UNIT 1 protons, positrons, neutrino, photons and gravitons etc.

, Among

these particles electrons, protons and neutrons are regarded as

ATOMIC STRUCTURE the fundamental particles.

Dalton, in 1808 proposed that matter was made up of The charge and mass of these fundamental particles are

extremely small, invisible particles called atoms (Greek, atom given below,

means cannot be cut).

Particle Charge Mass (in amu)
Electron -1 (negative) 0.000548596
Matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass is called
Proton +1 (positive) 1.00727663
matter.
Neutron 0 (neutral) 1.0086654
Atom

An atom is the defining structure of an element which Nucleons

cannot be broken by any means. A typical atom consists of a
The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and
protons and neutrons with electrons orbiting this nucleus.
neutrons. The total number of neutrons and protons are known

as nucleons.

Example: Helium nucleus contains 2 protons and 2

neutrons (2He4)

∴The total number of nucleons in helium nucleus = 4

Nuclides

An atom which is specified by its symbol, atomic

An atom is supposed to be made up of several particles. number, atomic mass and charge is referred to as a nuclide.
Some of the particles are electrons, protons, neutrons, anti-

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 After passing through the metal sheet the α-particles are

made to struck a zinc sulphide screen.

Atomic number (Z)

The number of protons in an element is called its atomic

number.

Mass number (A)

Based on these observations, Rutherford proposed a
The total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus
model of atom. According to his theory,
of an element is called its mass number.
1. Atom has a tiny dense core or the nucleus which
∴A = Z + N
contains the entire mass of the atom, leaving the rest of

where, N is the number of protons in the nucleus of an element the atom almost empty.

2. The entire positive charge of the atom is located on the

∴N = A – Z
nucleus while electrons were distributed in vacant

Rutherford’s Atom model space around it.

3. The electrons were moving in orbits or closed circular

In 1911, Rutherford bombarded a stream of highly
paths around the nucleus like planets around the sun.
energetic α-particles from a radioactive source against a thin

gold foil.

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Drawbacks of Rutherford atom model u = velocity of the electron

1. It could not explain how the electrons and protons could r = radius of the orbit

be close packed to give a stable nucleus.

h = Planck’s constant (6.626 x 10-34 Kg.m2.S-1)
2. If a charged particle accelerates around an oppositely

charged particle, it will radiate energy. If an electron n = number of orbit in which electron is present.

radiates energy its speed will decrease and finally

3. Electrons in each orbit have a definite energy and are
falling into the nucleus and the atom would be unstable.
at a fixed distance from the nucleus. The orbits are
But really atom is stable.
designated as K, L, M, N etc., (or) 1,2,3,4 etc., (from nucleus

Bohr’s Atom model to outwards)

4. In these specific orbits, an electron does not radiate

In 1913,NeilsBohr successfully developed model for
energy. Therefore in each of these orbits, the energy of
hydrogen atom on the basis of quantum theory.
an electron remains the same. Hence an orbit is called

stationary energy level or energy level.

Postulates:
1. Bohr considered the atom consists of a positively
charged nucleus with electrons revolving around it
without emitting any energy.
2. Electrons can move around the nucleus only in certain
definite orbits, whose angular momentum (mur) is an
integral multiple of the factor h/2π.
5. An electron can move from one energy level to another
by absorbing or emitting quantum of energy.
6. An electron in its lowest energy state is said to be in the
ground state, whereas an electron in its higher energy
state is said to be in the excited state. The ground state
is the most stable state of the atom.
7. The quantum of energy absorbed or emitted is equal to

the energy difference between the lower and higher

h
i.e., mur  n energy levels of the atom.
2

where, m = mass of the electron E  E2  E1  h

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 where, E1 and E2 are the energies of the electron in the 4) The difference in energy possessed by the electron in the

first and second energy levels. higher level and the lower level is emitted in the form of
line spectrum.
h = Planck’s constant (6.626 x 10-34 Kg.m2.S-1)
5) Let us consider the energy of the higher energy level be

ν = frequency of photon E2 and that of the lower energy level be E1. Then,

Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Spectrum E2  E1  h

E 2  E1
 
Bohr proposed a theory to explain the emission of line h

spectra from hydrogen atom. c E 2  E1


 h

1) Let us consider a hydrogen atom in the ground state.

6) Hydrogen atom contains only one electron. But its
The electron is in the first or K-shell.
spectrum consists of a large number of lines. The reason
2) If the electron absorbs energy (radiation), the electron
is,
moves into a higher energy level (n= 2,3, …) depending
 A sample of hydrogen contains a very large number of
upon the energy absorbed by it.
atoms. When energy is supplied to the sample of the

hydrogen gas, different atoms absorb different amount

of energies.

 So, electrons in different atoms will move up to

different energy levels depending upon the energy

absorbed by the atoms.

 When electrons fall back, they fall from different energy

3) The electron is in an excited state now. This is an
levels and reach different energy levels. Hence we get
unstable situation. The electron therefore falls back
several spectral lines with varied wave lengths. Hence
immediately to one of the lower levels or even to the
we get several spectral lines with varied wave lengths.
ground state.
 If ‘n’ is the frequency of the line emitted, then,

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 Name of the series n1 n2
2 2 me4  1 1 
    
(4 0 ) 2 h 3  n1 2 2
n2  Lyman 1 2,3, ….

Balmer 2 3,4, ….
where, Ɛ0 is a constant Paschen 3 4,5, ….

Bracket 4 5,6, ….
m is the mass of the electron
Pfund 5 6,7, ….
e is the charge of the electron

n1 is the lower energy level

Successes of Bohr’s Theory

n2 is the higher energy level

1) Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom enabled the

calculation of radii and energies of orbits in

c 2 2 me4  1 1 
   
 (4 0 ) 2 h 3  n12

2
n2  hydrogen atom.

1 2 me 2  1
4
1  2) It explained successfully the positions of various
  2  
 (4 0 ) h c  n1
2 3

2
n2 
series of lines in the hydrogen atom.
1  1 1 
   RH  2  
  n1
2
n2  Limitations of Bohr’s Theory

where, RH is called the Rydberg constant of the 1) It explains the spectrum of species having only one

hydrogen atom. electron, i.e., hydrogen atom, He+, Li2+, Be3+, etc., It does

not explain the spectra of atoms having more than

2 2 me4
 RH  one electron.
(4 0 ) 2 h 3
2) When the spectrum of hydrogen was taken with

 Depending on the values of n1 and n2 we get various modern spectroscopes, the line spectra of hydrogen

series of spectral lines. shows the presence of fine structure, i.e., each line in

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 the original spectrum was found to consist of a n length of major axis

group of very fine lines. K length of min or axis

Sommerfeld’s Atom Model

5. K can have values from 1 to n. when n = 3, there are three

values of K equal to 1,2 and 3. Therefore there will be

In order to account for the fine structure of spectral
three Sommerfeld orbits (one circular and two
lines, Sommerfeld modified Bohr’s theory. According to
elliptical).
Sommerfeld,

1. Electrons are revolving around the nucleus in elliptical Drawbacks of Sommerfeld atomic model

orbits like the planets around the sun.

1. The modern wave mechanics shows that the
2. An ellipse has two axes
azimuthal quantum number can have values from 0
(i) Major axis
to n-1 and not from 1 to n as proposed by
(ii) Minor axis
Sommerfeld’s theory.
3. As the orbit broadens, the length of the two axes become
2. It does not explain the Zeeman effect and Stark
closer and they become equal when the orbit becomes
effect.
circular.
3. It fails to provide accurate values for the angular

momentum of electrons which move in elliptical

orbits.

de-Broglie’s Theory

1. In Bohr’s theory electron is treated as a material

particle of small mass moving round the nucleus in

4. It can be shown that, ‘n’ the principal quantum number a fixed path ( i.e., orbit ).
used by Bohr and ‘K’ the azimuthal quantum number 2. Light which consists of electromagnetic radiations is
used by Sommerfeld are related to one another as, known to exhibit both particle and wave properties.

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 3. Based on the analogy, a French Physicist Louis de- ___________ 2
Broglie (1923) suggested that:
Equation 2 is the form of de-Broglie relationship and this can be
4. Matter, considered to be made up of discrete
stated in words as;
particles such as atoms and molecules, may also

behave like wave under proper condition.

The momentum of a moving particle is inversely
5. This leads to the view that electrons like the light
proportional to the wavelength of the waves associated with it.
may also have wave properties associated with

them. It means that an electron has a dual nature Derivation

i.e., particle and wave.

According to Planck’s quantum theory, the energy of a

de-Broglie’s Equation photon is equal to

According to de-Broglie, an electron of mass ‘m’ moving i.e., ___________ 1

with velocity ‘u’ should be associated with a wave having wave

We know that,
length ‘λ’.
___________ 2
It can be represented as,

According to Einstein’s mass energy relationship,

___________ 1

___________ 3
where, h is the Planck’s constant
Compare Eqn. 2 and 3, we have,
mu is the momentum of the moving particle.

Equation 1 can be written as,

or

or ___________ 4
or

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 where, Δx = uncertainty in position

where, p is the momentum of the wave. ΔP = uncertainty in momentum

Eqn. 4 is the fundamental de-Broglie’s equation. This gives the h = Planck’s constant.
wavelength λ, of the matter wave associated with material
Eqn. 1 is known as Heisenberg’s equation which can be stated in
particles.
words as, the product of uncertainty in the simultaneous
We can write Eqn. 4 as, determination of the position and momentum of a particle is
equal or greater than the Planck’s constant.
___________ 5

Since the minimum product of Δx and ΔP is constant, it

Application of de-Broglie concept
means that,

The main applications are:

1. The development of electron microscope is an

It follows, if uncertainty in position (Δx) is less,
application of de-Broglie’s concept.
uncertainty in momentum (ΔP) would be large.
2. The de-Broglie’s concept has theoretically supported

Bohr’s second postulate. Similarly, if uncertainty in momentum (ΔP) is less,

uncertainty in position (Δx) would be large.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

Heisenberg states that, it is not possible to determine

precisely both the position and the momentum (velocity) of a

small moving particle.

It may be expressed as,

___________ 1

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