguishable by slope and discharge, and slope–discharge domains can be used to predict
channel patterns. Meandering and braided patterns are most consistently identified by the model, and prediction errors are largely
associated with indistinct transitions among channel patterns that are adjacent in plots of slope against discharge. Locations of
straight channels are difficult to identify accurately with the current model. The predicted spatial distribution of channel patterns
reflects a downstream decline in channel slope, which is likely correlated with a declining ratio of bed load to suspended load.
Ecological theory suggests that biological diversity should be highest where the intermediate disturbance regime of island-braided
channels sustains high diversity of habitat and successional states through time.
© 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Channel–floodplain dynamics; Channel pattern; Bank erosion; Bed load transport
1. Introduction
biodiversity in river–floodplain ecosystems (Lewis et main objectives. The first objective is to identify the
al., 2000; Richards et al., 2002). Making this link first threshold size of channel needed for lateral migration,
requires an understanding of the geomorphological which identifies where in the channel network a stream
template upon which river–floodplain ecosystems becomes large enough to erode forested floodplain
develop, including the processes that control the surfaces and form new floodplain surfaces. The second
formation and persistence of floodplain surfaces. The objective is to illustrate that alluvial channel pattern
geomorphological processes that we refer to here are predicts channel–floodplain dynamics in reaches large
mainly bank erosion and sediment deposition, which at enough for lateral migration to occur. We describe these
the reach scale are seen as lateral movements of the dynamics in terms of frequency of disturbance and
channel across a floodplain. Processes of lateral formation of floodplain surfaces, as well as age structure
movement include lateral migration, avulsion, meander of floodplain surfaces. The third objective is to predict
cutoffs, and channel switching (Nanson and Beach, the spatial distribution of channel patterns in mountain
1977; O'Connor et al., 2003). With each mechanism, river networks. We develop a predictive model for
the river erodes some patches each year while other channel patterns in the river network, map the
patches accrete sediment and gradually rise in distribution in several large watersheds (drainage areas
elevation above the river bed (Hickin and Nanson, ∼2000 to 8000 km2), and evaluate the accuracy of the
1975; Nanson and Beach, 1977; Salo et al., 1986; predictive model. Finally, we discuss the implications of
Hughes, 1997). Channel movements, thus, create a network-scale patterns for residence time of floodplain-
shifting mosaic of patches of habitat of different ages stored sediment in mountain drainage basins, and for
within the river corridor (Ward and Stanford, 1983). regulating ecological diversity.
Spatial scale at which the mosaic can be observed
varies with river and floodplain size, but typically 2. Study area
ranges from 101 to 104 ha (Nanson and Beach, 1977;
Salo et al., 1986). This study was focused in a mountainous region of
This paper describes channel–floodplain dynamics in the Pacific Coastal Forest in North America (Fig. 1) that
forested mountain river basins, using channel pattern as encompasses the Puget trough and adjacent mountain
a basis for stratifying and predicting reach-level ranges. The Puget trough is oriented along a north–
dynamics throughout channel networks. We have three south axis, with the Cascade Mountains to the east and
Fig. 1. Study area and site locations for analysis of patch dynamics by channel pattern.
126 T.J. Beechie et al. / Geomorphology 78 (2006) 124–141
Olympic Mountains and Coast Range to the west old patches occupied by climax species such as Sitka
(Fig. 1) (Black and Silkey, 1998). Volcanic peaks in the spruce, western hemlock, and western red cedar
Cascade Mountains typically exceed 3000 m in ele- (Crocker and Major, 1955; Fonda, 1974; Henderson et
vation, and uplifted ranges in the Olympic and Cascade al., 1989).
Mountains commonly exceed 1800 m. Mean annual
precipitation varies from less than 50 cm year− 1 in the 3. Methods
rain shadow of the Olympic Mountains to more than
600 cm year− 1 at higher elevations. Much of the pre- For the first two objectives (identifying a threshold of
cipitation at higher elevations falls as snow and melts channel migration and quantifying river–floodplain
later in the spring. Areas at lower elevations receive dynamics), we used a simple remote-sensing approach
most precipitation as rain, and most runoff occurs in fall to estimate the distribution of patch ages on floodplains
and winter. and infer regimes of channel–floodplain dynamics. We
The Cascade Range is composed primarily of pre- did not rely on measurements of the rate of channel
Tertiary formations (N 65 Ma old) in the north and migration or transition matrices (e.g., O'Connor et al.,
Tertiary formations (2–65 Ma old) in the south. Volcanic 2003), mainly because the time required to orthorectify
peaks of Quaternary age (b 2 Ma old) occur in both sequential aerial photography for many years and a large
regions, forming the highest peaks in the range (Brown number of sites is cost-prohibitive. The approach to the
et al., 1987). Floodplains tend to be relatively narrow in third objective (predicting channel pattern) was to
the pre-Tertiary and Tertiary core of the Cascades, where develop a simple model based on slope–discharge do-
high-grade metamorphic rocks, volcanic rocks, and mains (Leopold and Wolman, 1957). This is a first-order
local granitic intrusions form steep valley walls. Flood- approximation, which ignores additional factors influ-
plains are wider to the west of this core, where low- encing channel pattern, such as sediment supply,
grade metamorphic rocks (phyllite and shale) and sediment caliber, and influence of wood debris (Fether-
continental sedimentary rocks form the Cascade foot- ston et al., 1995; Church, 2002; Abbe and Montgomery,
hills. The widest floodplains are located in valleys 2002). Nevertheless, it has the advantage of well-
bounded by terraces comprised of unconsolidated documented thresholds with which to develop a pre-
lacustrine clays, glacial till, and outwash gravels rising dictive model, and the added advantage of being widely
to an elevation of at least 600 m (Heller, 1979; Brown et recognized across scientific disciplines.
al., 1987). Floodplains are also narrow in the Tertiary For the aerial photograph analyses two important
Coast Range and Olympic Mountains, which consist assumptions were made. First, vegetation patterns can
mainly of uplifted marine basalts and sedimentary rocks. be used as an indicator of floodplain dynamics because
Headwater streams are typically steep (channel slope channel movements of more than a few meters are
N0.2) and relatively small (bankfull width b 5 m), sufficient to modify the age distributions of vegetation
originating on mountain slopes underlain by bedrock. on the floodplain. In the Pacific Coastal Forest, some
Channel slopes decrease dramatically as streams floodplain patches are eroded annually, whereas other
traverse terraces carved into valley-filling glacial patches persist for decades or centuries (Abbe and
deposits (slopes typically between 0.01 and 0.08), and Montgomery, 1996), hardwood forests establish rapid-
channel slopes are typically b 0.01 on contemporary ly on new surfaces (Fetherston et al., 1995), and
floodplains (Beechie et al., 2001). Floodplain rivers in succession to conifer species occurs within the first
the study area typically have gravel beds and gravelly to century (Crocker and Major, 1955; Fonda, 1974). The
sandy floodplains and banks. relative similarity in time scales of floodplain turnover
A limited number of tree species comprise vegetation and successional processes in this region makes forest
on floodplain in the study area, which is part of the stands a good indicator of surface age because new
Pacific Coastal Forest extending from northern Califor- surfaces are vegetated quickly and succession is rapid
nia to Alaska. Dominant species include red alder (Alnus enough that the progression of surface ages is readily
rubra), black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa), Sitka apparent.
spruce (Picea sitchensis), western hemlock (Tsuga Second, most of the variation in stand type and age
heterophylla), western red cedar (Thuja plicata), and on a floodplain results from erosion and formation of
big leaf maple (Acer macrophyllum) (Franklin and floodplain surfaces through channel movements.
Dyrness, 1973). The general successional pattern is Multiple geomorphic processes may drive erosion of
from hardwood to conifer, with young patches occupied floodplain surfaces, including lateral channel migra-
by colonizing species such as alder and cottonwood and tion and channel switching (O'Connor et al., 2003),
T.J. Beechie et al. / Geomorphology 78 (2006) 124–141 127
island formation (Osterkamp, 1998; Gurnell et al., site as migrating if one or more signs of significant
2001), crevasse splay formation (Nanson and Croke, channel movement occurred, which we defined as
1992), development of side-valley tributary fans migration rapid enough to modify the structure of
(Florsheim, 2004), or floodplain aggradation or scour floodplain forests. Signs of significant channel move-
(Nanson, 1986). The methodology is not specific to any ment included relict channels, scroll bars, meander
one of these processes, although the primary erosion cutoffs, and multiple vegetation ages on the floodplain.
processes driving the development of channel patterns Channels with none of these indicators of channel
are channel migration, avulsion, and channel switching. movement (i.e., the floodplain forest was of uniform age
Other factors such as local variation in topography or the and there were no signs of relict channels) were
presence of nurse logs may affect stand type and age at classified as non-migrating. At each site, we measured
very small spatial scales (b101 m2, O'Connor et al., the width of the bankfull channel and width of the
2003). To limit the influence of local topography or floodplain in the field, except for large channels where
other small-scale factors on the analysis, we did not we could measure the width of the bankfull channel
distinguish patches smaller than about 1/3 ha in the from the photograph. The threshold of channel migra-
measurements (equivalent to a circle approximately tion was determined by examining the distribution of the
20 m diameter).
Table 1
3.1. Threshold of channel migration Summary of selected terms describing alluvial channel patterns,
illustrating sometimes overlapping and conflicting terms
Because lateral migration of the channel is arguably
Channel Description
the dominant floodplain erosion process in our study pattern
rivers, we focused first on identifying a threshold of a
Straight Single channel, sinuosity b1.5, alternating bars
stream size or power below which a channel does not (Leopold and Wolman, 1957).
migrate across its floodplain. Such a threshold is Meandering Single channel, sinuosity N1.5, usually dominated by
determined by the relative magnitudes of forces acting suspended sediment load (Leopold and Wolman,
to erode the bank and forces resisting erosion (Nanson 1957).
Braided Multiple flow paths separated by transient bars,
and Hickin, 1986; Millar and Quick, 1993; Micheli and
relatively stable bars, or islands (Leopold and
Kirchner, 2002). Erosive forces are essentially a Wolman, 1957; Rust, 1978; Ferguson, 1987),
function of channel size and slope (Nanson and Hickin, typically characterized by high bed load supply
1986), and resisting forces are a function of bank (Ferguson, 1987).
material and vegetation characteristics (Millar and Island-braided Multiple flow paths separated by forested islands
(Ward et al., 2002), usually in gravel bed rivers. May
Quick, 1993; Micheli and Kirchner, 2002). Variations
be viewed as a subset of the braided channel definition
in bank material and vegetation characteristics are of Leopold and Wolman (1957), and of anabranching
relatively small within the study area (i.e., we focus channels (Schumm, 1985).
on gravel bed rivers and forested floodplains), mini- Anastomosing Multiple channels separated by bars or islands,
mizing the influence of variation in resisting forces on described both as identical to anabranching channels
(Knighton and Nanson, 1993) and distinct from
the threshold. Thus, the study focused on variation in
anabranching channels (Schumm, 1985). Also
eroding forces (channel size and slope) in determining a described as synonymous with braided (Leopold et
threshold of channel migration. al., 1964), and distinct from braided (Rust, 1978).
To determine how large a channel must be before it Generally accepted as having low bed load supply
has sufficient stream power to erode its banks and (Ferguson, 1987) and rare lateral migration (Knighton
and Nanson, 1993).
migrate laterally across its floodplain, we compared
Anabranching Multiple channels divided by islands N3 times wider
channel sizes of migrating and non-migrating channels than water width at average discharge (Schumm,
within the study area. We chose to use the width of the 1985). Overlaps definitions of braided (Leopold and
bankfull channel rather than discharge or stream power Wolman, 1957), anastomosing (Schumm, 1985), and
as the predictor variable because previous studies have island-braided channels.
Wandering Multiple channels, generally in gravel bed rivers.
found that bankfull width was the best single predictor
Can be either migrating (Type I) or avulsing (Type
of the rate of lateral migration (e.g., Nanson and Hickin, II) (Carson, 1984). May be viewed as a subset of
1986). We selected sites with bankfull widths ranging Leopold and Wolman's (1957) braided channel, and
from less than 10 m to more than 50 m, and classified partly overlaps definitions of anastomosing and
each site as either migrating or non-migrating based on anabranching channels (Knighton and Nanson,
1993). Similar to island-braided.
examination of aerial orthophotographs. We classified a
128 T.J. Beechie et al. / Geomorphology 78 (2006) 124–141
Fig. 2. Illustration of the four channel patterns, indicating relative rates of lateral migration of the channel (i.e., migration that erodes floodplain
surfaces).
T.J. Beechie et al. / Geomorphology 78 (2006) 124–141 129
bankfull discharge) was estimated based on drainage in the study area (Ferguson, 1987; Millar and Quick,
area and average precipitation upstream from each reach 1993; Millar, 2000; Church, 2002). Within the uncon-
(Sumioka et al., 1998). Drainage area and average fined channels, most braided channels were above the
precipitation were calculated in GIS using a USGS 30-m island-braided to braided threshold noted by Church
digital elevation model (DEM) and Natural Resource (2002), for which S is proportional to Q− 0.5 (Fig. 4 and
Conservation Service digital data for mean annual Table 4). Meandering channels tended to plot below a
precipitation. Thresholds of slope–discharge between line similar to that of Leopold and Wolman (1957), as
the four channel patterns were delineated similarly to long as Q N 15 m3 s− 1. Island-braided channels were
previously published thresholds (Leopold and Wolman, between these two thresholds. Straight channels exhib-
1957; Desloges and Church, 1989), but shifted slightly ited the most overlap with other channel patterns,
toward steeper slopes. These shifts probably reflect the precluding the definition of a slope–discharge domain
relatively coarse bed material and dense bank vegetation that would distinguish them from other patterns when
Fig. 5. Sample site locations for evaluating the accuracy of prediction of channel type in six test watersheds within the study area.
132 T.J. Beechie et al. / Geomorphology 78 (2006) 124–141
Fig. 8. Illustration of the distributions of the age of patches in each of the four channel patterns. Left column is the original orthophotograph with
floodplain boundaries delineated with heavy white lines; dashed white lines delineate the vegetation analysis area where land uses had modified
portions of a floodplain. Right column shows digitized ages of patches to illustrate proportions of the four age classes within each channel pattern.
the difficulty of predicting the straight channel pattern. ing channels were never misclassified as braided
Percent omission error for straight channels is 77%, channels or vice versa.
indicating that many straight channels are incorrectly
predicted to be meandering, braided, or island-braided. 5. Discussion
Percent omission error for straight channels is only 23%,
indicating that most channels predicted to be straight Channel patterns predict important aspects of
channels are indeed straight. Braided and meandering channel–floodplain dynamics in forested mountain
channels have the lowest omission errors (18% and river systems, including return intervals of floodplain
15%, respectively), and are correctly classified by the erosion, extent and type of side-channel development,
model more than 80% of the time. Moreover, meander- and age diversity of floodplain and aquatic patches.
T.J. Beechie et al. / Geomorphology 78 (2006) 124–141 135
Fig. 11. Predicted channel patterns in the Puyallup watershed (A) indicate that most confined channels occur within the steep bedrock terrain of the
Cascade Mountains (eastern half of each watershed), and most straight channels are predicted to occur in the gentler terrain of terraced glacial sediment
(western half of each watershed). Insets illustrate braided reaches nearest the glacial headwaters on Mount Rainier and the downstream transition to
island-braided channels (B), and the transition from island-braided to meandering reaches in the lower river (C). Patterns were similar in the other five
test watersheds (location map), but line density is too high to effectively illustrate the locations of channel patterns at the small map scale.
the return interval of floodplain erosion averages 33 meandering channels is probably slightly longer (but
years but some patches persist well beyond 75 years, still on the order of 101–102 years), as indicated by the
suggesting a residence time on the order of 101–102 longer mean erosion return interval of 61 years and a
years. Residence time of floodplain sediments in higher proportion of stands persisting beyond 75 years.
Table 6
Error analysis for the prediction of channel pattern
Predicted Actual channel pattern Row total %Correct %Commission
channel pattern
Braided Island-braided Meandering Straight
Braided 9 9 0 11 29 31% 69%
Island-braided 1 15 1 13 30 50% 50%
Meandering 0 7 11 10 28 39% 61%
Straight 1 1 1 10 13 77% 23%
Column total 11 32 13 44
Percent correct 82% 47% 85% 23%
Percent omission 18% 53% 15% 77%
Overall percent correct 45%
T.J. Beechie et al. / Geomorphology 78 (2006) 124–141 137
Metrics of environmental complexity indicate high- 5.2. Processes influencing the distribution of channel
est age diversity of floodplain surfaces at intermediate patterns in forested mountain river systems
disturbance intervals and lowest diversity at low and
high disturbance intervals. The age diversity of flood- The development of channel patterns is controlled by
plain surfaces is low in straight channels, which have a number of factors that can be considered in a stepwise
long erosion return intervals, and most floodplain fashion. The first consideration is whether or not a
surfaces are uniformly old. Age diversity is also low channel is unconfined by valley walls and has room to
in braided channels, which have the shortest erosion develop a floodplain. Where channels are confined, they
return intervals and floodplain surfaces that are are prevented from developing alluvial channel patterns
predominantly young. Age diversity is highest in simply because they do not have room to develop
island-braided and meandering channels, which have meander bends or migrate across the floodplain. Where
intermediate erosion return intervals. The intermediate channels are unconfined, the second consideration is
disturbance hypothesis predicts that environments with whether a channel is large enough to erode a forested
an intermediate frequency of patchy disturbances should floodplain and initiate the development of one of several
sustain the highest biological diversity (Connell, 1978; possible channel patterns. Small channels do not have
Roxburgh et al., 2004). That is, an intermediate level of sufficient strength of flow to erode forested floodplains,
disturbance maintains a mix of young and old patches and, therefore, cannot develop meandering, braided, or
through time, which allows coexistence of colonizing island-braided patterns. Where channels are large
and climax species over long time periods. Our metrics enough to migrate laterally through a forested flood-
of channel–floodplain dynamics suggest that such plain, a third suite of factors determines which of several
disturbance-mediated diversity is likely to be lowest in channel patterns will develop. These factors (e.g., slope,
straight and braided channels, where river–floodplain discharge, flow strength, sediment supply and caliber,
landscapes are dominated either by old patches with riparian vegetation) are often intertwined and to some
climax species (straight channels) or young patches with degree correlated with each other.
colonizing species (braided channels). The highest Employing this approach in six forested mountain
diversity should be found in island-braided channels, river systems yields an expected spatial arrangement of
which maintain a mix of young and old patches in which channel patterns. Confined channels are predicted in
colonizing and climax species coexist. steep bedrock-bounded valley floors characteristic of
Another aspect of environmental complexity in high elevation headwater reaches, whereas straight
river–floodplain systems is the number and character channels are predicted in lower elevation headwater
of side channels within a reach. Island-braided and streams with terrace-bounded valley floors. Both of
braided channels have the greatest length of side these channel classes exhibit relatively low lateral
channels among the four channel patterns. Island- channel–floodplain dynamics, either because they are
braided channels tend, however, to have higher diversity confined between bedrock hill slopes or because
of aquatic habitat than braided channels, mainly because channels are too small to erode the banks and migrate
side channels of island-braided reaches vary in size and laterally across the floodplains. Episodic sediment
habitat structure whereas side channels of braided supply to confined channels, however, may cause
reaches are relatively homogenous (Ward et al., 2001). infrequent aggradation or incision of the channel bed
Greater environmental complexity in island-braided and floodplain (Nanson and Croke, 1992; Benda and
channels is in part a function of the high density of Dunne, 1997).
complex boundaries between environments (ecotones) Where channels are unconfined, channels with a
(Ward et al., 1999), which is maintained by interactions bankfull width smaller than 15–20 m cannot erode the
between river channels and floodplain forests as well as banks and are, therefore, straight. This threshold is
by the high retention of wood debris at forested islands consistent with the discharge threshold in our model
(Gurnell et al., 2002). Meandering and straight channels (15 m 3 s − 1 ), as the two thresholds are roughly
have relatively low side-channel lengths, and, thus, a equivalent based on typical relationships among channel
low frequency of ecotones compared to island-braided slope, width, depth, and discharge in the study area
channels. Coupling this result with the hypothesis that (Beechie and Sibley, 1997). At least two physical
highest biological diversity should occur at an interme- processes might explain this threshold. First, erosive
diate ecotone frequency (Naiman et al., 1988; Ward et forces on the bank might exceed resistance of the bank
al., 1999), we infer that highest biological diversity (including the influence of bank vegetation) when
should occur in island-braided channels. bankfull width exceeds 15–20 m. Resisting forces are
138 T.J. Beechie et al. / Geomorphology 78 (2006) 124–141
ultimately may be a high supply of large material in the and braided channels were clearly distinguished from
bed load (Desloges and Church, 1989; Dade and Friend, each other (neither was ever misclassified as the other),
1998; Church, 2002). and 77% of predicted straight channels were indeed
The downstream transition from braided to island- straight. A high proportion of meandering and braided
braided channels mainly reflects decreasing channel channels were misclassified, however, as island-braided
slope and decreasing bed load discharge (Desloges and channels, reflecting the indistinct transitions among
Church, 1989; Nanson and Croke, 1992; Church, 2002), adjacent channel patterns in the slope–discharge plot.
as well as the influence of increased erosion resistance of Moreover, many straight channels were misclassified as
the banks and increased role of wood debris (Knighton one of the other three patterns. This occurs in large part
and Nanson, 1993; Harwood and Brown, 1993; Abbe because our model cannot identify straight channels that
and Montgomery, 1996). The formation of stable islands lie in the slope–discharge domains of meandering or
is favored by reduced supply of sediment and by island-braided channels. Other factors that influence the
persistent debris jams that establish erosion-resistant formation of straight channels include sediment supply
points (Keller and Swanson, 1979; Fetherston et al., and resistance of banks to erosion (Knighton, 1998), but
1995; Abbe and Montgomery, 2002). The movement of these are difficult to account for in a GIS-based model
abundant wood debris, however, also creates debris jams because of the lack of available data. In addition, many
that force channel switching and push flows onto the channels predicted to be meandering, braided, or island-
floodplain (Harwood and Brown, 1993; Abbe and braided appear to occupy confined valley floors, and,
Montgomery, 1996). The combination of these factors therefore, have little room to develop any channel
produces a channel pattern that maximizes sediment pattern other than straight. This suggests that the classi-
transport capacity by concentrating work done into fication of confinement may be inaccurate, and future
several narrower and deeper channels (Harwood and models should attempt to improve the prediction of
Brown, 1993), and creates the most diverse age structure valley width relative to channel width.
of floodplain surfaces among the four channel patterns
addressed here. 6. Conclusions
The downstream transition from island-braided to
meandering channels reflects a continuing downstream Channel pattern effectively stratifies dynamics of
decline in channel slope and bed load discharge. rivers and floodplains in forested mountain river
Sediment load in meandering channels tends to be systems. Straight channels are least dynamic, with
dominated by suspended load (Schumm, 1985), whereas relatively slow floodplain turnover and floodplains
the upstream channel patterns are dominated by bed dominated by old surfaces. Braided channels are most
load or mixed loads (Schumm, 1985; Knighton and dynamic, with floodplain turnover as low as 25 years
Nanson, 1993). Channels with a low supply of bed load and predominantly young floodplain surfaces. Island-
tend to have higher bank cohesion (because floodplain braided and meandering channels have intermediate
deposits are typically finer grained), low channel slope, dynamics, with moderately frequent disturbances main-
and low width–depth ratio (Eaton et al., 2004), all of taining a mix of old and young surfaces. The primary
which are typically associated with the meandering ecological implication of this finding is that the highest
channel pattern (Parker, 1976). The degree of meander- biological diversity should be located in island-braided
ing is a function of grain resistance, bed form resistance, channels. Transfer of this ecological prediction to other
and reach-scale form resistance (i.e., sinuosity), which environments should consider return interval of erosion
are maximized in meandering channels when sinuosity and persistence of floodplain patches, as well as
is high (Eaton et al., 2004). That is, where relative grain successional pathways of floodplain or aquatic species.
roughness (D/d) and bed form roughness cannot by Where successional time frames of biota roughly match
themselves maximize resistance in the fluvial system the distribution of patch ages, this hypothesis should
(because grain size is small and bed load supply is low), apply. If successional time frames are much shorter than
the channel achieves its equilibrium channel form by typical erosion return intervals of braided channels,
increasing sinuosity and, thereby, reducing its slope however, then biota associated with all four channel
(Eaton et al., 2004). patterns may be characterized by climax species.
Although the longitudinal sequence of channel Conversely, where successional time frames are longer
patterns was expected, our error analysis indicated that than the life span of persistent patches in straight
the accuracy of predicting channel pattern with a simple channels, then most channel patterns may be character-
model is modest (overall accuracy of 45%). Meandering ized by colonizing species.
140 T.J. Beechie et al. / Geomorphology 78 (2006) 124–141
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